CHAPTER TWO

2 1 Method
2.1 M th d off Images
I
Example: Find the potential of a point charge q located in front of an
infinite and grounded plane conductor.
conductor
We simulate the effect of the surface charges on the conductor with
a (hypothetical) image charge -q behind the conductor.
q 4 0 q 4 0 image real
( x) = charge charge
| x y | | x y |
s = 0 ( Q symmetry)
th region
I the
In i off interest
i t t
(x 0), obeys
1
(x) = q (x y )
2
0
Since (x) satisfies both Poissons equation and the boundary condition,
it is a solution and, by the uniqueness theorem, it is the only solution.
 2.2 Grounded Conducting Sphere
Assume a reall charge
A h q at r = y (>a).
( )
Put an image charge q at r = y (<a).
Then
Then,
q 4 0 q 4 0
( x) = + Region of
xy x y i t t ra
interest:
q 4 0 q 4 0 y a
= + First set = , or y '= a 2
xn yn xn yn First,
a y' y
,
y
B. C. at r = a requires so that n a n = a n n
y
q 4 0 q 4 0
(a) = + = 0 Note: y ' < a; hence, q' lies outside
y
a n a n y ya n n the region of interest.
q q'
Next, set = so that RHS = 0.
q 4 0 aq 4 0 a y'
( x) =
xy 2 y 'q a
y x 2y a This gives q ' = = q.
y a y
 Grounded Conducting Sphere (contd)
Force on q:

F=
1 qq
n =
a
1 q ( y q )
n =
1 a 2 y()
q2 a 3

2 2n
4 0 ( y y) 2 4 0 ( y a )
2 2 4 0 (1 a )
y y 2
Surface charge density on the sphere:
I the
In th region
i off interest
i t ( a),
t (r ) the
th
electric field due to the surface charges on
the
h sphere
h i exactly
is l the
h same as thath dued to
the image charge q. Hence, by Gausss law,
the total surface charge must be q= aq/y.

The radial electric field at point B is Er = .
x x = a
Hence, by Gausss law, the surface charge density at point B is
is f ti off , the
i a function th anglel between
b t x andd y.
= 0
x x =a See Eq. (2.5) for its explicit expression.
 2.3 Point Charge in the Presence of a Charged,
Insulated Conducting Sphere with Total Charge Q
Insulated,
Step 1: Ground the sphere,
same problem as in Sec. 2.2
q 4 0 aq q 4 0
( x) =
xy a
y x y
2

y2
Note: The total surface charge on
the sphere is q = aq y.
Step 2: Disconnect the ground wire,
add Q + aq/y to the sphere.
Q + aq y will be uniformly
distributed on the sphere (Jackson p. 61.)
Q + aq y
due to Q + aq y is ( x) =
4 0 x
 Point Charge (contd)
Hence the total is
Hence,

1 q aqq Q + aq q y
( x) = + (2.8)
(2 8)
4 0 x y y x a y 2 |x|
y2
The force on q is
y
F = q =
1 q

Q
qa 3
( 2 y 2
)
a 2
y
y y y 4 y 2
y ( y 2
a ) y
2 2
0
(2.9)
qQ
A y , F
As (C
(Coulomb's
l b' fforce bbetween t point
i t charges)
h )
4 0 y 2

As y a, F is always y attractive even if q and Q have the same sign. g

Question: If there is an excess of electrons on the surface, why dont

th leave
they l th surface
the f d to
due t mutual
t l repulsion?
li ?
(See Jackson p. 61 for a discussion on the work function of a metal.)
 2.6 Green Function Method
1
Problem 2 (x) = (x) with b.c. = s
0
Formal solution with Green function:
1
( x) = ( x)G ( x, x ) d 3
x
4 0 v D

1 GD (x, x) (1.44)
s (x) da,
4 n
where the Green function GD(x,x) is a
solution of Poisson
Poissonss equation with a unit
point source located at an arbitrary
position x inside surface S subject
p j to the
b.c. GD(x,x) = 0 for x on the surface, i.e.
2GD (x, x) = 4 (x x) with GD (x, x) = 0 for x on S (1)
Note: q 40 is referred to as a unit source on Jackson P.64.
 Green Function Method (contd)
Example 1: 2 (x) = q (x b) with b.c.
b c () = 0,
0 i.e.
i e find the
0
potential (x) due to ( x) = q ( x b) in infinite space.
1424 3
a point charge
In order to use (1.44), we first solve the following problem
2GD (x, x) = 4 (x x) with GD ( x, x) = 0 for x on S (1)
1
Eq.q (1)
( ) gives
g GD (x, x) = ((2))
| x x | an arbitrary
Sub (2) into (1.44)
1 position, not b
q ( xb ) 6 |x x|
1 } 4 74 8 1 } 0
GD (x, x)
( x) = v (x) GD (x, x) d x 3
s (x) da
4 0 4 n
1 q
=
4 0 | x b |
1
Question: Is the only solution of (1)?
| x x |
 Green Function Method (contd)
p 2 2 (x) = 0 with b.c. (r = a ) = (a, , )
Example
Find (x) in the region r a (see Fig. A).
First, obtain GD(x,x
First (x x) from
the equation (see Fig. B):
2GD (x, x) = 4 (x x)
with GD (x, x) = 0 on S .
This equation
Thi i hash bbeen solvedl d byb theh method
h d off images
i i 2.2
in 22
with the solution a
1 a 2
2
=0
GD (x, x) = x x a 2 x
| x x | x x a 2 x x
2 in region of interest
x
1 1
=
(x ) ( )
12 12
2
+ x 2 xx cos
2 x 2 x2 + a 2 2 xx cos (3)
2
a
Note the symmetry property: GD (x, x) = GD (x, x)
 Example 2 (contd)

GD (x, x) GD (x, x) ( x2 a2 )
= =
n ' x= a x x= a a ( x 2 + a 2 2ax cos )3 2
64748
1 }
=0
1 GD (x, x)
( x) =
( x ) GD ( x , x ) d x
3

(x ) da (1.44)
( )
4 0 v 4 s n
1 a( x 2 a 2 )
= s (a, , ) 2 2 d (2
(2.19)
19)
4 ( x + a 2ax cos ) 3 2

angle between x and x

Questions:
1. In (3), we have GD (x, x) = |x1x| a . But G ( x, x) = 1
x xa2x/x2 D |xx|

is also a solution of 2GD (x, x) = 4 (x x). Does this violate the

uniquess theorem?
2 C
2. Can the l i off 2GD (x, x) = 4 (x x) bbe written
h solution i in
i the
h form
f
GD (x, x) = GD (x x)? why?
2.7 Conducting Spheres with Hemisphere
(discussed in 3.3)
2.8 Orthogonal Functions and Expansions
Orthogonal/orthonormal functions
Consider a set of real or complex functions Un() (n=1,2,)
which are square integrable on the interval a b.
b
inner product
64447444 8
b = 0,
0 mn
orthogonal, if a U n ( )U m ( )d
U n ( )'s are 0, m = n
b 0 mn
0,

orthonormal, if U n ( )U m ( )d = mn =
a 1, m = n
G
Geometrical
t i l analogue:
l ex, ey, andd ez are an orthonormal
th l sett
of unit vectors, i.e. emen = mn. By comparison, the dot product
emeen is similar to the inner product . But the algebraic set Un()
can be infinite in number.
Linearly independent functions
Th set off Un( )s
The ) are said
id to be
b linearly
li l independent
i d d if
the only solution of anU n ( ) = 0 (for every in the region
n
of interest) is an = 0 for all n.
If a set of vectors or functions are orthogonal,
orthogonal they are also
linearly independent.

Proof
anU n ( ) = 0
n =0, unless m=n
644 47444 8
ab anU n ( )U m ( )d = an ab U n ( )U m ( )d
n n

= an ab U n ( ) d = 0
2

an = 0 for arbitrary n
Gram-Schmidt orthogonalization procedure
Orthogonality is a sufficient
Orthogonalit s fficient but
b t not necessary
necessar condition
for linear independence, i.e. linearly independent vectors or
f ti
functions d nott have
do h t be
to b orthogonal.
th l However,
H th can be
they b
reconstructed into an orthogonal set by the Gram-schmidt
orthogonalization
th li ti procedure.
d E
Example:
l
ae x + b(e x + e y ) = 0 a = b = 0
e x and (e x + e y ) are linearly independent.
But e x (e x + e y ) 0;; hence theyy are not orthogonal.
g Now,, let
e1 = e x and e 2 = e x +e y + e x and demand e1 e2 = 0.
1+ = 0 = 1 e2 = e y
The new set e1 and e 2 are orthogonal and linearly independent.
The procedure of orthogonalization of algebraic function
is similar.
Completeness of a set of functions
Expand an arbitrary, square integrable function f( ) in terms of
a finite number ((N ) of functions in the orthonormal set Un( )),
N
f ( ) anU n ( ) (2.30)
n =1
We define the mean square error MN as
2
b N
M N = a f ( ) anU n ( ) d .
n =1
If there exists a finite number N0 such that for N > N0 the mean
square error MN can be made smaller than any arbitrarily small
positive quantity by proper choice of ans, then the set Un( ) is
said to be complete and the series representation

anU n ( ) = f ( ) (2.33)
n=1
is said to converge in the mean to f( ).
 Completeness of a set of functions (contd)

f ( ) = anU n ( ) (2.33)
n =1
Using the orthonormal property of Un( ))ss, we get
b
an = a U n* ( ) f ( ) d (2.32)
Change in (2.32) to and substitute (2.32) into (2.33)
b *
f ( ) = a U n ( )U n ( ) f ( ) d (2 34)
(2.34)
n =1

f ( ) is arbitrary U n* ( )U n ( ) = ( ) (2.35)
n =1
(completeness or closure relation )
Jackson , p.68: All orthonormal sets of functions normally
occurring in mathematical physics have been proved to be
complete.
Fourier series (example of a complete set of orthogonal functions)
1 E
1. Exponential t ti off f (x)
ti l representation ( )
on the interval a/2 x a/2

f ( x) = an eikn x (4)
n =
1 a2
where kn = 2 n a and an = f ( x)eikn x dx
a a 2
In Eq. (4), f (x) is in general a complex function and an is in
general a complex constant even when f (x) is real.
real
In the case f ( x) = real , we have an = a* n (realty
(realitycondition)
condition)
Proof f ( x) = real f ( x) = f * ( x) n n

an e ik n x
= an* e ikn x = a* n eikn x
n = n = n =
an = a* n (since eikn x is linearly independent)
Q ti
Questions: Why "n = to " iinstead
1 Wh
1. d off "n = 0 to " ?
2. Why kn = 2 n a instead of kn = n a ?
 Fourier series (contd)
2 Sinusoidal representation of f(x)
2.

( )

f ( x) = an e ikn x
= a0 + an eikn x + a n e ikn x
n = n =1

= a0 + [( an cos kn x + a n cos kn x ) + i ( an sin kn x a n sin kn x )]
n =1

= a0 + ( an + a n ) cos kn x + i ( an a n ) sin kn x
{ n=1 14243 n =1 14243
A0 2 An Bn

n A = a n + an =
1 a2
a a 2
f ( x )( e ikn x
144244
+ e )
ikn x
3
dx =
2 a2
a a 2
f ( x) cos kn xdx
( n = 0 )
2cos kn x

Bn = i ( an a n ) =
(n = 1 )
i a2
a a 2
f ( x) e(ikn x
144244
e )
ikn x
3
2 a2
dx = a 2 f ( x) sin kn xdx
a
2i sin kn x
A0
f ( x) = + [ An cos kn x + Bn sin kn x ] (5)
2 n=1
 Fourier series (contd)

f ( x) = a0 + ( an + a n ) cos kn x + i ( an a n ) sin kn x
{ n=1 14243 n =1 14243
A0 2 An Bn
A0 2 n
= + [ An cos kn x + Bn sin kn x ], kn =
2 n=1 a
If f ( x) = real , then a n = an*
An = an + a n = an + an* = real

nB = i ( an an ) =(i an a )
n = real
*

If f ( x) = complex, An and Bn are in general complex.

Question: In Eq. (5), there are no negative ns. Why?
Summary: y
exponential representation: f ( x) =
an eikn x
n =
A0
sinusoidal representation: f ( x) = + [ An cos kn x + Bn sin kn x ]
2 n=1
 Fourier series (contd)
Discussion
(i) In the sinusoidal representation, if f (x) = real, then An (n = 0)
real So there are (1+) Anss and Bnss
and Bn (n = 1) are both real.
(here, implies 1). Hence there are a total of 1+2
independent numbers in the representation of a real f (x).
(ii) In the exponential representation, even if f (x) = real, an (n=)
is in general complex. Each an contains two real numbers, so there
are a total of 2(1+2) real numbers. But since an = an*, only half
of them are independent.
p So the total independent
p real numbers
required for the exponential representation of real f (x) is again
1+2, same as that in the sinusoidal representation. On the other
hand, if f (x) = complex, it is in fact two real functions. Thus, in
either the exponential or sinusoidal representation, the required
independent numbers is twice as many as required for real f (x).
 Fourier series (contd)

(iii) It is often more convenient to express a physical quantity (a

real number) in the exponential representation than in the
sinusoidal representation, because the complex coefficient
(an) of an exponential term carries twice the information of
the real coefficient (An or Bn) of a sinusoidal term. For
example if x = Re(x0eit) is the displacement of a simple
example,
harmonic oscillator, x0 contains both the magnitude and
phase of the displacement.
displacement In the sinusoidal representation,
representation
the same quantity will be written x = x1cos(t) + x2sin(t).
Exponential terms are also easier to manipulate (such as
multiplication and differentiation). This point will be further
discussed in Ch.
Ch 7.
7
 Fourier transform
If the interval becomes infinite (a), (a) we obtain the
Fourier transform (see Jackson p.68).p. 69).
1 ikx
f ( x) = A ( k ) e dk
2 (2.44)
where
1 ikx
A(k ) = f ( x ) e dx (2.45)
2
Change x to x in (2.45) and substitute (2.45) into (2.44)
1
f ( x) = dxf ( x) eik ( x x) dk
2
1442443
( x x)
1 ik ( x x)

e dk = ( x x), completeness relation (2.47)
2
Question: Does A(k ) contain any more or less information than f ( x) ?
Fourier transform (contd)
(2 47) interchange k and x
In (2.47),

1 i ( k k ) x
e dx = ( k k )
), orthogonality condition (2.46)
2

Let y = k k and substitute into (2.46)

(2 46)
1 ixy

e dx = ( y )
2
Since (y) = (y), we can write more generally,
1 ixy

e dx = ( y ) (6)
2

Question : Does an in f ( x) = an eikn x have the same dimension as

n
A(k ) in ((2.44)) ((assuming
g f ( x) and x are p
physical
y qquantities)?
)
Parsevals theorem
f ( x) = 1 ikx
A ( k ) e dk
2
Fourier transform:
A(k ) = 1 ikx
f ( x ) e dx
2
2
f ( x) dx = f ( x) f * ( x)dx

1 ikx 1 * ik x
= dx
A(k )e dk A (k )e dk
2 2
1 i ( k k ) x
= dkA( k ) dk A* (k ) dxe
2
1442443 2
(k k )
2
= A(k ) dk
 2.9 Separation of Variables, Laplace Equation
in Rectangular Coordinates
2
2
2

= 2 + 2 + 2 =0
2
x y z
Let = X (x)Y (y)Z (z)

1 d 2 X 1 d 2Y 1 d 2 Z
+ + =0
X dx 2 Y dy 2 Z dz 2

Since this equation holds for arbitrary values of x, y, and z, each

of the three terms must be separately constant.
d2X d 2
Y d 2
Z
2 = 2 X , 2
= 2
Y , and
d 2
= 2
Z , where
h 2
= 2
+ 2
.
dx dy dz
ei x ei y e z
X ( x) = i x Y ( y ) = i y Z ( z ) = z with = 2 + 2
e e e
 Separation of Variables (contd)
Example: Potential inside a charge-free
charge free rectangular box shown below
with the b.c. (x, y, z = c) = V (x, y ) and = 0 on other sides.
X ( x) = Aei x + Bei x
X (0) = 0 B = A X = A(ei x ei x ) = A 'sin x
n , n = 1,
X ( a ) = 0 = n = a 2K
1 2,

X ( x) = An sin n x
n =1
Similarly, Y ( y ) = Aei y + Bei y with
the b.c. Y (0) = 0 and Y (b) = 0 gives

Y ( y ) = Am sin m y, m = bm
m =1
Solution for Z : Z ( z ) = Ae z + Be z Question: Why is Z(z) not a sum?
Z (0) = 0 B = A Z ( z ) = A(e z e z ) = A ''sinh z

= Anm sin ( n x ) sin ( m y ) sinh ( nm z ), nm = 2n + 2m (2.56)
n,m=1
 Separation of Variables (contd)
To fi d Anm, we apply
T find l the
th boundary
b d condition
diti

( x, y , z = c ) = V ( x, y )

V ( x, y ) = Anm sin ( n x ) sin ( m y ) sinh ( nm c ) (2.57)
n,m =1
4 a b
Anm = dx dyV ( x, y )sin ( n x ) sin ( m y ) (2.58)
ab sinh ( nm c ) 0 0

Questions:
1. The method of images g (2.1 and 2.2)) is not a ggeneral method,,
but the method of expansion in orthogonal functions is. Why?
g can pproduce . In this pproblem,,
2. In electrostatics,, onlyy charges
= 0, how can there be ?
3. Can we find the surface charge distribution ( ) on the walls
from the knowledge of inside the box?
 Homework
Problems 2.2, 2.7, 2.9, 2.23