16.

512, Rocket Propulsion,

Prof. Manuel Martinez-Sanchez
Lecture 2: Rocket Nozzles and Thrust

Rocket Thrust (Thermal rockets)

i
m= ∫∫ ρ u dA
Ae
n e

∫∫ P dSx − ∫∫ P dA
e ex = ∫∫ u x ( ρ un )dAe
Solid int . Ae Ae
surfaces
i
(Tanks included) dm

Note: ∫∫s.,int
PadSx − ∫∫ P dA
Ae
a ex = 0, so subtract,

∫∫ ( P − Pa ) dSx = ∫∫ ( P e − Pa ) dAex + ∫∫ ρu u dA
x n e
Solid int . Ae Ae

Thrust ≡ F

16.512, Rocket Propulsion Lecture 2

Prof. Manuel Martinez-Sanchez Page 1 of 7
 ∫∫ ρu u dA
Ae
x n e

In general then, define ue =

∫∫ ρu
Ae
n dAe

∫∫ P dA
Ae
e ex

and P e =
Aex

( )
i
⇒ F = m u e + P e − Pa Aex

If things are nearly constant on spherical caps, modify control volume to

spherical wedge:

i
m= ∫∫ ρu dA
Ae
r

∫∫ ( P − Pa ) dSx − ∫∫ ( P
e − Pa ) dAex = ∫∫ ( ρu ) u dA
r x
int . Ae Ae
solids.

dAex = dA cos θ ux = ur cos θ

16.512, Rocket Propulsion Lecture 2

Prof. Manuel Martinez-Sanchez Page 2 of 7
 Define

ue =
∫∫ Ae
ρ ur ux dA
; Pe =
∫∫ Ae
Pe dAex
i Aex
m

and use

dA = 2π r sin θ rdθ

For ideal conical flow, ρ , ur , P are constant over Ae . Then

α 1
ue =
ρ ur2 ∫∫ Ae
cos θ dA
= ur
∫0
2π r sin θ cos θ dθ
= ur 2
sin2 α
α
ρ ur ∫∫ Ae
dA
∫0
2π r sin θ dθ
1 − cos α

or

1 + cos α
ue = ur
2

Also, since Pe = const on the exit surface, P e = Pe

16.512, Rocket Propulsion Lecture 2

Prof. Manuel Martinez-Sanchez Page 3 of 7
 ∫ ( P − P )dA
s.s.
a x + ∫ (P
Ae
e − Pa )dAx = ∫ ( ρu dA)u
Ae
n x

( )
i
F = m u e + P e − Pa Aex

i
m= ∫ Ae
ρundA

ue =
∫Ae
ρ unux dA

∫ Ae
ρ un dA

Pe =
∫ Ae
Pe dAx

∫ Ae
dAx

Ax = ∫ Ae
dAx

At design, Pe = Pa (and parallel flow beyond). Also ue x

i
Then uniform → F = m uex

16.512, Rocket Propulsion Lecture 2

Prof. Manuel Martinez-Sanchez Page 4 of 7
Energy Considerations

So, momentum balance gives the Thrust Equation. What does an Energy Balance
give?

Start with a near-stagnant flow in the upstream plenum (“combustion chamber”, or

“nuclear heater” or “arc heated plenum”). The total specific enthalpy
1
htc = hc + υc2 ≅ hc may be different for different streamlines, due to combustion
2
“streaks:, arc constriction, etc., But along the flow expansion in the nozzle, ht is
conserved for each streamline. At the exit,

1 2
he + υe = hto (each streamtube)
2

or ( )
υe = 2 htc − he ≅ 2 ( hc − he )

For a well-expanded nozzle, with large area ratio, he → o by adiabatic expansion, and
υe tend to a max. υe MAX = 2 h tc . In any real, finite expansion, he ≠ o, so some of
htc is wasted as thermal energy in the exhaust. Define a nozzle efficiency.

htc − he he h
ηN = =1− ≅1− e
htc htc hc

γ −1
h T ⎛P ⎞ γ
For ideal gas, e = e = ⎜⎜ e ⎟⎟ . But, in any case,
hc Tc ⎝ Pc ⎠

υe2 2
υe = υe MAX ηN = ηN 2 htc (i.e., ηN = )
htc

Since Pe ≅ uniform, so is ηN , even when htc is not. Also, υe is non-uniform if htc is

(in proportion to htc ).

The Jet Power is the kinetic energy flow out of the nozzle

PJet =
1
2
( )
m htc − he = ηN htc m

16.512, Rocket Propulsion Lecture 2

Prof. Manuel Martinez-Sanchez Page 5 of 7
Effect of Stagnation Enthalpy Non-uniformities

Consider a case where htc varies from streamtube ( dm ) to streamtube (but

Pe=const., so ηN = const.). Then

F = ∫∫ υ e dm + ( Pe − Pa ) Ae

For Pa = o (vacuum operation) and PaAe << F (large expansion), (or if Pe = Pa)

F ≅ ∫∫ υ e dm = 2 ηN ∫∫ htc dm (1)

and the input power is P = ∫∫ h tc dm (2)

⎧⎪P is minimum(For a given F, m)⎫⎪

It can be shown that ⎨ ⎬ if the flow is uniform
⎩⎪or F is maximum ( given P, m) ⎭⎪
( htc =const.). If it were, we would have

FUNIF . = 2 ηN m htc ; PUNIF = m htc

2
⎛ F ⎞ F2 F2
Eliminating htc , PUNIF = m ⎜ UNIF ⎟ = UNIF =
⎜ 2η m ⎟ 2 ηN m 2 ηN m
⎝ N ⎠

PUNIF
Define an “efficiency” ηUNIF = (for a given thrust)
PACTUAL

Now, express in general F by (1) and P by (2)

( )
2

ηUNIF =
2 ηN ∫∫ htc dm

2 ηN ( ∫∫ dm)( ∫∫ h tc dm )
Define “generalized vectors” u = 1 υ = htc in the space of the dm values.

(u i υ)
2

Then ηUNIF =
u2
i υ 2
≤1 ( = cos 2
)
θu iυ .

16.512, Rocket Propulsion Lecture 2

Prof. Manuel Martinez-Sanchez Page 6 of 7
Equality applies only when υ is a constant, i.e., htc =const. This proves the “ansatz”.
50% of flow has htc = 0.5 htc
Example:
50% of flow has htc = 1.5 htc

2
⎛1 1 ⎞
⎜ 2 0.5 + 2 1.5 ⎟
ηUNIF = ⎝ ⎠ = 0.933 (6.7% energy loss due to nonunif.
⎛1 1
(1) ⎜ 2 0.5 + 2 1.5 ⎞⎟
⎝ ⎠

Important in arcjets, less in film-cooled chemical rockets.

16.512, Rocket Propulsion Lecture 2

Prof. Manuel Martinez-Sanchez Page 7 of 7