1. What is Ballistics?

Definition
Ballistics is defined as the science of human motion of projectiles. Science refers to
the systematized body of knowledge; motion refer to movement or mobility; and
projectiles refer to metallic or non-metallic objects propelled from a firearms.
Ballistics is a science in itself, because it evolved from systematic knowledge, research
and development, training, experience and education of those who pioneered in this field.

2. What are the different Branches of Ballistics?

A. Interior (internal) Ballistics

Refer to the properties and attributes of the projectile (bullet) while still inside the
gun. This extends from the breech to the muzzle of the gun. It involves all
reaction that take place while the bullets is still inside the gun.

B. Exterior (external) Ballistics

Refer to the attributes and movements of the bullet after it has left the gun muzzle.

3. Origin of Firearms

The development of firearms followed the invention of gun powder in Western Europe
early in the 13th century. Many stories have been told about the discovery of gun powder but
most are legendary and have little support facts. Berthold Schwartz and Roger Bacon, a German
Monk and English Monk, respectively, are both given credited for this invention. It is also often
said that gun powder was first invented by the Chinese and the Arabs, with their advanced
knowledge of chemistry at the time, may we have also developed it independently.

One of the earliest recorded uses of firearms in warfare was an attack in Seville, Spain in
1247. history also showed that Cannons where used by King Edwards III of England in Crecy in
1346 and by Mohammed II of Turkey in his famous conquest of Constantinople in 1453.

The first firearms where inefficient, large and heavy, making it difficult for a common
soldier to carry; hence, the development of cannons proceeded to the invention of a small arm
weapons for almost 50 years now. The tube of a gun then was shape like a barrel and made of
wooden slaves bound together with hoops of iron.

Most reference books credit Roger Bacon, the English Monk and Scientist for the
invention of gun powder in 1248 and Berthold Schwartz, for the application of gun powder
propelling of a missile in the early 1300s. this powder is what we now call black powder
evidence exists of a much earlier use of a gun powder in a gun. For instance, the moors use of
artillery againts Zaragoza in 1118. early manuscript showed that several Moorish campaign in
which artillery was used all dated prior to Bacon and Schwartz. It is known that General Batu,
Tartar leader, used the artillery leignitz in 1245 when he defeated the Poles, Hungarians, and
Russians. Note that this early instances involve armies influence by Asian culture which tends to
substantiates the belief that the Chinese and the Mongols new of the gun powder existence and
its use as a propellant long before its advantage become recognize in Europe.

It was many years later before the use of gun powder was applied to a portable arm which
could be operated by a single person. The first example seemed to have appeared in 1350.
consisted of a simple iron tube with a stock which was either tuck under the arm of rested against
a support built into a suit of armor. The tube had a hole at the rear end, a touch hole, and a little
extension of pan to hold a small amount of powder, known as priming charge. The soldier
carried a slow burning fuze or a match as it was then called. To load the gun, a charge of
powder was dumped down the tube from the muzzle end, and a ball, stone or a special arrow was
pushed down above the charge. The priming charge was place in the pan at the touch hole. To
fire the gun, the burning match was applied to the priming charge manually. This is one of the
earliest known types of firearms, and since then through research, studies and development,
firearms manufacturer achieved and developed the present firearms that we now have.

Man is never satisfied with himself. He constantly struggles to improve himself and his
surroundings. The early man in doing some devised ways and means to conquer his environment
and deal with his enemies he invented crude or primitive weapon which were subsequently
developed into sophisticated firearms of modern times the following are the stages of
development of mans weapon:

1. Stones
2. Clubs
3. Knives
4. Spears and Dart
5. Slingshots
6. Bows and Arrows
7. Cross Bows
8. Guns
9. Missile

4. Men behind Firearms

1. Col. Calvin H. Goddard M.D. Father of Modern Ballistics, OS, US Army

2. Horace Smith Founded the great firm Smith & Wesson and
pioneered the making of the breech-loading
rifles.

3. Daniel B. Wesson An associate of partner of Smith in revolver

making

4. John M. Browning Wizard of modern firearms and pioneered the

Breech loading single shot riffle.

5. John T. Thompson Pioneered the making of Thompson submachine

gun.

6. David Carbine Williams Maker of the first known Carbine

7. Alexander John Forsyth Father of the Percussions ignition

8. Elisha King Root Designed the machinery for making Colt firearms.

9. Eliphalet Remington One of the first rifle makers.

10. John Mahlon Marlin Founder of Marlin Firearms Company.

11. James Wolfe Ripley Stimulated the development of the model 1855
riffle musket.

12. Samuel Colt (1814-1862) Produce the first practical revolver.

13. Henry Deringer He gave his name to a whole class of firearms

(riffles and pistol)

14. John C. Garand Designed and invented the semi automatic US

Rifle, caliber .30 M1.
15. Oliver F. Winchester One of the earliest rifles and pistols maker.

5. Important Dates in Firearms History

1313 GunPowder as a Propellant. The age of gunpowder begun with its first use as a
propellant for a projectile.
1350 Small Arms. Gunpowder was first used only in cannons. It was not until the
middle of the 14th century that portable hand firearms were introduced. These
guns were ignited by a handheld hotwire or lighted match.
1498 Riflings. The first reference of rifled barrels happened around this year. Although
its importance as an aid to accuracy was recognized by some, it took many years
before rifling was generally used.
1575 Cartridge. Paper cartridge were developed. This combine both powder and ball
about 1575. This generally speeded loading and reduced the hazard to carrying
loose powder.

1807 Percussion System. Forsyth discovered that a certain compounds detonated by a

blow could be used to ignite the charge in firearms, forming the basis for all later
percussion and cartridge development.
1835 Samuel Colt. Patented the first practical revolver in which the cylinder rotated by
cocking the hammer.
1836 Pinfire Cartridge. The Pinfire Cartridge developed by Le Faucheux was probably
the first exploding cartridge to come into general used
1845 Rimfire Cartridge. In France, Flobert developed bullet bridge cap which was in
reality the first rimfire cartridge.
1858 Center Fire Cartridge. The Morse cartridge marked the beginning of the rapid
development of the center fire cartridge.
1884 Automatic Machine Gun. Hiram Maxim. Built the first fully automatic gun,
utilizing the recoil of the piece to load and fire the next charge.
1885 Smokeless Powder. In France, Vieille developed the first satisfactory smokeless
powder, a new propellant which lacked the smoke characteristics of the black
powder but was more powerful.

6. Two General Classes of Firearms (according to the Gun Barrel Internal Contruction)

1. Smooth-bore Firearms
Firearms that have no riflings (land and groove) inside their gun barrel. Example
Pistols, Revolver and Musket.
2. Rifled-bore Firearms
Firearms that have riflings (land and groove) inside their gun barrel. Example Pistol,
Revolver, Rifle.

D) AMMUNITION
A. Legal Definition
The Legal definition of the word ammunition may be found in chapter VII,Sec.290
Of the national internal revenue code as well as in sec.877 of the revise administrative code. It
refers to ammunitions as a loaded shell for rifles, muskets, carbines, shotgun, revolvers\ and
pistols from w/c a ball, bullet, shot, shell or other missiles may be fired by means of gun powder
or other explosives. The terms also includes ammunition for air rifles as mentioned elsewhere in
the code.

B. Technical Definition
 Technically speaking, the term ammunition re3fers to a group of cartridges to a single unit or
single cartridge- meaning a complete unfired unit consisting of a bullet, cartridges case, gun
powder and primer. The term may also refers to a
single round.

The general term ammunition also refers to a metallic cartridges or shot shells. In our
discussion of ammunition we shall be limit ourselves to metallic cartridges and modern shot shell
used in small arms, since these are the type usually encountered in field of fire arms
investigation.

PARTS OF A CARTRIDGE
Generally speaking, a cartridge is a complete round of ammunition for a fire arm. However,
technically, a cartridge has only four (4) parts: the bullet, cartridge case, gun powder and primer.

1. Bullet- the projectile propelled through the barrel of fire arms by means of the expansive force
of gases coming from burning gun powder.

2. Cartridge case the tabular metallic container for the gun powder. Sometimes called shell
or casing.

3. Gunpowder the powder charges, w/c ignited by the primer flash, is converted to heat gas
under high pressure and propels the bullet or shot charges through the barrel and to the target.
Sometimes called propellant or powder charge.

4. Primer the metal cup containing the highly sensitive priming mixture of chemical
compound, w/c when hit or struck by the firing pin would ignite. Such action is called
percussion.

CLASSIFICATION OF CARTRIDGE

There many ways of classifying small arms ammunition or cartridges, but for purposes of
ballistics and as used in police work or in the field of fire arms investigations, we shall simplify
classification as follows:
A. According to the type of firearms used:
1. Revolver cartridge
2. Pistol cartridge
3. Rifle cartridge
4. Shot gun cartridge

B. According to location of primers

1. Pin-fire cartridges- no longer used (obsolete)
2. Rim-fire cartridges- used in caliber .22 pistol, revolvers and rifles.
3. Center-fire cartridges
a. Rimmed type- used in revolvers Cal.38 & .357.
b. Semi-rimmed type- used in super .38s.
c. Rimless type- used in .45 pistol, Thomson submachine gun, grease gun.

C. According to Caliber
1. Cal. .22- used in revolvers, pistols, rifles
2. Cal. .25- used in pistols and rifles
3. Cal. .30- used in carbines and other rifles
4. Cal. .32- used in automatic pistols and revolvers
5. Cal. .380- used in pistols
6. Cal. .38- used in revolvers
7. Cal. .357- used in .357 revolvers (magnum)
8. Cal. .44- used in magnum revolvers
9. Cal. .45- used in automatic pistols
 10. Cal. .50- used in cal. .50 machine guns (but not used in crimes)

E) BULLETS
I. Definition
A bullet is a metallic or nonmetallic, cylindrical projectile propelled from a firearm by
means of the expansive force of gases coming from burning gunpowder.
Under this definition, the term may also include projectiles propelled from shotguns,
although strictly speaking these projectiles designed for shotguns are called shot, slug, or
pellets. In a laymans viewpoint a projectile fired from a firearm is called slug, although
what he actually means is a bullet.

IV. Classification
A. Basically, there are two kinds of bullets, according to mechanical construction.
1. Lead Bullet- those made of lead or alloys of this metal
- lead, tin and antimony- w/c is highly harder than pure lead.

2. Jacket Bullet-those made of a core of lead covered by a jacket of harder material such as
gilding metals, a copper-alloy of approximately 90% copper and 10% zinc. Some European
manufacturers have been known to used steel as a jacket material from time to time. The primary
function of the jacket in a bullet is to prevent adherence of metal (lead) to the inside of the
gun barrel. Copper-plated steel may used instead of gilding metal for the jacket of caliber .45
bullets.

B .Another way of classifying bullets is according to shape as shown below:

a.Round Nose
-Flat base
b.Pointed Nose
-Baot-tailed
c.Wad-Type
-Square-base
d.Semi-Wad
-Hollow-base
C. According to Types
A.solid lead E.soft
B.solid hollow point F.metal cased hollow point
C.solid paper patched G.metal point
D.metal cased H.rifled slug

F) CATRIDGE CASE
A cartridge case is a tabular metallic or non-metallic container w/c holds together the
bullet, gunpowder and primer.

Another term for cartridge case is shell or casing. The terms can be used
interchangeably. The cartridge case is the portion of the cartridge that is automatically ejected
from the automatic firearm during firing and this remain at the scene of the crime. This is a
firearm evidence that can help trace a particular firearm w/c it was fired.

PARTS OF THE CARTRIDGE CASE

1.RIM-the projecting rims of rimmed and a semi-rimmed cases serve the purpose of limiting the
for4ward travel of the cartridges into their chambers and thus also limit a clearance,if any
between the heads and the supporting

2.PRIMER POCKET-primer pocket performs three functions:

a.holding primers securely in central position
b.providing a means to prevent the escape of gas to the rear of the cartridge and
c.providing a solid support for primer anvils, w/out w/c the latter could not be fired.

3. VENTS OR FLASH HOLES- the vents or flash holes is the hole in the web or bottom of
the primer pocket through w/c the primer flash provides ignition to the powder charge. It is
the operating or canal that connects the priming mixture w/ the gunpowder.

4. The HEAD and BODY- The head and the body constitute the cork that plugs the breach
of the barrel against the escape of the gas.

5. NECK- the term neck is applied to that part of the cartridge case that is accompanied by the
bullet. In cases of bottleneck, the neck is apparent. But in the so called straight cases w/c
involve only a slight taper, it is not.

6. CANNELURES- shell cannelures are the serrated grooves that are sometimes found rolled
into the necks and bodies of the bullet from being pushed back or loosened.

7. CRIMP- the crimp is that part of the mouth of a case that is turned in upon the bullet. It
works two ways:
a. it aids in holding the bullet in place: and
b. it offers resistance to the movement of the bullet out of the neck w/c affects the burning of
the gunpowder.

8. BASE- the bottom portion of the case w/c holds:

a. The primer w/c contains the priming mixture .
b. The shellhead w/c contains the headstamp, caliber, and year of manufacture.

9. SHOULDER- that portion w/c support the neck

10.EXTRACTING GROOVE- the circular groove near the base of the case or shell designed for
the automatic withdrawal of the case after each firing
CLASSIFICATION OF CARTRIDGE CASES

Small arms cartridge cases may be classified according to CASE SHAPE and HEAD
FORM.
1.There are three general SHAPES of cartridge cases.
a.Staight b.Tapered c.Bottleneck

2.The standard cartridge case HEAD FORMS are:

a.Rimmed b.Semi-rimmed c.Rimles

G) PRIMERS
Definition:
The primer is that portion of the cartridge w/c consists of a brass or gilding metal cup.
The cup contains highly sensitive mixture of chemical compound,w/c when struck by the firing
pin would detonate or ignite. Such an action is called percussion

Primers are used for igniting the gunpowder or the powder charge. This detonation or
explosion produces flame w/c passes through the vent or flash hole in the cartridge case, igniting
the gunpowder or powder charge or the propellant.
Origin
Alexander John Forsyth is credited w/ being the first to conceive the idea of using
detonating compounds for igniting gunpowder charges in small arms by percussion and in 1807
he obtained a patent for this idea. Forsyth was a scotch Presbyterian minister but he was also a
chemist, a hunter and a well known authority on firearms. His first successful priming mixture
was composed of potassium chlorate, charcoal and sulphur in powdered form.

Primers are used for igniting propellant powders and the promptness, adequacy and
uniformity w/ w/c these ignite powder charges play a vital role in the performance of the
ammunition.

Parts of the Primer (Center-fire Cartridge)

1. Primer Cup-this is the container of the priming mixture. Primer cups are made of brass,
gliding metal, or copper, depending upon the kind.

2. Priming mixture-the highly sensitive chemical mixture contained in the primer cup. This
priming chemical itself varies in composition depending upon the manufacturer.

3. Anvil-that portion of the primer against which the priming mixture is crushed by a blow from
the firing pin. Primer anvils must be hard, rigid, and firmly supported in order to provide the
resistance necessary to firing the priming mixture.

4. disc- piece of small paper or disk of tin foil which is pressed over the printing mixture. The
purpose of this disc of tin foil is twofold:

a. to hold priming mixture in place

b. to exclude moisture

Composition of the Priming Mixture

Ingredients of a Typical riming Mixture

Potassium chlorate (initiator & fuel) 45%

Antimony sulphide (element & fuel) 23%
Fulminate of mercury (initiator) 32%

GUNPOWDER

Definition

The gunpowder or powder charge in a cartridge is the propellant which, when ignited by
the primer flash, is converted to gas under high pressure and this propels the bullet or shot charge
through the barrel and on to the target.

Classification&Compsition

1) Black Powder although black powder features less importatnly, it is still utilized by some
manufacturers especially Eoropeans.

Potassium nitrate 75%

Sulphur 10%
Charcoal 15%

It is the oldest propellant. It is stil loaded in some cartridge types ona limited commercial basis.
It consists of irregular grains, which depending on the manufacturing process, have either a dull
or shiny black surface. When fired it reduces large volumes of grayish some and considerable
residue is left in the barrel. When ignited it also burns with reasonable great rapidity.

Black powder relies for its explosive properties on 3 qualities:

1. when ignited it will burn by itself without aid from the outside air and this burning is
rapid.
2. in burning it gives off a large amount of gas.
3. a considerable amount of heat is also evolved.

It is one of the most dangerous explosives to handle and store, because of the ease with which it
can be ignited. It is very easily ignited by heat, friction, flame, or spark. It is subject to rapid
deterioration on absorption of moisture, but if kept dry it retains its explosive properties
indefinitely.

2) Smokeless Powder

It is the most powerful of the propellants. All propellants in current use have a nitro-
cellulose base and are commonly known as smokeless powder.

Classes:

1) Single-Base contains only pure nitroglycerine gelatinized with nitrocellulose. Almost

all smokeless powder grains have a perfectly definite shape, such as small squares, discs,
flakes, strips, pellets, or perforated cylindrical grains.
2) Double-Base propellants those having nitrocellulose and nitrocglycerine as their major
ingredients, accompanied by one or more minor ingredients.

ARMS MANUFACTURING PROCESSES ELATED TO FIREARMS IDENTIFICATION

How the Barrel is made

All barrels, regardless of the type of the weapon for which they are being made, are
manufactured from a solid piece of metal. The metal may be cylindrical in form or it may have
an irregular shape with projecting portions which are later machined into sights, fastenings, or
other parts. The metal from which the barrel is made is carefully selected for its chemical and
metallurgical structure, thus assuring a high quality product after the various machine operations
and heat treatment are completed.

The first step on the process is the drilling. A special dephole drill is used, through the
center of which lubricating oil is forced under pressure. This operation results in a comparatively
rough hole of uniform diameter which ext4nds longitudinally from one end of the barrel to the
other. The interior surface at this stage bears numerous scars and scratches resulting from the
irregular cutting of the drill and the metal chips which mark the finish.

In barrels intended for rifles the next step consists of reaming the drilled hole for its entire
length. This removes some of the scars and scratches left by the drilling operation. The reamer
removes metal from the entire surface because it is slightly larger in diameter than the drill. In
shotgun barrels which are to have some degree of choke, cutter or reamer is used to finish the
muzzle end. This completes the bore operations on a shotgun.

If the barrel is to be rifled, it is done by means of several rifling methods. Some of the
rifling methods used to make the rifling inside a gun barrel are the following:

1) Hook-cutter system
2) Scrape-Cutter System
3) Broaching System
4) Button-system

The tools used in these methods are called the cutter, scrape, broach, and button. This is
the rifling operation is completed, the barrel is lapped. This is the polishing operation in which a
lead plug closely fitting the inside of the barrel is drawn back and forth on a rod carrying with it
a polishing compound. This operation polishes both the land and groove areas of the barrel and
removes many of the larger imperfections resulting from the cutting or forming operations. As
this point in the procedure of manufacturing barrel we have a cylinder which has polished hole
running from one end to the other. If it is a shotgun barrel, the inside is smooth. If it is a rifled
barrel, the inside has spiral grooves on the inner surface extending for its complete length.

The important fact for the firearms technician or examiner to remember is that no matter
how many polishing and finishing operations are used by a gun maker, all of the scars and
imperfections on the inside of a barrel are not removed. As the rifling cutter wears, small
imperfections on its surface are transmitted to the surface of the barrel. And in similar manner,
the accumulation of metal chips removed by the cutter will scratch the barrel as it passes along.
Even the button-system imperfections will remain after the lapping and finishing operations are
completed. These microscopic scars remaining in the lands and grooves will make a series of
striations on every bullet which passes through the barrel. It is the comparison of these striations
on fired bullets which is the basis of bullet identifications.

FORENSIC FIREARMS IDENTFICATION

Basis of FI:

1. FA identification is actually a refined tool marks identification

2. The natural wear and tear of the tools involved.
3. when a softer surface comes in contact with a harder surface, it is the softer surface that
will acquire or be engraved or marked with impressions or scratches from any
irregularities on the harder surface.
4. The fact that no two things are absolutely identical or alike.

Taking each separately and beginning with the barrel, we start with the barrel blank. A
hole, later called the bore, is first drilled through the blank. The diameter of this hole is near
the size of the desired caliber of the gun. The drilling is done by what is referred to as a
barrel drill or deep-hole drill. It has only one cutting edge. This drill is made of the best and
hardest tool steel. This drilling process is a very terrific operation, and when complete leaves
a rough undersize ole. To complete the enlarging process, the barrel is then reamed out to a
larger diameter. This is done by several types of reamersthe roughing, finishing and
burnishing reamer. We now have smooth bore barrel. The cutting edges of the drill and the
reamers are irregular since they themselves had to be manufactured and sharpened and it is
humanly impossible to sharpen these tools and not leave a few irregularities or nicks on their
cutting edge. To give a bullet the desired spin, the spiral grooves methods now available.
When these grooves have been cut to the desired depth, a process known as lapping is done.
This is a process consisting of a mixture of oil and abrasive; the purpose of which is to
eliminate the roughness of the interior of the barrel of the gun; however, it is not possible to
completely rid the interior of the barrel of all the tool markings.

Comparison of these marking (breech-face markings) is the means of identifying whether

or not a particular cartridge case or shell was fired from a particular gun. The final operation
in the finishing of a breech-face consists of filing or sanding which leaves minute or
microscopic scratches or striations on the surface of the breech-face of the gun. THESE
SCRATCHES OR STRIATIONS VARY FRO GUN TO GUN. AND IT CAN BE SIAD
THAT NO TWO GUNS WILL LEAVE THE SAME SCRTCHES OR IMPRESSIONS ON
A FIRED CASE OR PRIMER. Similarly to breech-face markings, extractors, ejectors and
firing pins often bear characteristic scars or marks resulting from the manufacturing process.
These will also frequently leave their marks or impressions on a fired case or primer.
 When a cartridge is fired in a firearm, the expansive force of thepowder charge
creates a tremendous pressure within the chamber of the firearm. Theimpulsive action of this
rapid expansion drives the cartridge case violently against the breech-face of the weapon, and
irregularities present in this surface leave dentifying impressions upon the receptivel-
malleable metallic case and especially upon the primer. These breech-face markings exhibit
characteristics indicative not only of class with respect to revolver types, but also of the
products of specific manufacturers.

MARKS FOUND O FIRED BULLETS

Generally, the marks found on fired bullets are:

1. Land marks-caused by the lands; land marks and groove marks are called rifling
marks. These are found on the cylindrical or peripheral surface of the fired bullets and these
are caused by the riflings inside the gun barrel. These landmarks and groovemarks are
distinct and clear on the cylindrical surface of the fired bullets that had passed through a new
gun barrel.

2. Groove marks caused by the grooves

3. Skid marks due to worn out barrel; are generally found on bullets fired from
revolvers. These marks are found more or less on the anterior portions of the fired bullets and
are caused by the forward movement first of thebullet from the chamber before it initially
rotates as required by the riflings inside the gun barrel.
4. Stripping marks-due to bullet jumping the riflings; are generally found on bullets
fired through loose fit barrels wherein the riflings are already badly worn out.

MARKS FOUND ON FIRED SHELLS

1. Firing pin marks are generally found on the primer cup, which is the central area of
the base of the cartridge. This is true most especially in center-fire cartridges, wherein the
priming mixture is contained in the primer cup located in the center of the base.
2. Breech face marks are found most generally on the base of the cartridge case.
3. Extractor mark - are mostly found on shells fired from pistols, rifles, shotgun, and
machine guns; are found in their extracting grooves.
4. Ejector mark are generally found in cartridges fired from automatic weapons and
they are located near the rim also.
5. Shearing mark also called secondary firing pin mark are found in the primer near the
firing pin mark.
6. Chamber marks are mostly found around the body of the fired cartridge case and
they are caused by irregularities in the inside walls of the chamber.
7. Pivotal mark
8. Magazine lips markings are found at two points of the rim of the base of the shell and
these are caused by the magazine lips during the loading of the cartridges into the magazine
for firing. These marks serve as a good guide for the firearm examiner in determining more
or less the relative position of the cartridge in actual explosion in the chamber of the
suspected firearm submitted for examination.

The identification of firearms evidence is predicated on the principle that softer metals
used in the manufacture of bullets and cartridge cases or shells are indelibly imprinted with
the metal patterns of the hard steel surface of the firearms with which they come in contact In
the manufacture of a rifled arm, lands and grooves are cut into the interior surface of the
barrel for the purpose of twisting the bullet into a spin as it progresses through the gun barrel.

The breech face of the firearm when finished must have some filing done to completely
finish it and remove burrs. This filing leaves file marks on the breech face. With ones naked
eye it is difficult to see these file marks on the breech face. The breech fac mahy appear a
little bit smooth, but actually when seen and examined under the microscope it will appear t
contain microscopic or minute irregularities or striations on its surface.

During the manufacture, regardless of the hardness of the tool steel material, the tools
become worn during their passage down the bore and will leave a different markings at one
end of the barrel than from the initial cut made to begin the drilling of the barrel These tools
must be re-sharpened, giving different set of markings on the cutting edge, or replaced
entirely. Likewise, no man can file a piece of work exactly alike twice. For each of these
reasons the markings on the breech faces of different weapons will not be identifical;
therefore due to this wear, tool markings will be different from one firearm to another.

THE FINAL IDENTIFIACTION OF A FATAL GUN IS, AS IN ALL FIELDS OF

IDENTIFICATION, BASED NOT UPON A FEW MARKINGS, BUT UPON A PATTERN
OF MARKINGS OR A COMBINATION OF THESE MARKINGS.

CLASS CHRACTERISTICS

Class characteristics are those characteristics that are determinable even prior to the
manufacture of the firearms.. These characteristics are factory specifications and are within
the control of man and they serve as basis to identify a certain group or class of firearms.
Examples of class characteristics are:

1. BORE DIAMETER it is the diameter to which the bore was reamed. It is the
distance measured between two opposite lands inside the bore.
2. NUMBER OF LANDS AND GROOVES the number of lands and grooves inside the
bore of a given firearm are always the same.. If a bore has six lands, it will also have six
grooves. It is not possible for a bore to have six lands and five grooves. Number of lands and
grooves is a valuable class characteristics. The grooves number may run from three to eight
or more, but most modern firearms have five or six.

a. Lands the lands are the elevated portions

b. Grooves the depressed portions

3. WIDTH OF LANDS land width is dependent upon bore diameter, groove width and
number. The lands are a remainder of the circumference after subtracting all the
grooves withs.

4. WIDTH OF GROOVES groove width is measured as the shortest distance

between the two sides or edges of a groove.

5. DIRECTION OF TWIST -