CHAPTER SEVEN

7.5A. Derivation of the Generalized Dielectric Constant /0

E
Equation
i off motioni for
f an atomic i or molecular
l l electron
l off
charge e in the presence of an external electric field E(x,t),
restoring force due
collision to the electron
frequency p
displacement

mx = eE(x, t ) mx m02 x (7.49)

F ( x) = F (0) + F' (0) x +
x is the electron rate of change
displacement 0 m02 x
of momentum
q
from equilibrium due to collisions Neglecting nonlinear terms
position x = 0. (damping force) as in Sec. 4.6.
Thee "binding que cy 0 iss the
b d g frquency" t e oscillation
osc at o frequency
eque cy of
o the
t e
electron if it oscillates about x = 0. 02 1/ m m02 is indep. of m.
 Derivation of the Generalized Dielectric Constant /0
mx = eE(x, t ) mx m02 x (7
(7.49)
49)
m(x + x + 02 x) = eE(x, t )
Let E(x,t) = E(x)e-it (This is equivalent to a Fourier transformation
to the space, see Appendix A) and expand E(x) about x = 0
x
E( x) = E(0) + ( x )E(0) + E(0) if << 1,
x
of the order of E (0)

where is the scale length of E( x). For example, if E( x) is the wave

field, then wavelength. By neglecting ( x )E(0), we have
assumed that the electron displacement is too samll for the electron
to see the spatial field variation. Thus,
E( x, t ) E(0)e it = E0e it (1)
Denote E(0) by E0 for simplicity.
 Derivation of the Generalized Dielectric Constant /0
Sub x(t ) = x0 e it and E( x, t ) = E0 e it into
Sub.
m(x + x + 02 x) = eE( x, t )
We obtain m( 2 i + 02 )x0 = eE0
e E0 e E0 e it
x0 = 2 2
x(t ) = (2)
m 0 i m 02 2 i
Note: Eq. (2) is the solution for the forced oscillaton of a simple
harmonic oscillator with natural oscillation frequency 0 .
dipole moment (x) = e [x x(t )]
contributed
t ib t d by
b x : a spatial
i l variable
i bl
a single electron x(t ) : electron displacement
p = (x)xd 3 x field amplitude at the electron,
electron (4
(4.8)
8)
approximated by a constant value
a micro-
scopic e 2
E0e it
quantity = ex(t ) = m (7.50)
02 2
i
 Derivation of the Generalized Dielectric Constant /0
Assume there are N molecules per unit volume with Z electrons
per molecule. Divide the electrons into groups, each having weight
f j ( f j = Z ), bindingg frequency
q y j , and collision frequency
q yj
[There may be one or more free electrons ( j = 0) per molecule.]
Then, the p polarization (total
( dipole
p moment p per unit volum)) is
Ne 2 fj
P ( x) =
2 2
E( x ) = 0 e E( x )
a macro-
macro m j j i j
scopic (4.36) a spatial variable, not the
quantity 0 e
electron displacement

= 1 + e Question: What (4.38)
0 makes the medium
Ne 2 fj
(i e
dispersive (i.e.
= 1+ (7
(7.51)
51)
0 m j 2j 2 i j is a function of ) ?
Electric displacement: D( x) = E( x).
Note: The e it time dependence is implicit in P, E, and D.
Derivation of the Generalized Dielectric Constant /0
Divide the electrons in the medium into
For copper, f 0 1
bound electrons: j 0
free j = 0,
0 f j = f0 , j = 0 and 0 4 1013 / s.
f electrons:
l
Ne 2 fj Ne 2 f 0
(7 51) = 0 +
(7.51) +i
m 2 2
j (bound) j i j m ( 0 i )
b
due to free
= b + i electrons (7.56)

N 2
f 0 Ne Drude
d model
d l for
f the
h
where (7.58)
m( 0 i ) electrical conductivity
In general, j > j (see p. 310). Hence, b is predominantly real.
When j , Im b becomes large. resonant absorption
Question: as 0. Hence, the derivation breaks down. Why?
 Derivation of the Generalized Dielectric Constant /0
Di
Discussion
i :
(i) D = E implies a linear relation between D and E. The linearity
results
l from
f the
h assumption i that
h the
h electron
l di l
displacement x is
i
sufficient samll so that, in (7.49), f (x) x and E(x) can be
approximated by a constant E(0) = E0 .
(ii) / 0 in (7.51) or (7.56) is a generalized dielectric constant, which
includes contributions from both bound and free electrons. It is
thus applicable to both insulating and conducting materials. In the
wave fields, free electrons oscillate about an equilibrium position
j like the bound electron. Hence,, both types
just yp of electrons can be
treated on equal footing. The generalized is an extremely useful
quantity As will be shown,
quantity. shown it allows a unified treatment of EM
waves in both insulating and conducting materials.
Derivation of the Generalized Dielectric Constant /0
(iii)W it = + i [ = Re(
(iii)Write ) = Im(
R ( ), I ( )].
)] From
F (7.56),
(7 56) it can
be seen that is due to [i.e. the damping term in (7.49)].
Hence, is
i resposibleibl for
f theh attenuation
i off EM waves iin the
h
material. For the insulating material, << , the attenuation
constant is given by Jackson (7.55) in terms of . For a good
conductor, >> , the attenuation constant is given by Jackson
(5.164) in terms of . The attenuation constant in dielectric and
conducting materials will be derived later in this chapter.
Note that both bound and free electrons contribute to
[
[see )], but contribution from the free electrons is usuallyy
((7.56)],
far more important if the material is a conductor. Even the
insulating material contains a small number of free electrons
to give the material a small conductivity.
 Derivation of the Generalized Dielectric Constant /0
(iv) is derived in the space for a harmonic field of arbitrary
frequency. Hence, D( ) = ( )E( ) is an space relation and
for multi-frequency fields we can transform D( ) into t -space
multi frequency fields, space by
D(t ) = 21 D( )e it d = 21 ( ) E( )e it d [ E(t )] (3)

2 fj 2
Ne Ne f0 in general
( ) = 0 + +i
m j (bound)
2
j
2
i j m ( 0 i )

(v) For static fields [E( ) = E 2 ( )] and in the absence of free

Ne 2 fj
electrons
l (f 0 = 0),
) we have
h = 0 + m
2
= b
j (bound) j
= 0, f0 = 0
Thus, in time-space, we have

D = 21 ( )E( )e it d = 2b E2 ( )e it d = b E,

which is (4.37) [ Note that b is real.]

 Derivation of the Generalized Dielectric Constant /0

(vi) For time-dependent fields in a medium with negligible dispersion

[i.e. ( ) (0 )] and negligible loss (i.e. j 0), we have

D(t ) = 21 D( )eit d 21 (0 ) E( )e it d = (0 )E(t ),

Ne 2 fj
where (0 ) = 0 + m 2 2
.
j j 0

Thi explains
This l i Assumption
A ti (1) on p. 259 for f the
th derivation
d i ti off
(6.107); namely, the macroscopic medium is linear in its electrical
property and it has negligible dispersion and negligible loss loss.
Questions:
(1) Assume an electromagnetic signal is propagating in the medium. medium
What is the condition on the signal in order for ( ) (0 )?
(2) Why
Wh is
i the
th assumption
ti off "negligible
" li ibl loss"
l " also
l required?
i d?
 A Note about Terminology
In general, the electrical permitivity is a tensor (denoted by )
and we can write
11 12 13
D = E, where = 21 22 23

31 32 33

The electrical property

if
of the medium is
uniform (or homogeneous) is indept
indept. of x
linear is indept. of E
nondispersive
di i is
i indept.
i d off
11 = 22 = 33 ,
isotropic
ij = 0 if i j
An Historical Perspective
FaradayTime-varying magnetic
field generates electric
field.
MaxwellTime-varying
Time varying electric
field generates magnetic
field.
 A Note about Oscillatory Behavior

energy energy
Common feature of oscillatory behavior:
type 1 type 2

An oscillation requires {
energy storing mechanisms
energy exchange mechanism(s)
energy storing energy exchange
example medium
mechanisms mechanism(s)
mass-spring system 1 mv 2 , 1 kx 2 restoring force mass & spring
2 2
LC oscillator B2 , E 2 Q, I L, C , & wire
2 2

EM wave B2 , E 2 dB , dE not required

2 2 dt dt
 5.18, 7.1, 7.2, 7.5, 8.1 Electromagnetic Waves
in Dielectrics and Conductors
[A unified treatment using the generalized in (7.51)]
Macroscopic Maxwell equations
free and J free are
D ( x , t ) = free ( x , t ) (4)
due to free electrons
electrons.

B(x, t ) = 0
They have the same
meanings as and J

E(x, t ) = t B( x, t ) i Jackson.
in J k
H (x, t ) = J (x, t ) + D(x, t ) (5)
free t
Equation of continuity (conservation of charge)
free (x, t ) + J free (x, t ) = 0 ((6))
t
In the time-dependent case, we have D(x, t ) = 0 E(x, t ) + P (x, t ) as
in the static case [(4.34)].
[(4 34)] However,
However as discussed earlier,
earlier we cannot
write D(x, t ) = E( x, t ) unless there is negligible dispersion or loss.
EM Waves in Dielectrics and Conductors (cond)
Assumption 1: harmonic time dependence
E ( x, t ) E ( x )
D( x , t ) D( x )
B ( x, t ) B ( x )
it
=
H ( x, t ) H ( x ) e (R f to Appendix
(Ref. A di A)
J ( x, t ) J ( x )
free free
free (x, t ) free (x)
real complex
( h
(phasors) )
Assumption 2: linear and isotropic medium
D(x) = b E(x), B(x) = H ( x), J free ( x) = E(x)
-space
p relations
(The effects of free electrons and bound electrons are separated!)
 EM Waves in Dielectrics and Conductors (cond)
E( x)

(6) i free (x) + E(x) = 0 free (x) = i
D( x, t ) = ffree ( x, t ) in t -space D( x) = free
f ( x) in -space
1 E( x) ( + i )E( x) = 0 E( x) = 0,
b E( x) = i b
where b + i is the generalized permitivity [see (7
(7.56)].
56)] Similarly
Similarly,

(5) H (x) = E(x) i b E(x) = i[ b + i ]E(x) = i E(x)

We can now write the macroscopic Maxwell equations for harmonic
fields in linear and isotropic medium in terms of phasors and the
generalized :
E(x) = 0 (7)

B(x) = 0 (8)

E(x) = i B(x) ((9))
H (x) = i E(x) (10)
 EM Waves in Dielectrics and Conductors (cond)
( )
Discussions :
(i) Bound electrons and free electrons are separated in the
Maxwell equations in (4)-(5). ( b contains the effect of
bound electrons; contains the effect of free electrons)
(ii) Bound electrons and free electrons are combined in the
M
Maxwell ll equations
ti in (7) (10) [ (= b + i ) contains
i (7)-(10) t i the
th
effect of both bound and free electrons]. This provides an
alternative
l i derivation
d i i off the li d in
h generalized i (7.51)
(7 51) andd (7.56).
(7 56)
However, (7.51) and (7.56) give the explicit forms of b and .
(iii) Since (7)-(10) are valid for both dielectrics and conductors,
they will allow a unified treatment of waves in dielectrics
and conductors.
EM Waves in Dielectrics and Conductors (con
(cond)
d)
Assumption 3: uniform medium (i.e. , independent of x)
E(x) = 0 E(x) = 0 (11)

B(x) = 0 B(x) = 0 (12)

E(x) = i B(x) E( x) = i B(x) (13)
H (x) = i E(x) B(x) = i
E( x ) (14)
( )
(13) 2 E( x ) 2 E( x )
+ =0 (15)
(14) B ( x) B ( x)
EM Waves in Dielectrics and Conductors (cond)

Assumption 4: { }{ }
E( x )
B( x)
=
E0 ik x
B0
e
2
2
k 2 k k ; k k k *.
k 2 k and k k unless
( ) { }
E0
(15) k 2 + 2
=0 k is real.
B0 k can be
b complex,
l but
b t k
is always real and positive.

k = (dispersion relation) (16)

k E0 = 0 (17)

k B0 = 0 (18)
1 k E0
(11) (13) B0 = k E0 =
(11)-(13)
k
(19)

1 k E0
H 0 = k E0 = k

Question: What does dispersion mean?
EM Waves in Dielectrics and Conductors (cond)
Assumption 5: is real
S t = time averaged
g ppower flow pper unit area ((intensity)
y)
= E(x, t ) H (x, t ) t

real quantities phasors

= 12 Re E (x) H (x) (Ref. to Chap. 6) E ( x ) = E 0 e ik x

1 Re 1 E ( k E ) ei (k k )x H ( x ) = H 0 e ik x
= k 0
2 0
E0 E0 E0
2

= 1 Re
2 { k 0 0 0 ( )
1 k E 2 E k E ei (k k )x
} (20)
k =
Re { k E ( ) }

= 1 1 2
E0 k E0 ei (k k )x
(20.1)
2 0
EM Waves in Dielectrics and Conductors ((cond))

k : complex constant
k = kn = (kr + iki )n n: real unit vector
Assumption 6:
and k , E0 , B0 are geometrically orthogonal
Hence k E0 = 0 (17) k E0 = 0 [See discussion (vi) below
Hence, below.]]
(19) (20) can be written
k
H0 = n E0 = n E0 (21)


E0 = n H0 = n H0 (22)
k
E0 e 2 ki nx n = 12 Re H 0 e2 ki nx n (23)

S t = 12 Re 2 2

What is the physical explanation for the imaginary part of k ?
EM Waves in Dielectrics and Conductors (cond)

Discussion:
(i) Assuming , are given, (16)-(19) are conditions imposed
on , k, E0, B0 by the Maxwell equations.
(ii) The derivation of (16)-(19) only requires , , , k, E0, and
B0 to be constants, but not necessarily real (we have assumed
= real for the average power flow formula). Thus, any set
of complex constants , , , k, E0, and B0 can be a valid
solution of the Maxwell equations provided they satisfy
((16)-(19)
) ( ) and the boundaryy conditions ((if ppresent).
)
 Discussion (cond)
(iii) As we have shown, the generalized is in general a complex
number with a small imaginary
g y ppart for dielectrics and a large
g
imaginary part for good conductors. In addition, can also
be a complex number. Either complex or complex can
lead to complex solutions for k, E0, and B0. Even when and
are real, boundary conditions (if present) can lead to
complex solutions for k, E0, and B0 (see the following
example).
(iv) (16)-(19) have the appearance of the familiar plane wave
solution, but they are capable of carrying much more
information than just the plane wave. Reason: Each complex
number carries twice the information as a real number and
(16) (19) are combinations
(16)-(19) bi ti off 5 complex
l numbers!
b !
 Discussion (cond)
E
Example:l In
I the
th case off total
t t l internal
i t l reflection
fl ti (Jackson
(J k 7.4)
7 4) off
a wave incident from a dense medium to a tenuous medium (e.g.
water to air),
air) the fields in the tenuous medium have the form,
form

k = k xe x + ik z e z

E0 = E0 xe x + iE0 z e z
B = iB
0 B0 y e y

where kx, kz, E0x, E0z, and B0y are real constants to be determined
from (16)-(19) and the boundary conditions.
The complex nature of k (hence E0 and B0) results from the
boundary conditions at z = 0. We will study the problem of total
internal reflection later in this chapter. Here, we only quote the
form of the solution for illustrative purposes.
 Discussion (cond)
Th physical
The h i l meaning i off suchh a solution
l ti becomes
b clear
l when
h
we construct the physical quantity E(x, t ) from the phasor E(x).
E(x, t ) = Re E0eik x eit k = k x e x + ik z e z
E0 = E0 xe x + iE0 z e z
= Re ( E0 x e x + iE0 z e z ) eit +ik x x k z z

= [ E0 x cos (t k x x ) e x + E0 z sin (t k x x ) e z ] e k z z
Thus, the wave is a surface wave on the z = 0 plane, i.e. it
propagates in the x-direction with an amplitude peaking at z = 0
and decreasing exponentially in the positive z -direction.
Such a surface
Suc su ce wavew ve iss also
so ccalled ed an inhomogeneous
o oge eous pplanee
wave (p.298). The surface nature of the wave is implicit in the
complex vector k , which no longer has an interpretation as
obvious as the real k of an undamped (homogeneous) plane wave.
 Discussion (cond)
( ) Orthogonality
(v) O th lit off vectors
t k, k E0, andd B0 in
i (17)-(19)
(17) (19)
k E0 = 0
E0 , B0 , and k are algebraically
(17) (19) k B0 = 0
(17)-(19)
E0 B0 = 0 orthogonal to one another

Example 1 : E0 = E0e x , B0 = B0e y , k = ke z

The algebraic orthogonality has a geometric
interpretation even if k is complex
complex.
k = k x e x + ik z e z
k x , k z , E0 x , E0 z , and B0 y
Example 2 : E0 = E0 xe x + iE0 z e z
B = iB e are all real.
0 0y y
The
h algebraic
l b i orthogonality
h li has
h no clear
l geometrical
i l interpretation,
i i
since k , E0 , and B 0 do not have clear geometric directions.
cf. sin
{h
has
has no }
geometric interpretation if {
= reall
= complex }
 Discussion (cond)
(vi) k E0 = 0 does not necessarily imply k E0 = 0
In Example 1 above: E0 = E0e x , B0 = B0e y , k = ke z
k E0 = 0 k E0 = 0
k = k xe x + ik z e z
In Example 2 above:
E0 = E0 x e x + iE0 z e z
k E0 = 0 k x E0 x k z E0 z = 0 k x E0 x = k z E0 z
k E0 = k x E0 x + k z E0 z = 2k z E0 z 0

Below we consider EM waves for 4 cases:

Case 1. Waves in a dielectric medium
Case 2. Waves in a good conductor
p
Case 3. Waves at optical frequencies
q and beyond
y
Case 4. Waves in a plasma
EM Waves in Dielectrics and Conductors (cond)
Case 1 Waves
Wa es in a dielectric medium
medi m ( 7.1,
7 1 7.2,
7 2 7.5B)
7 5B)
Ne 2 fj Ne2 f 0
= 0 + +i ((7.51))
2 2
m j (bound) j i j m ( 0 i )
Properties of : negligible ( f0 = 0 or very small)
1. In general, j << j (see p.310), hence Im << Re.
2. When is near each j (binding frequency of the jth group of
l ) exhibits
electrons), hibi resonant behavior
b h i (anomalous
( l dispersion
di i
and resonant absorption).
A passes more js,
3 As Re[[] decreases.
R d

index of
refraction
of water vs
frequency
EM Waves in Dielectrics and Conductors (cond)
1 1 Lossless dielectric ( and are real,
Case 1.1 real 7.1,
7 1 7.2)
7 2)
Equation (16), k = , gives the phase velocity
1 c
v= = = , n= (index of refraction) (7.5)
k n 0 0
n = k
(21) gives
i k
k n E0
H0 = n E0 = n E0 H 0 = , (7.11)
Z
where Z is the impedance of the medium.
E0
Z= = (Jackson p.297)
H0
Z is the ratio of E0 to H 0 of the EM wave in the medium (The
definition is valid even if , are complex). In vacuum,
0
Z = Z0 = = 376.7
0
Case 1.1 (cond)
andd are reall in
i (16) k is
i real.
l Hence
H (23) gives
i
time averaged 1
S t =
2
= E0 n (7.13)
Poynting
P i vector 2
E = E0eik xit 1
ik x it
B = B0e 2
ti averagedd 1
time 1 2
ut= = E E + B B = E0 (7.14)
energy density 4 2
N t
Note: (21) (21)

(i) E E = 1 B B equipartition of E-field and B-field energy

d
(ii) (7.13)&(7.14) S t = u t vg , where vg = = 1 (= )
dk k
(iii) Reall andd E0 andd B 0 (or
( H 0 ) are in
i phase
h [see (7.12)].
( )
 Case 1.1 (cond)
If E0 = E0 ei , then B0 = B0 ei . Hence,
E = E0 cos ( k x t + ) 1

B = B0 cos ( k x t + ) 2
S = E H =
instantaneous
(
(6.109)
)
Poynting vector
= 1 E0 B0 cos 2 ( k x t + ) n
Note that, at a fixed position, S varies in time at the frequency 2.
Two linearly polarized waves can be combined to give a general
expression for the plane wave
E = E1 + E2 = ( 1E1 + 2 E2 ) eik xit , 1 2 (7.19)
(7.19) is a linearly polarized plane wave if E1 and E2 are in
phase, i.e. if E1 = E1 ei and E2 = E2 ei
 Case 1.1 (cond)
E = E1 + E2 = ( 1E1 + 2 E2 ) eik xit , 1 2 (7 19)
(7.19)
(7.19) is an elliptically polarized plane wave if E1 and E2 are not
in phase, i.e. if E1 = E1 ei and E2 = E2 ei( + ) .
((7.19)) is a circularly
y ppolarized p
plane wave
(a special case of elliptically polarized wave)
if E1 = E2 = E0 and = 22. Hence
Hence,
E = E0 ( 1 i 2 ) eik xit
If 1 = e x , 2 = e y , and n = kk = e z , we have
E x = E0 cos ( kz t + )

E y = E0 sin ( kz t + )
Exercise: Show that the instantaneous Poynting vector of a circularly
polarized wave is independent of time.
(But the time-averaged Poynting vector is not.)
 EM Waves in Dielectrics and Conductors (cond)
Case 1.2
1 2 Lossy
Loss dielectric (
( and/or are complex,
comple 7.2B)
7 2B)
Equation (16), k = , gives

k = Re + i Im = + i (7.53)
2
( )
= Re (propagation constant)
phase velocity v = = 1 general form of (7.5)
Re
c n is used on p 314.
p. 314
index of refraction n = v = Re
0 0

and n = e z in S t = 12 Re E0 e 2kinx n ((23))
2
Set ki =
2
P = S t n = 12 Re E0 e z intensity (defined as ,
2
average
g power/unit
p area))
Im general form of (7.55)
where = 2 Im = 2
Re used on p
p. 314
is the attentuation constant defined as = P1 z P.
 Case 1.2 (cond)
For the common case of weak attenuation,
attenuation we let
= real , = + i with >>
( )
1
= (1 + i ) 1 + i 2
2 reduces to the
expression on
Re ; Im p. 311 when =0.
2
= Re = (propagation constant)
0 0 c

n = Re (index of refraction)
0 0 0 0

v = 1 1 = nc (phase ( h velocity)
l i )
Re

Im
(attenuation constant)
= 2 (7.55)
(7 55)
Re
2 z
P = 12 Re E0 e 12 E0 e z (intensity)
2

Note: ( tan l ) is commonly referred to as the loss tangent.

 Case 1.2 (cond)
(Re ) and loss tangent [ tan l or Im /Re ) of some materials
at different frequencies
Case 1.2 (cond)
( )

The index of refraction (top)

and absorption coefficient
(bottom) for liquid water as a
function of frequency in Hz
( 7.5E)
 EM Waves in Dielectrics and Conductors (cond)
( )
Case 2 Waves in a good conductor [ 5.18 and 8.1, applicable
to waves in metals under the condition <<0, i.e. very
y
low frequency (e.g. 60 Hz) up to near optical frequencies]
We begin with a quantitative definition of a good conductor.
conductor
Ne2 fj Ne 2 f0
= 0 + +i ((7.51))
m 2 2
j (bound) j i j m ( 0 i )
b
In general, j < j , see p. 310.

In general, Re( b ) >> Im( )
b

Ne 2 f 0
= b + i = (7.58) (7.56)
m( 0 i )
(Drude model)
 Case 2 (cond)
Up to frequencies
freq encies well
ell beyond
be ond the microwave
micro a e region,
region wee still ha
havee
<< 0 ( 0 is of the order of 4 1013 / s, see p. 312). Hence,
2
N f0
Ne Ne2 f 0 2 n is
m = m i<<the th free
f electron
l t density.
d it WhenWh
N ne
= 0 , real & independent of .
m( 0 i ) 0 0
Since / is
Si i muchh greater
t than I ( b ),
th Im( ) it contributes
t ib t tot mostt off
the imaginary part of . So we may assume b to be real.
= b + i / (7.56)
(7 56) A goodd conductor
d t is i de
d fined
fi d by
b

>> 1 ( b is of the order of 0 = 8.85 1012 farad/m) (24)
b
copper 5.9 107 / -m, graphite 6 104 / -m,
sea water 6 / -m, ground 103 -3.5 102 / -m

f =

2
= {
60 Hz for household current Why is it dangerous if an
0.3 300 GHz for microwaves
electrical
l i l appliance
li
into your bath tub?
falls
f ll
 Case 2 (cond)
1 1
2 2 1 i 2 1
Thus = b + i i = (1 + i ) i = (e ) =
2 2 1
(1 + i )
2 2

1+ i
k = = (1 + i ) = (for forward wave) (5.164)
2
2
where = = skin depth We have assumed (5.165) and (8.8)
to be real.
Let E0 = E0e x
E = E eikz it = E eikz it e = E e z ei( z t )e ((25)
5)
0 0 x 0 x

ikz it ikz it z i( z t )
H = H 0e
= n E0 e = 2 (1 + i ) E0e e
e y (26)

H = n E (21) Let n = e z
0 0

(25) amd (26) are consistent with

ith (8.9)
(8 9) and (8.11).
(8 11)
The exponential decay of the field amplitude is due to loss or boundary effect?
 0 85 cm at f = 60 Hz
0.85 H (h
(household
h ld current))
Examples: copper 5 10
7 10 cm at f = 10 Hz (microwave)
 Case 2 (cond)
Surface current K eff on a ggood conductor ((Note: The surface
current is not exactly on the surface. It penetrates into the conductor
over a depth
p of approximately
pp y . K eff is an integrated
g value of J
over the depth. K eff has the unit of A / m; J has the unit of A / m 2 .)
1+i z
it
K eff = 0 Jdz = 0 Edz = E0e 0 e dz e x Keff

E = E0 e e
(
z i z t )e (25) = 1i = ((12+i ) = ((1+i ) H
x 2

= ((1 + i ) E e it e = e z H ( z = 0)) = e z H ( z = 0)) (27)

( )
2 0 x

(27) here is (8.14) in Jackson; e z in (27) is n in (8.14).

(27) shows
h th t the
that th surface
f currentt Keff on a good
d conductor
d t
depends only on the H|| on its surface. Physically, Keff is the
response of the conductor in order to shield its inside from H||
(Faradays law). Hence, Keff is determined entirely by H||.
 Case 2 (cond)
Power loss on the surface of good conductors
power going into conductor
Pl =
unit area of conductor surface
= 12 Re E( z = 0) H ( z = 0) e z
((25),
), (26)
( )
= 12 2 E(0) = 12 2 E (0) assume normal (28)
2 2
incidence


) (26) E (0) =
(25),
H (0) (29)

( ) Pl =
Sub. ((29)) into (28) 1
H (0)
( )
2 useful form to explain
2 2 induction heating
= 2 1 2
= 4
H (0) (8.12)
(27) 1 1 2 1 1 2
= 2
H (0) = 2
K eff (8.15)
2 2
Note: If there is reflection, H (0) = H incident (0) + H reflected (0)
Case 2 ((cond))
Alternative derivation of power loss
ohmic heat in the conductor
Presistive =
unit volume
R J E = 12 E
2
= 12 Re

1 2 2z 1 2 2z
= 2
E0 e = 2
H0 e (5 169)
(5.169)
(25) (26) H0 = H||(z = 0)
1 2 2z 2
Pl = 0 Presistive dz = 2
H 0 0 e dz = 14 H 0
[[same as (8.12)]
( )]
Case 2 (cond)
Discussion :
z i( z t )

E = E0e e ex (25)
(i) z i( z t )

H = (1 + i ) E0e e ey (26)
2
Inside the good conductor, the wave has a wavelength
= 2 and it damps p byy a factor of 1/ e over a distance .
(ii) E and H are 45 out of phase in a good conductor.
(iii) E and H are continuous across the conductor surface, but E
and H drops to almost 0 a few into the conductor.
 Case 2 (cond)
(iv) Wave incident from the outside into a good conductor (at
any incident angle) will propagate and attenuate inside the
conductor approximately along the normal to the surface
(see Jackson 8.1). The reason is shown in the figure below.

Hence, we can write the wave fields inside the conductor as (25)
and (26) with E||(0+) given by E||(0) and H||(0+) given by H||(0).
Question: Does it make sense to use power lines of very large
diameter (e.g.10 cm) in order to conduct higher current
and hence transmit more power?
 Case 2 (cond)
( )
(v) The fields in a good conductor are similar to those in a
lossy dielectric in that they both represent an attenuated
plane wave and k, E, H, are geometrically orthogonal.
However for waves at the same frequency,
However, frequency the wavelength
is much shorter and the attenuation constant is much greater
in the conductor than in the dielectric.
dielectric

Example: Let f = 2 = 1010 Hz (a typical microwave)

glass ( 1, 4, 2.1104 )
0 0
(
copper 7 105 cm )
= 2 = 2 1.5 cm (Case 1.2) = 2 4.4 104 cm

= 2 8.8
8 8 104 cm-1 (7.55)
(7 55) = P1 dP =
dz
2 4.
4 5 103
cm -1
 EM Waves in Dielectrics and Conductors (cond)
Case 33. Waves
C W at optical
i l frequencies
f i andd beyond
b d (7.5D)
7 5D)
Case 3.1 >> 0 but < j for all or some of the bound electrons
(a sub case of 7.5D,
7 5D pppp. 313
313-4,
4 total reflection of light
off the mirror and ultraviolet transparency of metals)
Ne 2 fj Ne2 f 0
= 0 + +i (7.51)
2 2
m j (bound) j i j m ( 0 i )
b Ne2 f 0

In general, j < j , see p. 310. m 2
( >> 0 )
In general,
general Re( b ) >> Im( )
b
The metal is a good conductor up to frequencies well beyond
the microwave region (see Case 2). 2) But,
But as shown above,
above when
>>0, the free electron term becomes predominantly real, a
qualitative departure from Case 2.
2 This radically changes the metal
response to EM waves. Examples are given below and in Case 3.2.
Case 3.1 (cond)
( )
Let n = Nf 0 be the free electron density in the conductor
(f 0 1, i.e. each atom in the conductor contains on average
approx. one free electron, see p.312), we obtain from (7.51)
2p
= b 2
0 (30)

where p is the pplasma frequency
q y of the conduction electrons
ne2
p = (31)
m 0
and we have replaced m in (7.51) by the effective mass m of
the conduction electrons to account for the effects of binding.
binding
For simplicity, we assume b to be real by neglecting the weak
damping effects of bound electrons
electrons.
 Case 3.1 (cond)
S b = b 2p 0 / 2 into
Sub. i t k = , we obtain
bt i

2p 0
k = b 2 (32)

Hence,, k is either real (propagation

(p p g without attenuation)) or purely
p y
imaginary (evanescent waves) depending on the wave frequency.
0 2p 0
Wh <
When p , < 0 andd k = i 2 b = i k . Then,
Th
b
E = E0eikz it e x = E0e k z it e x (33)

e E = i E e k z it e
H = z 0 y (34)
(21) = =i
Question:
ti Wh can the
Why th wave propagate t without
ith t attenuation
tt ti ini a
conductor? (see discussion at the end of Case 3.2).
 Case 3.1 (cond)

E = E0e k z it e x in (33) and H = i E
0
e k z it
ey in (34) are
evanescent fields which fall off exponentially inside the conductor.
They do not constitute a propagating wave. This can be seen from
the fact that E and H are 90 out of phase. Hence, Re[E H*] = 0
No power flow into the conductor. Thus, an incident wave will
be totally reflected from the conductor surface, with (33) and (34)
representing the shallow fringe fields inside the conductor. This is
the principle of light reflection off the mirror. For microwave
reflection off a good conductor (Case 2), E and H are 45 out of
phase in the conductor Some power flows into the conductor.
At higher frequencies ( > 0 / b p ), = b 2p 0 / 2 > 0.
ence, k (= ) becomes real. The wave can then propagate
freely. This is the principle of ultraviolet transparency of metals.
 EM Waves in Dielectrics and Conductors (cond)
C
Case 2 >>j and
33.2 d >> j for
f allll electrons
l t in
i the
th medium,
di a subb
case of 7.5D, p. 313, applicable to X-ray frequencies and
beyond)
Under the conditions >>j (including 0) and >>j, we may
neglect j and j in (7.51),
(7 51)
Ne2 fj Ne2 f 0
= 0 + +i ((7.51))
m 2 2
j (bound) j i j m ( 0 i )
NZ
2 e 2
((use f j = Z )
2p m j ( all )
= 1 2 , (7.59)
0
NZe 2 NZ is the density of all electrons
where 2p = (7.60)
m 0 (bound and free) in the medium.
 Case 3.2 (cond)
2p
Sub. = 1 2 into k = , we obtain
0
1/ c 2 2
p
k 2 = 2 = 0 0 1 2 2 (Assume = 0 .)


2 = k 2c 2 + 2p (7.61)
Although (7.61)
(7 61) predicts an evanescent
wave for < p, the validity of (7.61)
requires >>j and j for all the electrons in
the medium. This in turn requires >>p.
Hence, k is real and the wave is always a
propagating wave in the medium under the
validity
y condition. The treatment above for
Case 3.2 applies also to the dielectric medium.
Case 3.2 (cond)
Discussion: To understand the physical reason why we may neglect
collisions and binding forces in (7.51) under the conditions >>j
and >>j, we gog back to the equation
q of motion for the electrons.
m( x + j x + 2j x) = eE(x, t ) (7.49)
i E(x, t ) = E0e it , we obtain
B assuming
By b i [see
[ Eq.
E (2)]
e E0e it e i E0e it
x(t ) = x(t ) =
m 2j 2 i j m 2j 2 i j
Thus,, when >> j and j , we have x(t ) 1/ 2 and x(t )
1/ . This implies that, for the same E0 , the collisional damping
force (m j x 1/ ) and the binding force (m 2j x 1/ 2 ) decrease
with increasing and become negligible at a sufficiently large .
Exercise : Explain "m j x 1/ " and "m 2j x 1/ 2" qualitatively
from the relations for constant acceleration (a): v = at and x = 12 at 2 .
EM Waves in Dielectrics and Conductors (cond)
C
Case 4 Waves
W in
i plasmas
l (a
( subb case off 7.5D,
7 5D p. 313)
The plasma is a partially ionized (e.g. ionosphere) or fully
ionized (e.g.
(e g fusion plasmas) gas.
gas In general,
general the neutral gas (if
present) and collisions can both be neglected. Ion motion can
also be neglected
g at sufficiently
y high
g frequencies.
q Then,,
Ne2 fj Ne2 f 0
= 0 + +i (7.51)
m 2 2
j (bound) j i j m ( 0 i )
negligible Ne2 f0
2
( 0 0)
m
2p same equation as (7.59) but
= 1 2 with a much smaller (35)
0 p
where p is the plasma frequency given by
2
ne n = Nf 0 = plasma electron density
density, normally
2p = much smaller than the density of solids. (36)
0m
 Case 4 (cond)
2p
Sub. = 1 2 into k = , we obtain
0
1/ c 2
2
p
k = = 0 0 1 2 2 ( = 0 for plasmas)
2 2


2 2 2 2 same as (7.61) but with a much
= k c +p 2 (37)
smaller p defined byy ((36))
(37) is the well known dispersion
relation for electromagnetic waves in a
plasma in the absence of an externally
applied static magnetic field.
field (7.6
76
considers the dispersion relation for a magnetized plasma.) When
is sufficiently large, all materials have a dispersion relation given by
(37) (Case 3.2). But for the plasma, (37) is valid for all frequencies.
 Case 4 (cond)
2 = k 2c 2 + 2p (37)
For < p, k is ppurely
y imaginary
g | |) and E and H are
y ((k = i|k|)
evanescent fields given by (33) and (34):
k z it k z it
E = E0e ex ; H = i E
0
e ey
As in the case of light reflection off the mirror, an incident
electromagnetic
l t ti wave will ill be
b totally
t t ll reflected
fl t d [Shortwave
[Sh t
broadcasting exploits the reflection of radio waves (~10 MHz)
off
ff the
th ionosphere].
i F > p, is
h ] For ith /0 < 1.
i reall with 1 Hence,
H
the index of refraction n = /( 0 0 ) < 1
( = 0 for
( f plasmas).
l ) The
Th wave will
ill propagate
t
in the plasma with a phase velocity greater than
the speed of light.
light
 7.3 Reflection and Refraction
Model: z E = E0eik xit
k E
B' =
k
'' refracted wave (assumed)
n' =
0 0

n=
0 0

E = E0eik xit E = E0eikxit

k E k E
B = B =
k k
incident wave (given) reflected wave (assumed)

Kinematic properties: relations between angles of incidence,

reflection,, and refraction
Dynamic properties: intensity, phase, and polarization relations
 Reflection and Refraction (cond)
Boundary conditions for the fields at z = 0 have the form:
ik x x +ik y y ik x x +ik y y ik x x +ik y y
Xe + Ye = Ze at anyy x and y,
where X , Y , and Z are in terms of the fields [see (7.37)]. Since

eik x x , eik x x , eik x x are linearly independent, we must have k x = k x = k x .
Otherwise, we will have the trivial condition X = Y = Z = 0. For the
same reason,, k y = k y = k y . Hence,, k , k , and k lie in a p
plane.
Without loss of generality, we choose a convenient coordinate
system
y in which k y = k y = k y = 0.
2
k 2 k k ; k k k *.
k = k 2 k 2 and k k
(20) (38)
In general k can be complex, but k is
k = always real and positive.
J k ' fformula
Jackson's l k = k iin (7
(7.33)
33) is
i valid
lid
only when k is real (see example below).
 Reflection and Refraction (cond)
Assume , , , and are real. Hence, n and n are also real.
algebraic treatment trigonometric treatment
k = k xe x + k z e z k = k sin ie x + k cos ie z

k = k xe x k z e z k = k sin r e x k cos r e z
k = k e + k e k = k sin re + k cos re
x x z z x z
k = & k = (38) k x = k x = k x
k x2 + k z2 = 2 i = r (38)

n 2 2
sin
i i k n
sin r = k = = n
2 2
k
z = k x
c 2
k x2 + k z2 = 2 (Snell's law)

& n 2 2

2 2
k
z = 2
k x
c
 Reflection and Refraction (cond)
T t l internal
Total i t fl ti (assume
l reflection ( n > n)
algebraic treatment trigonometric treatment
If n2 2
c2
< k x2 < n 2 2
c2
(
If i > i0 i0 sin 1 nn )
sin i
k z = real then sin r = >1
sin i0
2 n2 2
k z = i k x c 2
cos r = 1 sin 2 r
2 2
k = k xe x + i k x2 n 2 e z
( )
2
c =i sin i 1
sin i0
a complex k k 2 = 2 and
2 2
k = 2k x2 2 k k 2 E and B' (of refracted wave)
E and B' (of refracted wave) eik x = eik ( x sin r + z cos r )

( ) 1 z eiksinsinii x
2 2 2
k x2 n z k sin i
eikx = e
sin i0
eik x x
2
c =e 0

surface wave surface wave

 Reflection and Refraction (cond)
Time averaged power flow at z = 0 :
St= 1
2 {
1 2
(
Re k E0 E0 k E0 e
)
i (k k )x
} (20.1)
i (k k )x k z z
k = k x e x + i k z e z e =e = 1 at z = 0
1
{
S t = 2 Re k E0 E0 k E0
2
( )} (39)

k = k x e x + i k z e z E0 = E0 x e x + E0 y e y + E0 z e z
E = 0 k E0 = 0 = k x E0 x + i k z E0 z
k * E0* = 0 = k x E 0*x i k z E 0*z k x E 0*x = i k z E 0*z
k E0 = k x E0x + i k z E0z = 2i k z E0z

z 0 {
1 Re i k E 2 2i k E 2 = 0
S t e z = 2 z 0z }
No power flow into z > 0 region total reflection as expected
Reflection and Refraction (cond)
So far, we have derived the following kinetic properties without
knowing the detailed nature of the b.c.'s and the fields: (i) i = r ;
i i = n ; and (iii) Condition for total internal reflection: n > n
sin
(ii) sin r n

( )
and i > i0 = sin 1 nn .
We now investigate the dynamic properties, i.e. the intensity,
phase and polarization of reflected and refracted waves w
phase, w.r.t.
rt
the incident wave, which are contained in the complex E0 , E0 , and
E0 and can be obtained form the boundary conditions:
D continuous [ ( E0 + E0 ) E0 ] e z = 0 (42)
B continuous
i [k E0 + k E0 k E0 ] e z = 0 (43)
E continuous [ E0 + E0 E0 ] e z = 0 (44)
H continuous 1 ( k E0 + k E0 ) 1 ( k E0 ) e z = 0 (45)

Reflection and Refraction (cond)
[ p
[S-polarized wave or TE wave]]
Case 1: E0 plane of incidence (the x - z plane)
k = k xe x + k z e z

k = k xe x + k z e z
k = k xe x k z e z
E0 = E0e y

E0 = E0 e y
E = E e
0 0 y
(42) is automatically satisfied.
satisfied
(43) ( k x E0e z k z E0e x ) e z + ( k x E0e z + k z E0e x ) e z
( k x E0 e z k z E0 e x ) e z = 0
E0 + E0 E0 = 0 (46)
(44) also gives (46).
Case 1 (cond)

(45) 1
( k x E0e z k z E0e x ) e z + 1 ( k x E0e z + k z E0e x ) e z
1 ( k x E0 e z k z E0 e x ) e z = 0
1 k z ( E0 E0 ) 1 k z E0 = 0 k z = k cos i = c n cos i
k z = k cos r = c n cos r
n ( E0 E0 ) cos i n E0 cos r = 0 (47)
E
0= 2 n cos i 2 n cos i
=

E0 n cos i + n2 n 2 sin 2 i n cos i + n cos r
(46)
(7.39)
(47) n cos i
n 2
n 2
sin 2
i n cos i
n cos r
E0
= =

E0 n cos i + n2 n 2 sin 2 i n cos i + n cos r

n sin i = n sin r n2 n 2 sin 2 i = n cos r
Reflection and Refraction (cond)
[[P-polarized
p wave or TM wave]]
Case 2: E0 plane l off incidence
i id
k = k ( sin ie x + cos ie z )

k = k ( sin
i re x + cos re z ) (48)
k = k ( sin ie x cos ie z )
E0 = E0 ( cos ie x + sin ie z )

E0 = E0 ( cos re x + sin re z ) (49)
E0 = E0 ( cos ie x + sin
i ie z )
Sub. (48) and (49) into (42)-(45) yields
E
0= 2 nn cos i 2 n cos i
=

E0 n2 cos i + n n2 n 2 sin 2 i n cos i + n cos r

(7.41)
E n2 cos i n n2 n 2 sin 2 i n cos i n cos r
0= =

E0 n2 cos i + n n2 n 2 sin 2 i n cos i + n cos r

 Case 2 (cond)
If i = 0 (hence
(h r = 0),
0) bboth
th (7
(7.39)
39) andd (7.41)
(7 41) reduce
d to
t
E0 2 2n
E =
n + n
0

+ 1
=
(7.42)
E0
1 n n The sign convetion is for a p-polarized
E = wave. If n > n, there is a phase reversal
n + n of the refelcted wave at the surface for
0

+ 1
a s-polarized
l i d wave.
Brewster's angle iB (for E0 plane of incidence)
Let = and i = iB , where iB satisfies

n2 cos iB = n n2 n 2 sin 2 iB (50)

then (7.41) implies E = 0,i.e. there will be no reflected wave. Thus,
upon
p reflection at the incident angle g i = iB , waves with mixed
polarization become linearly polarized with E plane of incidence.
Case 2 (cond)
Calculation of iB :

n2 cos iB = n n2 n 2 sin 2 iB (50)

(
n4 cos 2 iB = n 2 n2 n 2 sin 2 iB )
( )
n4 1 sin 2 iB = n 2 n2 n 4 sin 2 iB

( ) (
n 4 n4 sin 2 iB = n2 n 2 n2 )
2 n 2
sin iB = 2
n + n2
n
tan iB = (7.43)
n
 Case 2 (cond)
Alternative derivations of iB :
Snell s law: n sin i = n sin r
Snell's
i + r = 90
i iB = n sin(90
n sin i (90 iB ) = n cos iB
n
tan iB = ((7.43))
n
The physical mechanism for this can be qualitatively understood from the manner in which electric
di l iin the
dipoles th media t p-polarized
di respondd to l i d light.
li ht O
One can iimaginei th
thatt li
light
ht incident
i id t on the
th surface
f is
i
absorbed, and then reradiated by oscillating electric dipoles at the interface between the two media. The
polarization of freely propagating light is always perpendicular to the direction in which the light is
travelling.
g The dipoles
p that produce
p the transmitted (refracted)
( ) light
g oscillate in the polarization
p direction
of that light. These same oscillating dipoles also generate the reflected light. However, dipoles do not
radiate any energy in the direction along which they oscillate. Consequently, if the direction of the
refracted light is perpendicular to the direction in which the light is predicted to be specularly reflected,
the
h dipoles
di l will ill not create any reflected
fl d light.
li h Since,
Si by
b definition,
d fi i i th s-polarization
the l i ti is i parallel
ll l to
t the
th
interface, the corresponding oscillating dipoles will always be able to radiate in the specular-
reflection direction. This is why there is no Brewster's angle for s-polarized light.
 Case 2 (cond)
Applications Brewster Window
Gas lasers typically use a window tilted at Brewster's angle to allow
th beam
the b t leave
to l th laser
the l t b Since
tube. Si th window
the i d reflects
fl t some s-
polarized light but no p-polarized light, the gain for the s polarization
is reduced but that for the p polarization is not affected. This causes
the laser's output to be p polarized, and allows lasing with no loss
due to the window.
purely s-polarized

partially s-polarized
partially p-polarized mostly p-polarized
Reflection and Refraction (Summary)

n = 1.0, n=2.0 n = 2.0, n=1.0

This Brewster's angle is around 56 The critical angle is approximately

for a glass medium in air or vacuum. 41 for glass in air.
 Discussion: Sources of electromagnetic fields in dielectric and
permeable materials

The source-free macroscopic Maxwell equations [(7.1)] can

be converted into the microscopic form as follows:

B = 0
B = 0 B Jackson p.156 and
B D = E + P E = lecture notes Ch. 4
E = 0 t
t P 1
D = 0 1 E = = pol =J [(5.79)]
H = B M
0 0
0 M
H = D
t B = 0 0 E + 0 M + 0 P
t t
E
= 0 0 + 0 J M + 0 J pol
t
L
Lecture notes Ch.
Ch 4
Discussion (cond)
We see from
W f th microscopic
the i i form
f off the
th Maxwell
M ll equations
ti th t in
that, i
dielectric ( 0) and permeable ( 0) materials, bound electrons can
produce polarization charge (poll), ) polarization current (Jpoll), ) and
magnetization current (JM) upon actions by the electromagnetic fields.
These charges
g and currents will ggenerate electromagnetic
g fields of their
own. In the source-free macroscopic Maxwell equations, pol, Jpol, and
JM, are hidden in D and H, but the fields they generate will appear in the
solutions. For example, as a wave in incident from a vacuum into a
dielectric medium, it will induce pol and Jpol (pol = 0 inside a uniform
medium,
di whereas
h Jpol is
i always
l ) pol andd Jpol are the
present). h sources
which generate the reflected wave and cause refraction of the transmitted
wave In the case of a charged particle traveling in a dielectric medium
wave.
at a speed greater than the speed of light in that medium, the pol and Jpol
induced by the fields of the charged particle will generate the Cherenkov
radiation (Jackson, 13.4).
 7.8 Superposition of Waves, Group Velocity
We first give a simple physical picture of the phase and group
velocities
velocities.
Consider the superposition of 2 waves, cos(1t k1 x) and
cos(2t k2 x) (see Fig.
Fig 1) in a medium in which and k are related
by some dispersion relation = ( k ), and assume 1 2 , k1 k2 .

cos(1t k1 x)
cos(2t k2 x)

{cos((1t k1 x)
+ cos(2t k2 x)

(from Feynman Lectures, vol. 1, Sec. 48-1)

 Superposition of Waves, Group Velocity (cond)
Superposition
S iti off the
th two
t waves givesi
cos(1t k1 x) + cos(2t k2 x) constructive
= 2 cos ( 1 +2
2
t
k1 + k2
2 ) (
x cos
1 2
2
t
k1 k2
2
x ) interference

= 2 cos (t kx ) cos ( 1 2
2
t
k1 k2
2
x )
(A) (B)
destructive
1 +2
where = 2 ( 1 2 ) and k = k1 +2k2 ( k1 k2 ) . interference
The result is a modulated wave (see Fig. 2). Factor (B) gives the
speed of propagation of each modulation,
modulation
1 2
2 1 2d
vg = k1 k2
= (groupp velocity)
(g y)
k1 k2 dk
2
Factor (A) gives the phase speed of the wave within the modulation,

v ph = (phase velocity)
k
 Superposition of Waves, Group Velocity (cond)
When an infinite number of waves (centered around 0, k0 with
a spread k, see Fig. 4) are superposed, interferences can result in
cancellation everywhere except for a region of length x (see Fig.
Fig 3),
3)
where the waves are constructively superposed into a wave packet.
L t eachh componentt off the
Let th wave packet
k t
be uk ( x, t ) = A(k )eikx i ( k )t , then
u ( x, t ) = 1 A(k )eikx i ( k )t dk (7.80)
2

If u0 ( x) u ( x, 0) = 1 A(k )eikx dk (51)

2

A(k ) = 1 u ( x )e ikx dx
2
0
(7.81)
where, for clarity, we have replaced
Jackson's notation u ( x, 0),
), i.e. the field
profile at t = 0, with u0 ( x). xk 12 (7.82)
.
 Superposition of Waves, Group Velocity (cond)
The dispersion relation k = [with = ( )] implies
= (k ) and (k ) is a complicated function. Expand ( k ) about k0
d
( k ) = ( k0 ) + ( k k0 ) + ... 0 + vg ( k k0 ) , (7.83)
dk k0
0
d
where vg will be shown later to be the group velocity.
dk k0
Sub. (7.83) into u ( x, t ) = 1 A(k )eikx i ( k )t dk
2
(7.80)
i( k0vg 0 )t ik ( x vg t )
u ( x, t ) 1 e A(k )e dk (7.84)
2
u0 ( x vg t )

by using u0 ( x) = 1 A( k )eikx dk (51)

2
i( k0vg 0 )t
= u0 ( x vg t )e (7.85)
 Superposition of Waves, Group Velocity (cond)
T illustrate
To ill t t (7.85),
(7 85) we consider
id an (unrealistic)
( li ti ) example
l with
ith u0 ( x)
given by u0 ( x) = S ( x)eik0 x (see Fig. 5) (52)
where
h
1 if x0 2x < x < x0 + 2x
S ( x) =
0 otherwise
Let x x vg t in (52) and sub. (52) into
i( k0vg 0 )t
u ( x, t ) = u0 ( x vg t )e (7.85)
ik0 ( x vg t ) i( k0vg 0 )t
u ( x, t ) = S ( x v g t )e e = S ( x vg t )ei( k0 x 0t ) (53)
In (53), S ( x vg t ) represents a wave packet propagating without
distortion at the group velocity vg , while ei( k0 x 0t ) indicates that,

in tthee wave packet,
pac et, the
t e wave has
as a phase
p ase ve
velocity
oc ty v ph = k 0 (see Fig.
g. 6).
0
This is similar to the case of 2-wave superposition shown in Fig. 2.
 Superposition of Waves, Group Velocity (cond)
Discussion :
(i) The pulse shape give by (7.85) is undistorted in time. However, if
high order terms are included in the expansion of (k ) [(7
[(7.83)],
83)]
the pulse will broaden with time.
dvg 2
k
Reason: vg = vg (k ) vg = dk
k = d
dk 2
If d 2 0, there is a spread in vg
dk 2

(ii) k x 12 A shorter wave packet has a greater spread in k (and

vg ). Hence, it broadens faster than a longer pluse.
(iii) Wave packets in vacuum remain undistorted ( = kc d 2 = 0).
dk 2
The following section gives a more rigorous treatment of the wave
packet including pulse broadening.
7.9 Broadening of a Pulse in Dispersive Medium
Rigorously, the real quantity u ( x, t ), which we expressed in (7.80)
as 1
A(k )eikx i ( k )t dk , should be written*:
2
u ( x, t ) = 12 1 A( k )eikx i ( k )t dk + c.c.
2
(7.90)
Assume (i) , k are both real, i.e. no dissipation.
(ii) The medium is isotropic, hence ( k ) = ( k ).
u ( x, t ) = 12 1
A(k )eikx i ( k )t dk + 12 1
A ( k )e ikx +i ( k )t dk
2 2
u ( x, t ) = 12 1 i ( k ) A( k )eikx i ( k )t dk
t
2
ikx +i ( k )t
+ 12 1 i ( k ) A ( k ) e dk
2
*Note: In (7.90), A(k ) is not the Fourier transform of u ( x, t ). Hence,
the "realty condition A(k ) = A* ( k ) [see lecture note on
realty condition"
Sec. 2.8] does not apply.
 Broadening of a Pulse in Dispersive Medium (cond)

u ( x, 0) = 1 1 A(k )eikx dk + 1 1 A (k )eikx dk

2 2 2 2
ikx ikx
t u ( x, 0) = 12 21 i (k ) A(k )e dk + 12 21 i (k ) A (k )e dk

e ik xu ( x, 0)dx = 12 A(k )ei ( k k ) x dkdx

1
2

+ 12 1 A (k )e i ( k + k ) x dkdx
1 ixy 2
e dx = ( y )
2
= 2 A(k ) + A ( k ) (54)
2
ikk x
e t
u ( x, 0)dx = 2
2
[i (k ) A(k ) + i (k ) A (k )] (55)
( k )
(54) i 1(k ) (55)

A(k ) = 1 e ikx u ( x, 0) + i u ( x, 0) dx
2
d (7 91)
(7.91)
( k ) t
Broadening of a Pulse in Dispersive Medium (cond)

x2
u ( x, 0) = exp( 2 ) cos k0 x (7.92)
2L

Example : u ( x, 0) = 0 (7.93)
t dvg d 2 2
2 2
a k = 2
= a 0
dk
(k ) = [1 + 2 ] dk (7.95)
expect spreading of pulse
1 ikx i
A(k ) = e [u ( x, 0) + u ( x, 0)]dx
2 (k ) t
1 ikx x 2 / 2 L2
= e e cos k0 xdx
2
L L2 L2 2
= exp[( ) ( k k0 ) ] + exp[( ) ( k + k0 ) ]
2
(7.94)
2 2 2
Broadening of a Pulse in Dispersive Medium (cond)
1 1 ikx i ( k )t
u ( x, t ) = A(k )e dk + c.c.
2 2
L2 L2 a 2k 2
L ( k k0 ) 2 ( k + k0 ) 2
ik i t (1+
ikx )
= Re [e 2 +e 2 ]e 2 dk
2 2
1 ( x a 2 k0 t ) 2 a 2 k02
exp[ ] exp[ik0 x i (1 + )t ]
1 (1 + ia t ) 2
2 1
2 L2
(1 +
2
ia t ) 2
= Re L2 L2 , (7.98)
2 a wave packet propagating forward
+ (k0 k0 ) a wave packet propagating backward

where L is a function
of t given by
2 1
L(t ) = [ L + ( L t ) 2 ]2
2 a

(7.99)
 Appendix
pp A. t-space
p and -space
p
E ( ) = E ( t ) eit dt (A.1)

1 it
E ( t ) = E ( ) e d
2

1 it it

= 0 E ( ) e + E ( ) e d (A.2)
2

Note: If E ( t ) is real ((a pphysical

y quantity
q y in t -space
p must be
a real quantity), then,
E ( ) = E ( ) (A 3)
(A.3)
Appendix A (contd) phase constant
Special Case 1: E ( t ) = E0 cos(t + ) (A.4)
a single-frequency amplitude pphase
real quantity (real vector)
it
Sub. (A.4) into E ( ) =

E ( t ) e dt (A.1)
E ( ) = E0 cos (t + ) eit dt

1 i i( + )t i i( )t
= E0e e + E0 e e dt
2

= E ( ) + E ( + )
where E E0e i (A.5)
1
(A.2) E ( t ) =


E ( ) + E ( + ) eit d
2
1
= E e it + E it
e = Re E eit (A.6)
2
Appendix A (contd)
In linear equations, we may write (A.6) as
E ( t ) = E eit (A.7)
Thus, by writing E ( t ) = E0 cos (t + ) as E ( t ) = E e it . We
Thus
have entered from the t -space into the -space. Equations derived
y using
by g ((A.7) are -space
p equations,
q , e.g.
g
D = E (A.8)
E0 in ((A.4)) is a real t -space
p qquantity. ( )
y E = E0ei in ((A.4)) is
a complex -space quantity and is called a phasor.
To convert a phasor back into the t -space, we multiply it by
eit and take the real part [see (A.6)]. Thus
D ( t ) = Re D e it = Re E eit

= Re ei E0ei eit = E0 cos (t + ) (A.9)

Question: (A.8) and (A.9) both indicate a linear relation between
D and E. What does a "linear relation" imply?
Appendix A (contd)
Discussion :
(i) A complex number carries twice the information as a real
number, e.g. E0 in (A.4) gives the amplitude of E ( t ) , whereas
E (= E0ei ) in (A.7)
( ) ggives both the amplitude
p and pphase
angle of E ( t ) . Hence, the algebra is simpler in the -space.
This is the reason whyy we often work in the -space.
p
(ii) In (A.8), D and E are phasors. But [derived in (7.51)] is
the -space.
a complex number derived in the space. It is not a phasor.
Hence, Re[ eit ] is not a corresponding t -space quantity.
(iii) The
Th same mathematics
th ti can be
b found
f d in
i circuit
i it theory:
th
V , I D, E
V = IZ in circuit theoryy D = E here
Z
Appendix A (cont
(contd)
d)
Special Case 2: a rotating vector
E ( t ) = E0 ( cos t e x sin t e y )
= E0 cos t e x + cos (t + 2 ) e y ((A.10))
Following the same procedure leading to (A.6), we obtain
i 2
E ( t ) = Re E0e x + E0e e y e it


= Re E e it (A.11))

where E E 0 ( e x ie y ) ((A.12))
 Appendix A (cont
(contd)
d)

Discussion:
Examining the phasors E E0ei (A.5) and E E 0 (e x + ie y )
(A.12), we find that the phasor, an -space
space quantity, may or may
not have a clear geometric direction, e.g. E in (A.5) has the
same geometric direction as E0 , but Ew in (A.12)
(A 12) does not have
a clear geometric direction. The reason is that, in the time space,
E(t ) = E0 (cos te x sin te y ) has a geometric direction which
rotates with time. When E(t) is transformed into the -space, in
which t is no longer a variable,
variable we obtain a phasor Ew without a
clear geometric direction .
 Homework
Problems: 7.4, 7.12, 7.21