Journal of Cleaner Production 164 (2017) 950e962

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Journal of Cleaner Production

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The inuence of cryogenic supercritical carbon dioxide cooling on tool

wear during machining high thermal conductivity steel
Tatang Mulyana a, Erween Abd Rahim b, *, Shamy Nazrein Md Yahaya b
a
Telkom University, Bandung, Indonesia
b
Precision Machining Research Centre (PREMACH), Faculty of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia, 86400,
Batu Pahat, Johor, Malaysia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: In the recent years, there have been increasingly tremendous demands for lightweight automotive parts,
Received 21 February 2017 in the quest for better energy efciency. These parts are produced using Ultra High Strength Steel (UHSS),
Received in revised form for reasons of high strength and rigidity. However, for the parts blank to have increased strength and
6 June 2017
hardness, the forming process has to be carried out under elevated temperatures, achieved through
Accepted 3 July 2017
Available online 4 July 2017
preheating and quenching. In addition, to ensure an effective quenching, High Thermal Conductivity
Steel (HTCS), having a high thermal conductivity and a high wear resistance, is used as the forming die,
Handling Editor: Yutao Wang possibly resulting in impaired machinability. Therefore, an effective coolant-lubrication technique is
required to ensure improved productivity. A cryogenic cooling technique, such as, the use of supercritical
Keywords: carbon dioxide (SCCO2) was reviewed in the machining processes. SCCO2 was selected over the more
Supercritical carbon dioxide cooling commonly used liquid nitrogen (LN2), as the cryogenic substance, due to its low gas expansion value,
Sustainable machining environment thus ensuring lower environmental hazards to the workers. In short, the non-toxic SCCO2 promotes a
Cleaner manufacturing healthier, safer and more sustainable working environment. In this study, a milling process of HTCS was
High thermal conductivity steel (HTCS)
performed, where the effectiveness of SCCO2 coolant was compared with that of Near Dry Machining and
Cryogenic cooling
Dry Machining techniques, in terms of cutting temperature, cutting force, tool wear and wear mecha-
Wear mechanisms
Tool wear nism. Two methods of SCCO2 cooling conditions were analyzed, with and without lubricant. Both of the
cooling conditions were applied under three different input chamber pressures. In comparison with Dry
Machining, SCCO2 with lubricant was found to have signicantly improved the cutting force and cutting
temperature, up to 60% and 55% respectively. In comparison with Dry Machining and Near Dry
Machining, meanwhile, the cutting tool life increased to 150% and 87%, respectively. More importantly, it
was observed that, adhesion, attrition and abrasion were the dominant wear mechanisms, when HTCS
was milled under various coolant-lubricant conditions. The overall results revealed that, cryogenic
cooling, using carbon dioxide gas under supercritical state, was the best option for a better control and
improvement of tool wear. The prolonged tool life will ensure a highly sustainable production, with less
tool wastage and more efcient machining process. From the environmental point of view, the use of
SCCO2 as a cryogenic substance is advantageous, as it fullls the increasing demands for a cleaner
manufacturing of HTCS.
2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction components being considered as one of the most effective solutions

The ever increasing demands for vehicles today have seen an
escalating rate of fuel emissions. One of the initiatives deemed most
signicant to address the emission issue is to reduce the vehicle
weight, with the use of Ultra High Strength Steel (UHSS) as chassis
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: erween@uthm.edu.my (E.A. Rahim).
(Chang et al., 2011). UHSS, such as boron steel, signicantly helps in
reducing the vehicle weight, while also improving the safety and
crashworthiness qualities. In fact, the importance of UHSS was
realized in as early year 1997, where a total of 8 million UHSS parts
were produced within the same year. Since then, the number of
parts had increased signicantly with a total of 107 million parts
produced in 2007 (Karbasian and Tekkaya, 2010).
Hot stamped parts produced from boron steel include chassis
components, such as A-pillar, B-pillar, bumper, roof rail, rocker rail

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.07.019
0959-6526/ 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 T. Mulyana et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 164 (2017) 950e962
and tunnel. However, forming of boron steel needs to be done at an
elevated temperature to avoid the springback effect, which occurs
during the cold forming. In the hot forming process, the die used is
equipped with a cooling system, which helps drastically in pro-
ducing nal products of excellent properties and a high tensile
strength (Chang et al., 2011). The required rapid cooling during the
hot stamping process could be achieved with a greater thermal
conductivity of the die material, such as, High Thermal Conduc-
tivity Steel (HTCS). This steel was patented in 2013 and its
machining process must be highly accurate to produce stamped
components of a high quality (Angles, 2013).This hot work tool steel
has very high thermal conductivity values (up to 66 W/mK) and a
high wear resistance. It is specially designed to be used as dies of
hot stamping on coated sheet and plastic injection mould, where
the plastic material is reinforced with abrasive bre materials and
closed die forging. HTCS acquires its optimized mechanical and
physical properties through a corresponding heat treatment of the
material, prior to the nal machining process.
The development of the hard milling and high-speed machining
of dies and moulds has led to enhanced capabilities in the forming
industries. The resulting increase in the availability of this highly
efcient machining method, has in turn, caused higher demands
for the use of forming steel for hot forming dies and moulds (Jiang
et al., 2013). The machinability of hardened materials totally de-
pends on the machining parameters, as well as, the cooling stra-
tegies. Machining materials with a hardness value higher than 45
HRC requires a drastic increase in the cutting force, to reduce
which, a rigid and absolute process has to be provided. The use of a
large corner radius of the tool and a negative rake angle contribute
to a higher passive force during a machining process (Davim, 2011).
As the cutting force increases, the cutting energy and temperatures
also increase during the machining process. Recent studies showed
that, the cutting temperature rises, as the cutting speed increases,
during machining. The material machined was high-carbon chro-
mium AISI 52100 bearing steel, with the highest hardness and low-
content of CBN (60% vol.). During the machining process, a tem-
perature of approximately 800
C was recorded at a cutting speed
of 100 m/min. The temperature increased up to 950
C, as the
cutting speed was increased to 300 m/min (Abukhshim et al.,
2006). On the other hand, other inuences, such as, depth of cut
and feed rate were found to be less rigorous, compared with that of
the cutting speed (To nshoff et al., 2000).
The selection of cooling strategy is essential to reduce the
machining temperature and subsequently prolong the cutting tool
life. A recent study proved that, ood cooling is ineffective as a
means of lubrication and cooling for a high-speed machining range
for hardened materials. It was found that, it caused an increase in
material removal rate (MRR) in the machining process, which
resulted in the formation of various surface defects, including
groove, microparticle deposits, material side ow, and smeared
layers. Machining environment, combined with MRR, signicantly
affect the magnitude and occurrences of the defects on machined
surfaces. Furthermore, ood cooling produces a high quantity of
waste, thus detrimental for the environment (Kadam and Pawade,
2017). Minimal Quantity of Lubricant (MQL) is one of the preferred
techniques that could improve machinability and provide good
economical returns. Moreover, in terms of life cycle assessment, it
causes less environmental impacts, compared with aqueous
metalworking uids (MWF) (Fratila, 2010). Despite the emissions
caused by the use of MQL, this lubrication method has only little
pollution effects, thus drastically reducing the consumption of lu-
bricants and minimizing negative environmental impacts (Fratila,
2009). Taking machining temperature in the process into account,
cryogenic cooling has shown to exhibit great cooling performances,
and its wide range of applications include those in clinical,
951
electronics, manufacturing, aerospace, and automotive industries
(Pusavec et al., 2010). This particular cooling technique commonly
uses liquid nitrogen as its cooling medium, although, consider-
ations may also be given for other gases, such as, carbon dioxide,
helium, nitrogen, hydrogen, neon, oxygen and argon.
A cryogenic cooling system in any machining process is mainly
classied into four categories, namely, cryogenic workpiece pre-
cooling, cryogenic indirect cooling, cryogenic jet cooling and
cryogenic cutting tool treatment. In the rst category, the work-
piece or chip is cooled to have its properties changed, from ductile
to brittle. Lowering the material temperature causes the originally
ductile chip to become brittle (Hong and Ding, 2001). However, this
method negatively increases the cutting force and has been proven
to be very impractical in the production line. Furthermore, this
method requires a high LN2 consumption and causes a dimensional
change to the workpiece (Ahmed et al., 2007). In cryogenic indirect
cooling method, the cooling is restricted only to the cutting insert,
whereby cryogenic gases do not come in contact with and inict
signicant changes to the workpiece properties, thus providing
better machining performances (Wang and Rajurkar, 1997). As for
the cryogenic jet cooling, the consumption of LN2 is high, because it
easily evaporates, due to high cutting temperatures and atmo-
spheric pressures (Fratila, 2010). Nevertheless, this method could
enhance the tool hardness and reduce the tool face temperature,
thus potentially resulting in a prolonged cutting tool life. In the
cryogenic cutting tool treatment, the cutting tool is cooled down
and maintained at the cryogenic temperature for a long time,
before it is heated back to the room temperature to improve its
wear resistance and dimensional stability (Yong et al., 2006).
However, the effects of cryogenic treatment on cutting perfor-
mance are not stable for all cutting conditions and machining
applications.
The most recent studies in cryogenic cooling techniques utilized
liquid nitrogen (LN2) as a coolant. Despite the high demand for LN2
as the cryogenic liquid, its high gas expansion value could seriously
deplete the oxygen content in the machining area, thus potentially
causing breathing difculties to the operators. A solution was found
by having the machining process conned once LN2 was applied
(Grifths, 1985). A study by Pereira et al. (2016), which compared
between LN2 and CO2 as cryogenic gases, revealed that, their main
differences were in their production process, rather than in their
use during machining. In terms of power consumption, they both
were equally economical. However, CO2 was found to be much
better than LN2, as far as global impact, ozone depletion and res-
piratory effects are concerned. In particular, 17% less kilograms of
benzene equivalent was obtained with CO2, compared with LN2.
Also, more importantly, the use of CO2 as cryogenic gas avoids the
needs for a conned working environment, thus ensuring a more
sustainable machining process. On the other hand, mainly due to
the LN2 liquefaction process, the use of this gas spilled out 43%
more in quantity, compared with CO2.
After thorough reviews, it was concluded that, the application of
an alternative cooling technique, based on the use of carbon dioxide
at supercritical state (SCCO2), was the most suitable (Clarens et al.,
2006). Other than being non-toxic and easily recyclable, the gas has
a low energy recirculation. Besides, it provides a low-cost alterna-
tive, with low environmental impacts. At the supercritical state,
carbon dioxide was expended, resulting in nely dispersed and
homogenous spray of dry ice and frozen oil particles (Tom and
Debenedetti, 1991). It was reported that, this technique improved
the surface quality by 5%, compared with the MQL technique, thus
minimizing the nishing works (Rahim et al., 2015a,b). It was
concluded in a related study, that SCCO2 spray would be a potential
substitute for aqueous emulsions and straight oils (Supekar et al.,
2012). From the aforementioned reviews, it was noticed that, very
952 T. Mulyana et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 164 (2017) 950e962

few studies investigated the use of SCCO2 in machining hardened carbide was left for the cooling process and the temperature
materials, especially in machining mould steel, such as, HTCS. HTCS divergence was recorded.
has been developed recently, mainly as forming steel in hot press
forming processes, although its machining is still very much being Cooling Rate T2  T1=t2  t1 (1)
studied. Therefore, it was decided in this study to introduce SCCO2
cooling in the machining process for HTCS. The machining perfor- where:
mances, in terms of cutting force, cutting temperature, tool life and
tool wear thus obtained were compared with those achieved by dry T2 Final temperature (After cooling)
machining and MQL techniques. T1 Initial temperature (During heating, before cooling)
t2 Final time (After cooling)
t1 Initial time (Before cooling)
2. Experimental setup

2.1. Lubricant ow rate measurement

2.3. Machinability test
It was essential to determine the ow rate of lubricant to esti-
The HTCS workpiece was machine tested in two phases, Phase 1
mate the cooling conditions, in terms of its lubrication capability. As
focusing on the measurement of cutting force, cutting temperature
reviewed earlier, a proper lubricity provides a lower force value
and surface roughness, while Phase 2 on the cutting tool wear
within the machining process. This experiment involved the use of
measurement. Both tests were conducted on the MAZAK Nexus
a container lled with cotton balls which trapped the lubricant as it
400A-II CNC vertical machining centre. The HTCS workpiece was
owed through. The container was weighed, prior to and after the
mounted on the piezoelectric force sensor dynamometer (Kistler
lubricant had passed through it. The coolant was sprayed onto the
Dynamometer 9254) as shown in Fig. 2. The signals from the
cotton balls for 30 s, after which, the container was weighed. The
dynamometer were transferred and translated by the multi-
measured value (g/hr) was converted to calculate the ow rate (l/
channel amplier 5070A. In this study, the indexable carbide end
hr). Tables 1 and 2 showed the properties of the lubricant and
mill of 20 mm diameter was made by Mitsubishi. It was TiN coated
parameters of the ow rate measurement, respectively.
via Chemical Vapor Deposited (CVD). The geometry of the insert is
shown in Fig. 3. The machining parameters of the workpiece are
2.2. Cooling rate measurement shown in Tables 3 and 4, while the nozzle position is shown in
Fig. 4.
Cooling rates of each of the coolant-lubricant techniques used, A K-type thermocouple wire (Nickel-Chromium), for a temper-
namely, MQL, SCCO2 with lubricant and SCCO2 without lubricant, ature measurement in the range of 200
C to 1250
C was used to
were determined by dividing the temperature difference against measure the cutting temperature during the up milling process of
the total time required before the temperature remained stable as the HTCS workpiece. The end point of the thermocouple was
shown in Equation (1). Determining the cooling rate helped to es-
timate the heat removal potential for every technique used; a
higher cooling rate is desirable for a lower temperature required
during machining. As shown in Fig. 1, the carbide rod was con-
nected to a K-type thermocouple wire, placed inside the enclosed
wind tunnel. It was initially heated to 55
C before the temperature
was maintained for a few seconds. Subsequently, the heated

Table 1
Cutting uid properties.

Properties Synthetic ester

Density (g/cm3) (15
C) 0.95

Kinematic viscosity (mm2/s) (40
C) 19
Flash point (C) (COC) 250
Viscosity index 137
Pour point (C) 45
Total acid number (mgKOH/g) 0.02
Biodegradability (%) OECD301B 72

Table 2
Cooling parameters.

Cooling Technique Parameter Levels

MQL Input pressure, P (MPa) 0.4

Nozzle distance, Nd (mm) 8
Lubricant type Synthetic Ester
Lubricant Flow Rate, Q (l/hr) 0.16
SCCO2 without lubricant Input Chamber Pressure, Pc (Mpa) 7.58, 8.96, 10.4
Nozzle distance, Nd (mm) 8
SCCO2with lubricant Input Chamber Pressure, Pc (Mpa) 7.58, 8.96, 10.4
Nozzle distance, Nd (mm) 8
Lubricant type Synthetic Ester
Lubricant Flow Rate, Q (l/hr) 1.41, 2.12, 2.61
Fig. 1. Cooling rate measurement setup.
 T. Mulyana et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 164 (2017) 950e962 953

Table 4
Physical and mechanical properties of HTCS.

Properties Value

Youngs Modulus, E(GPa) 216

Poissons Ratio, v 0.3
Coefcient of Thermal Expansion, a (K1) 10.5  106
Thermal Conductivity, K(W/m.K) 55e66
Heat Capacity, C(J/kgK) 496
Density, r(kg/m3) 7970
Hardness (HRC) 42e50

Fig. 2. Experimental setup.

Fig. 4. Nozzle position.

d) Fracture or catastrophic failure

Fig. 3. Geometry of insert.
3. Results and discussion

positioned as close as possible towards the machining region, at

3.1. Lubricant ow rate
approximately 0.3 mm. The thermocouple was embedded towards
the surface of the workpiece and xed into place with the help of
Three different input chamber pressures of 7.58, 8.96 and
epoxy and silver substance as shown in Fig. 5. The silver substance
10.4 MPa were tested for the SCCO2 cooling while the input pres-
was applied to further increase the sensitivity and accuracy within
sure of 0.4 MPa was tested for the MQL cooling technique. The
the thermocouple. The thermocouple wire was connected to the
amount of lubricant owing out from the nozzle of SCCO2 with
eight-channel amplier to trigger and record the electric signal. It
lubricant was proven to be higher, since more initial volume of the
was subsequently transferred to the DEWESOFT software to have
lubricant was required during the test setup, compared with the
the recorded data analyzed.
MQL system. A minimum initial volume of 350 and 100 ml was
The measurement of cutting tool wear was conducted using
required for the SCCO2 with lubricant and MQL system, respec-
Nikon tool maker measuring microscope (Model: Nikon MM-60)
tively. CO2 gases, while compressed, had a higher density,
which was equipped with a digital readout. The tool life criteria
compared with compressed air. The density of CO2, while com-
were set according to ISO 8688-2 and the machining trial was
pressed to a pressure of 10.4 MPa was 736.5 kg/m3, while that of
halted, whenever any of the following criteria was observed:
compressed air at 0.4 MPa was only 4.8 kg/m3. This demonstrated a
higher quantity of lubrication spraying out of the SCCO2 with
a) Average uniform ank wear (VB)  0.3 mm (averaged over all
lubricant, compared with the MQL.
cutting tool insert)
b) Maximum ank wear (VBMax)  0.5 mm (on any individual
cutting tool insert)
c) Chipping  0.5 mm (to be treated as localized wear)

Table 3
Machining parameters.

Parameter Levels

Cooling technique Dry, MQL, SCCO2, SCCO2 lubricant

Cutting speed, Vc (m/min) 120
Feed, f (mm/tooth) 0.05
Depth of cut, ap (mm) 0.5
Radial depth of cut, ae (mm) 3
Milling techniques Up milling Fig. 5. Thermocouple setup.
954 T. Mulyana et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 164 (2017) 950e962

Fig. 6 shows the results of ow rate at various cooling condi-

tions. In the case of SCCO2 with lubricant, the ow rate of the
lubricant increased with the increase in input chamber pressure
and consequently, the gas density increased. This allowed for more
volume of lubricant spraying out of the nozzle. Furthermore, as the
input chamber pressure was increased from 7.58 to 10.4 MPa, the
lubricant velocity became faster, thus increasing the ow rate. It
was observed that, the input chamber pressure of 10.4 MPa caused
the highest lubricant ow rate (2.61 l/hr), a remarkable increment
by approximately 1500%, compared with the lubricant ow rate
obtained by MQL technique (0.16 l/hr).
On the other hand, the lowest input chamber pressure of
7.58 MPa caused the lowest lubricant ow rate at 1.41 l/hr, 85%
lower, compared with that recorded by the input chamber pressure
of 10.4 MPa. It was understood that, a higher ow rate of lubricant
spraying to the cutting region provided a better lubricity, which
subsequently helped in reducing both the cutting force and the
cutting temperature during the machining process. Furthermore, a Fig. 7. Variation of temperature over time at various cooling conditions.

higher lubricant ow rate also helped to maintain good lubricity,

especially at a higher cutting temperature, by reducing the evap-
oration rate of the SCCO2. Besides, it caused the formation of
lubrication lm on the tool-chip interface during machining, which
helped to protect both the cutting tool and workpiece surfaces.
Also, sliding of sheared tribolm layers of various thicknesses took
place, over one another and within the area with a high coolant
concentration, gradually resulting in thicker tribolm layers being
formed (Kalita et al., 2012).
3.2. Cooling rate
The cooling rates of the three different coolant-lubricant tech-
niques, namely, MQL, SCCO2 without lubricant and SCCO2 with
lubricant were tested and the results are shown in Figs. 7 and 8. The
initial MQL temperature of 15.6
C was recorded at the input
pressure of 0.4 MPa. Meanwhile, SCCO2 without lubricant
recorded 35.9
C, 42.14
C and 49.11
C for the input chamber
pressure of 7.58 MPa, 8.96 MPa and 10.4 MPa respectively. It
showed that, SCCO2 without lubricant was 400% cooler than the
MQL. Comparing SCCO2 without lubricant with SCCO2 with lubri-
cant revealed that, their temperatures were almost comparable. For
instance, SCCO2 with lubricant recorded 36.1
C, 43.3
C
and 49.2
C for the input chamber pressure of 7.58 MPa, 8.96 MPa
and 10.4 MPa, respectively.
From the results, it was concluded that, as the input chamber
pressure increased, the cooling rate also increased. A higher value
of input chamber pressure reduced the carbide rod temperature.
Since the carbide rod temperature was depleted, the temperature
difference between pre- and post-cooling was vast. Besides, the low
temperature provided by the SCCO2 system enhanced the capa-
bility of heat removal, which resulted in a faster drop in tempera-
ture. All these factors led to a higher gradient value in temperature
over time graph, indicating that, the application of lubricant in
SCCO2 played a signicant role in dissipating the elevated tem-
perature of the carbide rod surface. For instance, the recorded
cooling rate of SCCO2 without lubricant cooling technique was
slightly higher, compared with that of SCCO2 with lubricant at the
same input chamber pressure.
As shown in Fig. 8, the highest cooling rate of 13.6
C/sec was
recorded by the SCCO2 with lubricant, at the input chamber pres-
sure of 10.4 MPa. On the other hand, the lowest cooling rate value of
0.6
C/sec was recorded by the MQL. Generally, it could be deduced
that, SCCO2 with lubricant outperformed SCCO2 without lubricant
and MQL, due to a higher cooling rate efcacy. It was also observed
that, the nal temperature (until it achieved the constant value) of
SCCO2 with lubricant was the lowest, compared with those of the
other coolant-lubricant conditions. This demonstrated that, the
cooling capability in SCCO2 with lubricant was the highest,
compared with those in the other techniques. Therefore, the
mixture of SCCO2 and lubricant in the system does efciently
dissipate the heat away from the machining region. However, as the

Fig. 6. Value of ow rate for MQL at input pressure, P 0.4 MPa and those for
SCCO2with lubricant at input chamber pressures, Pc 7.58, 8.96 and 10.4 MPa. Fig. 8. Cooling rate for each cooling technique.
 T. Mulyana et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 164 (2017) 950e962
spraying pressure dropped, the effectiveness in reducing the ma-
terial temperature also reduced. This was due to the fact that, a
higher pressure reduced the size of cutting uid droplets and in-
crements of uid droplets quantity (Rahim et al., 2015a,b). A larger
quantity of droplets led to the increase in cooling efciency,
because these droplets acted as a temperature transporting me-
dium. Furthermore, the higher value of ow rate within a higher
pressure also helped in increasing the cooling rate and subse-
quently, improving the cooling efciency. This was because, as the
ow rate increased, the splashing of the lubricant became more
prominent. The efciencies of chemical containment and spray
impingement in heat transfer processes are greatly inuenced by
the quantity of liquid splattered (Bhunia and Lienhard, 1994).
3.3. Cutting force
Fig. 9 shows the results of average cutting force under various
coolant-lubricant conditions. The results showed that, a dry cutting
condition recorded the highest cutting force, compared to the other
conditions. In dry machining, the cutting tool was used in the
machining operation, without any aids of cutting uid. It was found
that, the cutting force value under the dry condition was 57.3%
higher than that under the MQL condition. This led to a higher value
of friction during machining, thus increasing the cutting force.
Generally, energy consumption in the machining operation was
associated with friction and cutting force. Hence, it was more sig-
nicant to obtain a lower cutting force to improve machining
productivity and reduce the production cost. It was obvious that,
SCCO2 with lubricant was much more effective than dry and MQL
conditions. If MQL were considered as the benchmark condition,
the cutting force for SCCO2 with lubricant was reduced by 28%,
35.2% and 64.3%, relative to the MQL for the input chamber pres-
sures of 7.58 MPa, 8.96 MPa and 10.4 MPa, respectively. In contrast,
the cutting force value gradually increased for SCCO2 without
lubricant, as the input chamber pressure was increased with
respect to MQL condition. The cooling technique which did not
incorporate lubricants showed that, it possessed a high cutting
force, explaining how lubricity really helped in reducing the friction
and decreasing the cutting force. The application of lubricant
reduced the friction coefcient between the tool chip interfaces
(Sapian et al., 2010). Furthermore, the extremely low temperatures
of SCCO2 on the cutting tool and the workpiece during the
machining process brought about changes in their mechanical
properties within the cutting zone. The microhardness of the
Fig. 9. Results of cutting force under various cooling conditions.
955
machining surfaces increased with the use of cryogenic gases,
which adversely affected the cutting forces (Giasin et al., 2016).
The results of SCCO2 with lubricant depicted that, increasing the
input chamber pressure caused a cutting force reduction, due to the
increased ow rate and cooling rate, caused by the increase in the
input chamber pressure. The increased lubricant ow rate
contributed to the higher quantity of lubricant being supplied to-
wards the machining region. This resulted in higher lubricity in the
process and subsequently, reduced cutting forces. As the lubricant
was continuously supplied and penetrating towards the machining
region, the reduced friction thus caused within the machining
interface resulted in enhanced cutting tool ability to withstand the
extreme force and pressure during machining. However, the
lubricant decomposed faster due to the amount of heat and
extreme friction developed.
In general, the resulting cutting force for SCCO2 without lubri-
cant was found to be higher than that for MQL technique, and this
contradicted with results for SCCO2 with lubricant technique. This
could be explained in terms of the heat generated during the
machining process, which increased the material temperature, and
under rapid cooling, the machined surface hardened (Yildiz and
Nalbant, 2008). The increased material hardness caused an in-
crease in cutting energy and cutting forces. Furthermore, friction on
the cutting tool-workpiece interfaces also increased due to the dry
process.
As for SCCO2 without lubricant, the resulting cutting force
recorded was found lower, compared with that for the dry con-
dition. Even if the material was hardened during the cooling
process, the feed force, closely related to frictional force of the
chip acting on the cutting tool, decreased. With the reduced cut-
ting temperature, the friction within the machining process also
reduced. The reduction of cutting forces by the cooling technique,
especially for MQL and SCCO2 with lubricant, was mainly attrib-
uted to the formation of the thin lubrication lm, subsequently
reducing the shear strength of material during the machining.
Furthermore, the micro-droplets of synthetic ester (SE) formed on
the machining surface ensured the reduction in friction. These
micro-droplets, under high pressure and with high velocity, were
able to reach the cutting zone, and played the role of minimizing
friction and providing lubrication effects. Besides, the cooling ef-
fects caused by SCCO2, reduced adhesion between the workpiece
material and the tool faces. This resulted in lower frictional forces,
thus minimizing the cutting forces and saving the energy (Zhang
et al., 2012).
3.4. Temperature
Fig. 10 shows the result of machining temperature under
various cooling conditions. It was observed, that the SCCO2 with
lubricant recorded the lowest cutting temperature at the input
chamber pressure of 10.4 MPa, compared with SCCO2 without
lubricant, MQL and dry conditions. This condition recorded 37% of
reduction in cutting temperature against MQL and 55% of reduc-
tion in cutting temperature against dry machining. At the same
input chamber pressure, SCCO2 without lubricant achieved the
second lowest cutting temperature. This result was closely related
to those of ow rate and cooling rate, as mentioned in the earlier
section. As noticed, SCCO2 with lubricant exhibited a better cool-
ing rate and a higher lubricant ow rate compared to other tested
conditions. The higher cooling rate improved the heat removal
capability and this resulted in lower cutting temperatures.
Furthermore, the higher quantity of lubricant that was supplied
into the machining region signicantly reduced the friction and
cutting temperatures. According to Rahim et al. (2015a,b), the
cutting temperature was signicantly reduced, attributed to the
956 T. Mulyana et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 164 (2017) 950e962
Fig. 10. Results of temperatures under various cooling conditions.
combination of energy dissipation in cooling effect and lubricating
effect within cutting uids.
Based on the results of this study, the highest cutting temper-
ature (113
C) recorded was from the dry machining technique,
where no cutting uid was used, hence the temperature build up
during the machining process. This was followed by that recorded
for the MQL cooling technique (28% lower). Since there was no
lubricant supplied, especially under the dry and SCCO2 without
lubricant conditions, high friction resulted between the cutting tool
and the workpiece material during the machining process.
In the cases of various input chamber pressures of SCCO2 for
both with and without lubricant, the lowest cutting temperatures
of 51
C and 53
C respectively, were recorded for the input
chamber pressure of 10.4 MPa. These temperatures were approxi-
mately 24% lower, compared with those recorded for the input
pressure of 7.58 MPa. As observed during the experiments, the
cooling rate increased with the increase in input chamber pressure,
hence providing a better heat removal capability for both cases of
SCCO2 with and without lubricant. As for SCCO2 with lubricant,
higher input chamber pressures caused higher lubricant ow rates
and subsequently, better lubricity on the machining surface.
Generally, it was observed that, the variation of machining
temperatures for both cases of SCCO2, with and without lubricant,
was relatively small. Since the workpiece used was a high thermal
conductivity steel, the cutting temperature developed was easily
dispersed into the environment, resulting in small changes in the
machining temperatures. Thermal conductivity played a major role
in determining the heat transfer capability of certain material.
Conductive heat ux through a material is directly proportional to
its thermal conductivity value (Ho and Pehlke, 1985). A high ther-
mal conductivity indicates a high capability in heat removal (Lee
et al., 2006). In the hot forming process, HTCS must have the
capability to rapidly cool the preheated metal blank from a tem-
perature of 900
C (material in martensitic phase) to a temperature
of 200
C (material in austenitic phase), with a cooling rate of at
least 30
Cs1. Therefore, a high value of thermal conductivity
within this material will help in ensuring proper quenching to
obtain nal formed blanks with a higher tensile strength and
higher hardness values (Karbasian and Tekkaya, 2010).
3.5. Tool life
Fig. 11 shows the results of tool life when HTCS machining was
Fig. 11. Tool life results.
performed under the various cooling techniques. It was observed
that, the longest tool life was achieved by the SCCO2 with and
without lubricant techniques, at the highest input chamber pres-
sure of 10.4 MPa. This was reected in the low tool wear rates
obtained under both conditions. It was noted in Fig. 11 that, the
presence of lubricant signicantly reduced the friction on the tool-
chip interface. Lubrication signicantly helped to reduce shear
forces produced due to the friction between two contact surfaces.
Meanwhile, dry cutting recorded the worst tool life, where the tool
failed at a cutting distance of 4600 mm, or equivalent to 17-min
duration. As for MQL, a tool life of 6200 mm (23 min) was recorded,
an improvement of 35%, in terms of tool life value, compared with
that achieved for dry cutting. The most signicant results of tool life
were recorded by the SCCO2 with lubricant technique, where the
tool lasted for 11600 mm (43 min), at the input chamber pressure of
10.4 MPa. This was an improvement of 150% and 87%, against dry
cutting and MQL respectively.
Results in Fig. 11 depicted that, both cases of SCCO2 with and
without lubricant were seen to have an increment of up to 150% and
114% respectively, in terms of tool life, compared with dry cutting.
This could be attributed to the heat removal capabilities of the
cooling techniques. SCCO2 was supplied towards the cutting region
at a very low temperature, ranging between 50
C to 38
C and
the subsequent improvement in the cooling rate is shown in Fig. 8.
SCCO2, capable of maintaining higher heat extraction rates,
removed the heat through forced convection, which was more
complicated than the natural convection cooling. Generally, forced
convection cooling of SCCO2 with lubricant was greatly inuenced
by its lubricant velocity and heat transfer coefcient.
The presence of lubricant in the SCCO2 cooling technique
signicantly improved the tool life. The lubrication, whether in the
MQL or SCCO2 with lubricant, caused the reduction in temperature
and friction during the machining process. Within the heat affected
region, the heat generated due to chemical reactions was reduced
by the applied lubrication. The applied lubricant also helped to
reduce the coefcient of friction within the machining region and
eliminate factors which affected the surface in relative motions that
could lead to friction (Hong and Ding, 2001). Additionally, friction
and heat were reduced due to the formation of lubrication lm
which was molecularly thin, on the tool-workpiece interface, and
this subsequently prolonged the tool life and prevented rapid wear
in cutting tools (Rahim and Sasahara, 2011). The lubricant applied
 T. Mulyana et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 164 (2017) 950e962
also inuences other response values in cutting conditions. For
example, the less energy consumed in the machining process and
the much better surface quality contribute to tool life maximization
(Kuram et al., 2013).
The input chamber pressure of SCCO2 also played a signicant
role in improving tool life. As seen in Fig. 11, the highest tool life was
achieved at the highest input chamber pressure of 10.4 MPa. This
could be correlated with the highest lubricant ow rate and cooling
rate when a high input chamber pressure was applied. The lowest
cutting temperature and cutting force were recorded at the same
pressure. In terms of tool life, SCCO2 with lubricant recorded an
improvement of up to 22%, at the highest input chamber pressure,
as compared with SCCO2 without lubricant. Since the rate of heat
diffusion was related to temperature and time, it was expected that,
the cutting conditions with the highest tool life experienced the
lowest cutting temperatures (Bermingham et al., 2011; Poulachon
et al., 2001). The higher lubricant ow rates mainly focused on
the cutting zone, improved the lubricity effect on the contact re-
gion, between the cutting tool and workpiece surfaces. As a result,
there was a reduction in the values of friction coefcient between
the two surfaces and hence, lower cutting temperature and cutting
force (Aoyama, 2002). Patil and Shinde (2013) stated that, a cooling
system involving the use of high pressure jets was recommended to
achieve effective lubrication and cooling during a machining pro-
cess. In the case of SCCO2 cooling, an improved tool life is achieved
through enhanced chip breakability during the machining process.
Chip entanglement is avoided within the machining region, thus
ensuring a good surface quality and an improved tool life. The high
entanglements of chips were proven to be more hazardous and
complicated to be handled by the operator (Bordin et al., 2017).
3.6. Tool wear
Fig. 12 shows the ank wear progression under various cooling
techniques. In the early stage of HTCS milling, uniform ank wear
and micro-chipping were found to dominate the cutting tool wear
patterns, under all coolant-lubricant conditions. Besides, strong
adhesion of workpiece materials on the cutting tool edges was also
noticed, and it may cause problems, especially when dealing with
interrupted cutting processes, such as, a milling (Rahim and Shariff,
2006). The chipping, cracking and tool breakage at the cutting tool
edge occurred, due to the collision between the adhered material
and the workpiece during the re-entry of cutting tools towards the
cutting region, during the machining process (Sun et al., 2015).
According to Kaynak et al. (2013), progression of tool wear rate
under dry cutting conditions was more aggressive, when compared
with that under MQL and cryogenic conditions. Nevertheless, MQL
Fig. 12. Progression of tool wear under various cooling conditions.
957
was also observed to signicantly reduce the tool wear progression,
especially ank wear in the nose region, in comparison with dry
conditions.
It was shown in this study that, the dry cutting condition
recorded the highest wear progression rate. This was due to the
high cutting force (Fig. 9) and high cutting temperature (Fig. 10)
developed during the machining process, which subsequently led
to rapid wear of the cutting tool. The bonding of adhered material
on the cutting tool edges became weaker at a high cutting tem-
perature, thus rendering the cutting tool unable to withstand the
high compressive stresses. This caused a tendency to cause
breaking and plucking of the substrate particles of the cutting tool,
along with the moving chips, which resulted in severe tool wear
and chipping. The second highest wear progression value was
recorded under the MQL. The presence of mist lubricant helped in
reducing the cutting force and temperature during the process.
Subsequently, it decelerated the progression of wear rate compared
with dry cutting. The lowest wear progression rate was achieved by
the SCCO2 incorporated with lubricant, at the highest input
chamber pressure of 10.4 MPa. This condition effectively helped in
minimizing the generated heat and cutting force during machining.
Flank wear within the cutting tools was observed in all cutting
conditions, the earliest at 200 mm cutting length. In general,
cryogenic cooling techniques, such as, SCCO2 outperformed dry and
MQL conditions, in terms of tool wear performance and as a result,
tool ank wear was reduced.
Fig. 13 shows the evidence of tool failure modes at the end of the
cutting tool life under the SCCO2 without lubricant. It was observed
that, the cutting tool progressively had to withstand wear at the
ank face. As the value of ank wear increased, the value of chip-
ping also seemed to increase. In most coolant-lubricant conditions,
the ank wear was the pre-dominant tool failure mode in the initial
stage of the machining process. However, the development of
cutting tool wear was very crucial as the machining time and dis-
tance prolonged. In addition, the formation of cutting tool ank
wear was also associated with the excessive heat generated during
the machining process, especially under dry conditions.
It was observed in Figs. 13 and 15 that, the combination of
fracture and catastrophic failure was the dominant failure modes in
all tested conditions. High cutting force and energy were required,
especially when machining highly alloyed tool steels, such as, HTCS.
It was suggested that, the mechanical properties of the material
itself accelerated the progression of wear, thus initiating the for-
mation of fracture as shown in Fig. 14. In general, once the induced
stress reached its critical point value, failure with fracture forma-
tion on the cutting tool occurred. It could be suggested that, the
induced tensile stress during machining caused the initial forma-
tion of cracks at the cutting edge. The cracks drastically propagated
under high machining loads, which subsequently led to the rapid
tool failures, which occurred usually in brittle tools that were
interrupted during a milling process. However, in the early stage of
Fig. 13. Flank wear and chipping region in cutting tools; (a) new cutting tools and (b)
SCCO2 Without Lubricant (Pc 8.96 MPa).
958 T. Mulyana et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 164 (2017) 950e962

Fig. 14. The evidence of fracture under SCCO2 with lubricant at the input chamber
Fig. 16. Types of chipping modes on the cutting tool; (a) strip chipping and (b)
pressure of 10.4 MPa.
shellsh-like chipping under MQL condition.

a machining process under certain coolant-lubricant conditions,

between the adhered material and the cutting (Rahim and Shariff,
the fracture did not cause a complete tool failure, but only small
2006; Su et al., 2006). During machining, the formation of an
chippings of the cutting edge.
adhesion layer within the contact zone was accelerated due to the
Chippings on the cutting edge were observed prior to the frac-
increased pressure and high temperature that developed
ture or catastrophic failure. Fig. 15 shows an evidence of chippings
throughout the machining process (List et al., 2005). As reported by
which occurred under various coolant-lubricant conditions. Nor-
Olortegui-Yume and Kwon (2007), under the high interfacial
mally, before a chipping occurs, there will be a built-up layer or
pressure and temperature that occurred during machining, adhe-
adhesion of workpiece material formed on the cutting tool edge. As
sion was formed within the strong junctions between the work-
the machining process continues, this accumulated built-up layer
piece and the cutting tool. The junctions, where adhesions were
will become stronger and harder, before it is plucked away from the
formed between them, would be detached from the surface of
cutting tool edge. During the plucking, substrate particles are car-
lower failure strength, if the failure strength of any particular
ried away from the cutting tool, leaving the surface exposed and
junction was greater than the local failure strength of any sliding
bare before it tends to fail catastrophically, as machining goes on.
surfaces.
Besides, the mechanical shocks by the intermittent cooling and the
A huge amount of adhered HTCS workpiece subsequently
exposure of rapid and high temperature which constantly occurs in
altered the tool geometry and caused uneven chip ow during
milling process can also lead to cutting tool edge chipping (Koshy
machining. Consequently, the machined surface deteriorated and
et al., 2002). In a study by Haron et al. (2007), it was reported
eventually caused a premature tool failure. It was suggested that,
that, chipping formation might also occur when there were missing
the formation of adhesion wear mechanism was associated with
cobalt for the carbide grain boundary, which usually happened due
the high cutting temperature and cutting force. Therefore, the
to the intermittent impact of a prolonged milling process. The
cutting tool life, particularly under the dry cutting condition,
carbide grains with missing cobalt content formed crack and split
became nastiest. The adhesion of HTCS workpiece was found to be
during this intermittent mechanical loading.
torn away from the cutting edge, which led to chipping and aking
Two types of chipping modes were observed in all tested
along the cutting tool edge. It was observed via the SEM that, the
coolant-lubricant conditions, namely, strip chipping and shellsh-
intensity of the adhesion of HTCS workpiece on the cutting tool
like chipping, as shown in Fig. 16. Fig. 16 (a) shows the formation
edge was higher under the dry cutting condition, compared with
of strip chipping alongside the boundary of the ank face of the
those under other cooling conditions. Furthermore, less intensity of
cutting tool inserts. It was due to the mechanical fatigue cracks on
adhesion was observed under the SCCO2 with lubricant cooling
the ank region. Meanwhile, Fig. 16 (b) exhibits the shellsh-like
conditions. It was suggested that, a low cutting temperature under
chipping, which mainly occurred on the tool rake face, leaving a
this condition diminished the formation of adhesion. According to
cavity on the face.
Rahim and Sasahara (2011), reducing the cutting temperature
during the machining process subsequently improved the capa-
3.7. Tool wear mechanism bility of the cutting tool to withstand high cyclic thermal loading.
Due to the volatility of the wear mechanism, however, in most
The friction and rubbing action between cutting tool-chip or coolant-lubricant conditions, the formation of adhesion was
workpiece caused the formation of cutting tool wear. A further ambiguously predictable.
investigation on cutting tool wear mechanisms was done at the end A further investigation was carried out by observing a closed-up
of tool life, via the scanning electron microscope (SEM). An adhe- view of the worn surface of the cutting tool as shown in Figs. 17 and
sion wear mechanism on the cutting tool can be seen in Figs. 17e20. 21e23. As can be seen, an uneven surface was present on the ank
The strong bonding was present due to the pressure welding, done and rake face, which indicated that, the exposure of substrates was

Fig. 15. The evidence of chipping under (a) dry, (b) MQL, (c) SCCO2 without lubricant (input chamber pressure of 10.4 MPa) and (d) SCCO2 with lubricant (input chamber pressure of
10.4 MPa).
 T. Mulyana et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 164 (2017) 950e962 959

Fig. 17. Adhesion, attrition and abrasion wear mechanism on the cutting insert under Fig. 20. Combination of chipping, attrition and adhesion on the cutting tool under
dry cutting conditions. SCCO2with lubricant cooling condition.

Fig. 18. Magnied view of adhesion region (from Fig. 17) on the cutting insert under
dry cutting conditions.
Fig. 21. Magnied region from Fig. 20 (Region A).

Fig. 19. Adhesion and abrasion wear mechanism on the cutting insert under SCCO2
with lubricant cooling condition. Fig. 22. Magnied region from Fig. 20 (Region B).
960 T. Mulyana et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 164 (2017) 950e962
Fig. 23. Combination of aking and attrition on the cutting tool under MQL cooling
condition.
due to the tearing of adhered workpiece material. This type of wear
was known as attrition wear mechanism. The plucked substrates
during the machining of HTCS workpiece were mainly due to the
cyclic adhesion and removal of workpiece material from the cutting
tool. The cooling produced from the MQL and SCCO2 caused the
hardening of adhered surfaces, which nally resulted in the for-
mation of attrition wear mechanism in the cutting tool. The
continuous cycle of heating and cooling during milling contributed
to excessive thermal stresses, which subsequently broke up the
adhered material. In most cases, attrition wear mechanism began
with an adhesion of HTCS workpiece on the cutting tool, followed
by breakaway of tiny particles of the cutting tool substrates. This
sudden removal of substrates promoted the formation of chipping
and a rapid tool failure. The combination of adhesion and attrition
wear mechanisms on the rake and ank face of the cutting tool is
shown in Fig. 20, which displays the entire cutting edge, causing
prominent chipping and fracture. Rahim and Sasahara (2009) also
suggested adhesion and attrition wear mechanism as the major
contributors to the occurrences in chipping of cutting tools. This
was due to the plucking of the instable cutting edge fragment,
which eventually gave rise to chipping and fracture within the
cutting edge (Bordin et al., 2015).
Fig. 24. Abrasion wear mechanism under dry cutting condition.
Fig. 25. Magnied region from Fig. 24.
Figs. 17, 19 and 24e27 revealed that, the cutting tool grains were
abraded in the form of grooves, paralleled with the cutting direc-
tion. This wear mechanism was known as abrasion wear mecha-
nism. It could be suggested that, the cutting tool lost its materials,
due to hard particles that it was forced against, as it moved along a
solid surface. Abrasion wear was one of the dominant types of wear
mechanisms encountered in machining HTCS workpiece, under
various coolant-lubricant conditions and thus, it diminished
machinability. Under all tested cooling conditions, the cutting tool
wear rate was seen to be progressively increasing in the initial
stages, due to the abrasion wear mechanism. Rahim and Sasahara
(2011) and Zhao et al. (2002) claimed that, the formation of abra-
sion wear mechanisms was due to the high strain rate which
occurred during the deformation process, which subsequently
caused the crushing of workpiece particles on the cutting tool
surfaces. In addition, as displayed in Figs. 25e27, the existence of
parallel grooves was due to the ow of the workpiece material
during the milling process. Khrais and Lin (2007) stated that, the
coating hardness of the cutting tool deteriorated, due to the high
cutting temperature generated, during the machining process.
Under those circumstances, the cutting tool was prone to the
abrasion wear mechanism. Additionally, a study by de Oliveira and
Fig. 26. Abrasion wear mechanism under MQL condition.
 T. Mulyana et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 164 (2017) 950e962
Fig. 27. Abrasion wear mechanism under SCCO2 with lubricant condition.
Diniz (2009) reported that, the high strain rate of workpiece during
the deformation process, caused material to be crumbled and ow
between the tool-workpiece interfaced. The formation of abrasive
wear was due to the sliding between the crushed hard articles of
the workpiece and the cutting tool, which provided a high me-
chanical pressure towards the surface.
4. Conclusions
This study evaluated the performances of various cooling tech-
niques, such as, dry machining, MQL, SCCO2 with and without
lubricant, and their respective impacts on cutting force, cutting
temperature, tool wear and wear mechanisms. Generally, SCCO2
with lubricant was proven to be the most effective cooling tech-
nique in milling of HTCS workpiece, compared with the other al-
ternatives. Based on the ndings of this study, the following
conclusions were drawn:
i. Under the input chamber pressure of 10.4 MPa, SCCO2 with
lubricant was proven to be the best option that provided the
highest cooling rate and lubricant ow rate. In fact, this
condition signicantly reduced the cutting force and the
cutting temperature, as well as improving the cutting tool
life.
ii. The lower cutting force and cutting temperature under
SCCO2 with lubricant cooling technique was attributed to the
presence of high lubrication and low cooling temperature,
which resulted in low friction forces on the tool/chip and
tool/workpiece interfaces. This superior cooling and lubri-
cation of the process ensures a low tool wear occurrence and
an improved cutting tool life.
iii. SCCO2 with lubricant recorded an improvement of 150% and
87%, in terms of tool life, compared with dry cutting and MQL
respectively. In addition, this technique exhibited a superior
tool life performance, 22% greater than that of SCCO2 without
lubricant. The main consequence of the improvement could
be explained in terms of the presence of lubricant, which
helped in reducing the cutting friction, thus resulting in
reduced cutting force and cutting temperature. Cryogenic
cooling, using carbon dioxide with lubricant, profoundly
protected the cutting tool against a premature tool failure.
iv. From an environmental point of view, the use of SCCO2
cooling technique could efciently improve the
961
machinability of HTCS, and most importantly, provide
cleaner manufacturing processes for machining of mould
steel, such as, HTCS. The implementation of SCCO2 as a
cooling technique provides an excellent alternative to MQL
cutting and dry cutting. Besides, the high improvement
achieved, in terms of tool life in the machining process, en-
sures less waste, provides sustainable machining and ach-
ieves a great equilibrium in technical and ecological factors.
Future studies on the same topic could include replacing the
synthetic ester lubricant with vegetablew-based oil, such as, palm
oil or jatropha oil. This would ensure a higher sustainability factor
for the machining process and a cleaner machining environment.
Also, a new nozzle design with dual outlets could be considered for
a better cooling efciency in the machining process.
Acknowledgement
The authors would like to thank the Ministry of Higher Educa-
tion of Malaysia and Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia, for their
nancial support, under the Fundamental Research Grant Scheme
(Vote 1594).
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