z = 1 = z ..(7.1)
PA = 3 = K o 1 = K o z ...(7.2)
Since no point of soil is on verge of failure, the Mohrs circle for the at rest stress state
stays within the failure surface boundaries. 6
equilibrium, the lateral pressure is known as active earth pressure. Whereas when it is in
passive state, the pressure developed is known as passive earth pressure.
The active state of plastic equilibrium in soil behind a retaining wall with level ground
surface is shown in Fig.(7.2). Since the wall is moved away from element A and towards
element B, the effective horizontal stress in element A will reduce but the effective vertical
stress will remain constant. Therefore, the Mohrs circle for active stress state will expand
until it touches the failure surfaces in Fig.(7.2).
Failure envelope
Active State
Fig.(7.3) shows the passive state of plastic equilibrium in soil behind a retaining wall
with level ground surface. Since the wall is moved towards B, its effective horizontal stress
will increase but the effective vertical stress will remain constant. Hence, the Mohrs circle
will first contract and then expand.
Resisting force
R.W.
Passive State
v = remains the same
Wall movement towards backfill h = x = increases till failure occurs
2
Foundation Engineering Chapter 7: Earth Pressure Theories
G.S.
The at rest pressure develops when the wall experiences no lateral movement. This
typically occurs when the wall is restrained. The active pressure develops when the wall is
free to move outward such as a typical retaining wall and the soil mass stretches sufficiently
to mobilize its shear strength. On the other hand, if the wall moves into the soil, then the soil
mass is compressed which also mobilizes its shear strength and the passive pressure
develops. This situation might occur along the section of wall that is below grade and on the
opposite side of the retained section of fill. Some engineers might use the passive pressure
that develops along this buried face as additional restraint to lateral movement, but often it is
ignored.
In order to develop the full active pressure or the full passive pressure, the wall must
move a sufficient amount; otherwise the full active or full passive pressure will not develop.
The wall movement effect on development of the active or passive earth pressure is shown in
Fig.(7.5). Note that the at rest condition is shown where the wall rotation is equal to 0, which
is the condition of zero lateral strain.
3
Foundation Engineering Chapter 7: Earth Pressure Theories
As the wall moves towards (into) the soil backfill, the passive condition develops and
the lateral pressure against the wall increases with wall movement until the maximum
passive earth pressure force (Pp) is reached.
Thus the intensity of the active / passive horizontal pressure, which is a function of the
applicable earth pressure coefficient, depends upon the degree of wall movement since the
movement controls the amount of shear strength mobilized in the surrounding soil. Table (1)
shows the movement of a retaining wall top necessary to reach minimum active or maximum
passive pressure developed by tilting or lateral translation.
Value of Y/H*
Soil Type
Active Passive
Dense sand 0.0005 0.002
Loose sand 0.002 0.006
Stiff clay 0.01 0.02
Soft clay 0.02 0.04
* Y is the movement of the wall top and H is the height of the wall.
4
Foundation Engineering Chapter 7: Earth Pressure Theories
(b) Active and Passive Earth Pressure Coefficients for Rankine Theory:
Level backfill:
P 1 sin
K a h tan 2 (45 ) or Ka ..(7.6)
Pv active 2 1 sin
P 1 sin
K P h tan 2 (45 ) or KP ..........(7.7)
Pv Passive 2 1 sin
Inclined backfill:
5
Foundation Engineering Chapter 7: Earth Pressure Theories
(c) Active and Passive Earth Pressure Coefficients for Coulomb Theory:
sin 2 ( )
Ka 2
.....(7.11)
sin( ) sin( )
sin 2 . sin( ) 1
sin( ) sin( )
sin 2 ( )
KP 2
.........(7.12)
sin( ) sin( )
sin 2 . sin( ) 1
sin( ) sin( )
Typical values of earth pressure coefficients are shown in Table (2). They depend
relatively on density of soil, the process by which the deposit is formed and on the
overconsolidation ratio (O.C.R.).
To change the values of (K) for a mass of sand from Ko to Ka or KP, it is necessary to
give the entire mass of soil an opportunity either to stretch or to be compressed in a
horizontal direction. Pv is unaltered, but Ph = K. Pv decreases if the soil mass stretches (Active
Rankine Case) and it increases if the soil mass compresses (Passive Rankine Case); see
Fig.(7.6).
6
Foundation Engineering Chapter 7: Earth Pressure Theories
Relativly large
coefficient
Ka Ko
Movement
Away from backfill Against backfill
G.S.
G.S.
Resultant
Resultant
R.W. R.W.
H/3 H/3
7
Foundation Engineering Chapter 7: Earth Pressure Theories
z k a ..z
H
R.W.
PA
H/3
k a ..H
1 sin
where, K a tan 2 (45 )
2 1 sin
H1
k a ..H1
H Pw
R.W. PA R.W.
H/2 H2
H/3
k a . .H w .H k a ..H1 k a . .H 2 w .H 2
q/unit area
H k a .q
R.W.
k a ..H
The effect of the surcharge of intensity q is the same as that of a fill of height equal to q/
q
above the ground surface. K a . . K a .q
8
Foundation Engineering Chapter 7: Earth Pressure Theories
G.S.
Active condition
OA 1 Pa failure envelope
PA PA OA 2
b cos
A1 B A2
R.W.
R.W.
H/3 PA
3 C 1
9
Foundation Engineering Chapter 7: Earth Pressure Theories
G.S.
W.T.
PA
Pw
R.W.
R.W.
H/3 H/3
1
PA K a ..H 2 .........(7.15a)
2
1
Pw w H 2 ................(7.15b)
2
G.S.
W (weight of soil wedge ABC) W
B C G.S. B C P
P PA
PA
R.W. R.W. H/3
H/3
A A
From soil mechanics, the relationship between 1 and 3 at failure is given by:
1 3 N 2c N ............(7.16)
10
Foundation Engineering Chapter 7: Earth Pressure Theories
1 2c 1
or 3 where N tan 2 (45 ) or N
N N 2 Ka
2c K a
2c A B G.S.
zo 4c
Ka C Pv .z 1
Ka (net Ph is zero) z
H
+ Ph 3
zo = zone of
R.W. tension cracks PA
(ActiveCase)
D E F
.H.K a
at z = 0: Ph 2c K a and
2c
when, Ph 0 : z zo (depth of tension cracks) .......(7.17)
Ka
Tension cracks usually developed in soil at top of wall and decreased to zero at depth z o.
4c
The total net pressure up to a depth of 2z o is zero. This means that a cohesive soil
Ka
4c
could stand with a vertical face up to a depth without any lateral support. Thus the
Ka
4c
For Soft Clays 0 : Hc ..................(7.18b)
Due to tension cracks, it is usual to neglect the negative pressure diagram (ABC) and consider
the positive diagram below zo. Therefore, the resultant thrust is:
PA
1
2
.H.K a 2c K a . H 2Kc
.......(7.19)
a
1 2c
acts above the wall base at H .
3 K a
11
Foundation Engineering Chapter 7: Earth Pressure Theories
q / unit.area
B G
q A
z C Surcharge diagram
H Kaq q.K a
R.W.
+
D E F H
.H.K a
2c K P
A B G.S.
Pv .z 3
z
H P1 Ph .z.k P 1
R.W. P2
(Passive Case)
C D E
.H.K P
12
Foundation Engineering Chapter 7: Earth Pressure Theories
Semi-Analytical Solution
To find the active force, assume the failure surface in the soil mass to be a plane such
as AC inclined at an angle ( = 45 + /2) with horizontal and a possible soil failure wedge
such as ABC. Then forces acting on the wedge ABC per unit length of the wall are as follows:
13
Foundation Engineering Chapter 7: Earth Pressure Theories
1. Weight of the wedge, W acting through the center of gravity (O) of ABC.
2. The reaction of soil against the wedge, R, inclined at an angle to the normal drawn to the
failure surface AC.
3. The active force Pa, inclined at an angle to the normal to the back face of the wall.
For equilibrium these three forces must meet at a point. Since their directions and the
magnitude of W are known, R and Pa can be determined from force polygon.
B Pa
+ W
O + +
H O
Assumed failure surfaces W
D R
Actual failure surface
N
H/3 Pa
R N =
A
(a) Retaining wall with single trial wedge. (b) Polygon of forces.
The weight of the soil wedge ABC is calculated from Fig.(7.11a) as:
sin( + ) H
From the Law of Sines: AC = AB , BD = AB sin( + ) , AB =
sin( ) sin
H2 sin( + )
W = A(1) = [ sin( + )] .........(7.22b)
2 sin2 sin( )
The active force Pa is calculated from force polygon shown in Fig.(7.11b) as:
Pa W
=
sin( ) sin(180 + + )
W sin( )
Pa = ............(7.22c)
sin(180 + + )
14
Foundation Engineering Chapter 7: Earth Pressure Theories
H2 sin(+) sin( )
Pa = [ sin( + )] .......(7.22d)
2 sin2 sin( ) sin(180 + + )
where,
sin 2 ( )
Ka .....................(7.22f)
2
sin( ) sin( )
sin 2 . sin( ) 1
sin( ) sin( )
(1 sin )
Ka tan 2 ( 45 ) ................................................(7.22g)
(1 sin ) 2
which is identical with the Rankines coefficient for active earth pressure.
Graphical Solution
Several trial wedges are selected such as ABC1, ABC2, ABC3,..corresponding to assumed
failure surfaces AC1, AC2, AC3,..that makes an angles of 1 , 2 , 3 ,with the horizontal.
Initially for each trial wedge, the active force is determined using the force polygon as shown
in Fig. (7.12b) or using Eq.(7.22d) with specified . Then the maximum value of Pa
determined is Coulombs active force as shown at the top part of Fig.(7.12a).
Graphical determination of Pa (max.)
Pa (max.) P2
P1 P3
C3
Wall movement away from soil C2
C1
B Pa
+ W
O
+ +
H O Assumed failure surfaces
W
D R
Actual failure surface
N
H/3 Pa
R N =
A
(a) Retaining wall with several trial wedges. (b) Polygon of forces.
15
Foundation Engineering Chapter 7: Earth Pressure Theories
The weight of the assumed failure wedge ABC is calculated from Fig.(7.13a) as:
H2 sin(+)
W= [ sin( + )] ..............(7.23a)
2 sin2 sin()
The passive force Pp is calculated from force polygon shown in Fig.(7.13b) as:
W sin(+ )
Pp = ............(7.23b)
sin(180)
Setting = 0 gives the minimum value of Pp as:
1
Pp = 2 H 2 K p ....................................(7.23c)
where,
sin 2 ( )
Kp .....................(7.23d)
2
sin( ) sin( )
sin 2 . sin( ) 1
sin( ) sin( )
N R W
R
H/3 N
= +
A
(a) Retaining wall. (b) Polygon of forces.
for semi-analytical solution single trial wedge is needed with = /.
for graphical solution several trial wedges are needed.
Fig.(7.13): Coulomb's Passive Pressure for cohesionless soils.
16
Foundation Engineering Chapter 7: Earth Pressure Theories
Coulomb wedge theory calculates less earth pressure than Rankine theory for a level
back slope whereas the values converge under back slope conditions when = .
Coulomb theory calculates a unique failure angle for every design condition whereas
application of Rankine theory to reinforced soil structures fixes the internal failure
plane at (45 + /2).
Coulombs earth pressure theory gives an upper bound estimate or an unsafe solution
because it is based on a limit equilibrium analysis which always results in a failure
load greater than the true failure load. The main reason for this is that the soil will
always be able to choose a failure mechanism that is more efficient than assumed
failure mechanism (shape and location of slip plane). Whereas Rankines theory gives
a lower bound estimate or safe solution of lateral earth pressure due to it is based on
plastic equilibrium states of stresses which usually results in a failure load smaller
than the true failure load.
Coulombs active wedge theory and a calculated failure plane is favored by the
National Masonry Concrete Association (NCMA). While, the application of Rankine
"state of stress" earth pressure theory and fixed failure plane is favored by the
transportation agencies (AASHTO and FHWA).
17
Foundation Engineering Chapter 7: Earth Pressure Theories
6. Through each point of (w1, w2, w3, etc), draw a line parallel to the line AD
intersecting the corresponding lines AC1, AC2, AC3 at points e1, e2, e3 and so on.
Triangle Aw1e1 represents the triangle of forces for the trial wedge ABC1 and w1e1 is
the pressure P1 on the wall from this wedge.
18
Foundation Engineering Chapter 7: Earth Pressure Theories
7. Repeat steps 1-6 for different planes AC2, AC3, etc. and connect e1, e2, e3, etc. by a
smooth curve (Culmanns line). Through points of intersection determined in step (6),
trace a tangent to the curve parallel to AC. The distance Pa to the chosen scale
represents the active thrust on the wall and the real surface of sliding lies on AeC.
C
C
C'F
PA PA
(i) (ii)
A A
19
Foundation Engineering Chapter 7: Earth Pressure Theories
Rebhann's Construction
Active Case: (for cohesionless backfill)
1. Draw BG at to the horizontal.
2. Draw BL at or ( ) to BG.
3. Draw AF parallel to earth pressure line BL.
4. Draw semi-circle on BG.
5. Draw a perpendicular to BG from F to meet the semi-circle in (X).
6. With center B and radius BX, draw an arc to meet BG in E. Through E draw a line
parallel to BL to meet the ground surface in C. Join BG then BC is the surface of
rupture.
7. With E as center and EC as radius, draw an arc to cut BG in K, join CK.
8. Then total active pressure on the wall
1
PA (KCE ) .KEX .................................................(7.24)
2
where is the unit weight of backfill.
9. Locate the point of application of PA by drawing parallel to final rupture plane from
center of gravity of wedge to cut the wall surface at required point.
C
A // to BL
E Slope line
+ X x
H // to BL F O
PA
N
K
H/3 ( + )
N
B Horizontal
Slope line
L
X
20
Foundation Engineering Chapter 7: Earth Pressure Theories
SOLVED PROBLEMS
Problem (7.1):
Compute the total active pressure per meter length of a retaining wall 10m high retaining
sand having 37 and 2250 kg/m3 up to its top. The backfill has a horizontal top with a
uniform surcharge of 0.1 kg/cm2 and the water table is located 4m below it.
0.1 kg/cm2
A B
4m 2m
4500 kg/m2 W.T.
7m C D E
13500 2500 kg/m2
R.W. 6m
5625 18000 kg/m2
F G H J K
Solution:
1 1
37 ; N tan 2 (45 ) 4 ; K a
2 N 4
21
Foundation Engineering Chapter 7: Earth Pressure Theories
Problem (7.2):
A retaining wall has a vertical back and is 8m high. The soil is sandy loam of 1760 kg/m 3
unit weight, and angle of internal friction is 20o. If water table builds up behind the wall to a
level (3m above the bottom of the wall), calculate the magnitude of the resultant thrust on wall
per linear meter. Neglect effect of wall friction and assume top of fill to be horizontal. What is
the maximum likely depth of tension cracks that may develop?
1708 kg/m2
1.98m
R.W. 2604
3.0m 7812 kg/m2
1695 4500 kg/m2
Answer:
PA = 17.92 ton/m run of wall at point of application 1.88 m above base.
Problem (7.3):
A retaining wall 5m high, has a smooth vertical back, the backfill has a horizontal surface
in level with the top of the wall. There is a uniformly distributed surcharge load of 3.6 ton/m2.
The density of the backfill is 1.8 ton/m3, its angle of shear resistance is 30o and cohesion is
zero. Water table is located at mid height of the wall; calculate the magnitude and the point of
application of active thrust per meter length of wall.
3.6 ton/m2
A H
D E F G K
Active
Answer:
PA = 15.57 ton/m length of the wall at point of application 1.87 m above base.
22
Foundation Engineering Chapter 7: Earth Pressure Theories
Problem (7.4):
Determine the lateral earth pressure at rest per unit length of the wall shown in Fig.(a).
Then, determine the location of the resultant earth pressure. Take Ko 1 sin .
Solution:
= 30o
2m
= 1.7 ton/m3
W.T. (1)
B
= 30o
R.W. 2m
sat. = 1.9 ton/m3 (2)
(3) (4)
C
1.7m 0.9m 2.0m
(a)
(b)
Fig.(b) shows the pressure distribution diagram. The diagram has been divided into four
parts. Let P1 , P2 , P3 ,and P4 be the total pressure due to these parts. Thus
P1 21 1.70 2 1.7 t
P2 2 1.70 3.4 t
P3 21 0.9 2 0.9 t
P4 21 2.0 2 2.0 t
Total P=8.0 t
23
Foundation Engineering Chapter 7: Earth Pressure Theories
Problem (7.5):
Determine the active pressure on the retaining wall shown in Fig.(a).
Solution:
1 sin
From the equation: Ka
1 sin
1 sin 35
For the upper layer, Ka 0.271
1 sin 35
1 sin 38
For the bottom later, Ka 0.238
1 sin 38
= 35o
2.5m 1.15 ton/m2
= 1.7 ton/m3 W.T.
(1)
B
= 38o
R.W. sat. = 1.8 ton/m3 2.5m (2)
C (3) (4)
24
Foundation Engineering Chapter 7: Earth Pressure Theories
Problem (7.6):
Determine the active pressure on the wall shown in figure using Rankin's theory.
15o
= 30o
= 19 kN/m3
4m
15o
R.W. 4/3m
Solution:
Problem (7.7):
Determine the stresses at the top and bottom of the cut shown in the figure below. Also
determine the maximum depth of potential crack and the maximum depth of unsupported
excavation.
Solution:
Pa K a ..Z 2c K a
1 sin12
where, Ka 0.656
1 sin12
Thus, Pa (0.656)(1.80Z) (2)(2) 0.656 1.18Z 3.24
At top Z = 0 : Pa 3.24.t / m 2
25
Foundation Engineering Chapter 7: Earth Pressure Theories
At bottom Z = 4: Pa 1.48.t / m 2
From the equation of crack depth:
2c 2 2.0
Zc 2.745 m
Ka 1.8 0.656
4c
Hc 5.490 m
Ka
3.24
= 12o
C = 2 ton/m2
4m = 1.8 ton/m3
+
1.48
Problem (7.8):
A 5m high retaining wall is shown in the figure below. Determine the Rankin's active
pressure on the wall.
a. Before the formation of the crack.
b. After the formation of the crack.
Solution:
1 sin 1 sin 30
Ka Ka 0.333
1 sin 1 sin 30
A 5.77
0.99m
B = 20 o b
C = 5 kN/m2
3
5m = 17.5 kN/m
4.01m
R.W. +
C c d
23.38
26
Foundation Engineering Chapter 7: Earth Pressure Theories
At top, Z0
pa 5.77 kN / m2
At point B, pa 0
5.83Z 5.77 0
Z 0.99 m
At bottom, Z 5m
pa 5.83 5 5.77 23.38 kN / m2
4.01
46.88 2.86 (4.01 0.33)
Z 3 1.14 m
44.02
After the formation of the crack, the negative pressure is eliminated. The pressure
distribution is given by the area abc
Pa H K a 2c H K a
1 2
2
2(5)2
21 17.5 (5)2 0.333 2 5 5 0.333 46.85 kN
17.5
27
Foundation Engineering Chapter 7: Earth Pressure Theories
Problem (7.9):
Determine the Rankin passive force per unit length of the wall shown in the figure below.
Solution:
1 sin
Kp
1 sin
For top layer I,
1 sin 30
K
p
1
1 sin 30
3.00
For bottom layer II,
1 sin 24
K
p
2
1 sin 24
2.37
From the equation:
pp K p Z 2c K a
At point A, Z = 0, = 0
At point B, Z = 2m, = 2 x 1.6 = 3.2 t /m2
Top layer, pp 3 3.2 9.6 t /m2
Bottom layer, pp 3.2 2.37 2 1.0 2.37 10.66 t / m2
At point C, s 2 1.6 2 (1.9 1.0) 5.0 t / m2
pp 5 2.37 2 1.0 2.37 14.93 t / m2
u 2 1.0 2 t / m2
A
I: = 30o
C =0 2m 9.6 ton/m2
B = 1.6 ton/m3 (1)
II: = 24o
R.W. C = 1 ton/m2 2m (2)
C = 1.9 ton/m3 (3) (4)
10.66 2.0
(a) 4.27
(b)
Fig. (b) shows the pressure distribution,
Total pressure P P1 P2 P3 P4
21 2 9.60 10.66 2 21 4.27 2 21 2 2
37.19 t
28
Foundation Engineering Chapter 7: Earth Pressure Theories
Problem (7.10):
Determine the Coulomb active force on the retaining wall shown in the figure below.
Solution:
sin 2
Ka 2
sin sin i
sin sin 1
2
sin sin i
sin 2 75 30
2 0.548
sin 30 20 sin 30 15
sin 2 75 sin 75 20 1
sin 75 20 sin 75 15
From the equation:
Pa 21 K a H 2
21 0.548 1.75 52 11.99 t
i= 15o
Pa i = 15o
= 30o
20o
5m = 20o
= 1.75 t/m3
= 75o
R.W.
This will act at a height of 5/3 m, inclined at 20o to normal, in the direction shown in the
figure. The reader should note that the direction of Pa is equal and opposite to that on the
wedge.
Problem (7.11):
Check the stability of the gravity retaining wall shown in the figure below, if the allowable
soil pressure equal to 60 t/m2.
0.5m
= 1.9 t/m3
= 36o
= 24o
4.5m
Pa
(2) (3) 24o 5.7m
(1)
0.4m 0.4m
= 70o 1.2m
0.5m
1.71m 0.7m
0.19m (4)
3.2m
29
Foundation Engineering Chapter 7: Earth Pressure Theories
Solution:
Neglecting passive resistance, the factor of safety against shear is given by the equation:
Rv tan 24 31.72
Fs 1.53 (safe)
RH 9.26
M R 52.64
Fo 2.99
Mo 17.59
From the equation:
M 35.05
x 1.10
V 31.72
30
Foundation Engineering Chapter 7: Earth Pressure Theories
V 6 e 31.72 6 0.5
pmax 1 1 19.2 t / m
2
b b 3.20 3.2
V 6 e 31.72 6 0.5
pmin 1 1 0.62 t / m
2
b b 3.20 3.2
The factor of safety against bearing capacity failure is given by the equation:
qna 60
Fb 3.1 (safe)
pmax 19.20
Problem (7.12):
Check the stability of the cantilever retaining wall shown in the figure below. The allowable
soil pressure is 50 t/m2.
0.4m
=15o (5)
= 1.8 t/m3
= 34o
= 25o
5m Pv Pa 6.22m
(1) (4) 15o
(2) Ph
0.6m
1.0m
0.6m 2.3m
0.2m (3)
3.5m 6.22
Solution:
Let us first ascertain whether Rankins theory is applicable to the cantilever retaining wall.
From the equation:
sin i
45 i /2 sin 1
2 sin
sin 15
45 7.5 17 sin 1 7.9
sin 34
The shear does not intersect the stem. Therefore, Rankins theory can be applied.
From the equation: Pa 21 K a H 2
31
Foundation Engineering Chapter 7: Earth Pressure Theories
Rv tan 25 35.82
Fs 1.60 (safe)
RH 10.64
M R 76.45
Fo 3.53 (safe)
M o 21.65
M 76.45 21.65
From the equation: x 1.53 m
V 35.12
From the equation: e b /2 x 1.75 1.53 0.22 m b /6
35.82 6 0.22
pmax 1 14.12 t / m
2
3.50 3.50
35.82 6 0.22
pmin 1 6.34 t / m
2
3.50 3.50
From equation of the factor of safety against bearing capacity failure:
q 50
Fb na 3.54 (safe)
pmax 14.12
32
Foundation Engineering Chapter 7: Earth Pressure Theories
PROBLEMS
P7.1 Determine the passive pressure per unit run for a retaining wall 4m height; with
i 15, 30, and 1.90 t / m3 as shown in Fig.(7.18) below. The back face of the
wall is smooth and vertical.
(Answer: 38.05 t)
P7.2 For the retaining wall in problem (P7.1), determine the active pressure per unit run.
(Answer: 5.73t)
P7.3 Determine the active pressure and passive pressure, using Coulumbs theory, on the
wall shown in Fig.(7.18) below.
(Answer: 7.30 t, 141.30 t)
P7.4 A retaining wall has a vertical back and is 8m high. The back face of the wall is smooth
and the upper surface of the fill is horizontal. Determine the thrust on the wall per unit
length. Take c 1.0 t / m2 , 1.8 t / m3 and 20 . Neglect tension.
(Answer: 18.13 t)
P7.5 A retaining wall with a vertical smooth back face is 8m high. It supports a cohesionless
soil ( 1.90 t / m3 , 30) . The surface of the soil is horizontal. Determine the thrust
on the wall.
(Answer: 20.27 t/m)
P7.6 Check the overall stability of the cantilever retaining wall shown in Fig.(7.19) below.
Surcharge 50 kN/m2
0.3m
(5)
o
i= 15
(2)
= 80o 0.45m
1.9m
1.0m
0.45m (3) 0.45m
Fig.(7.18)
2.8m
Fig.(7.19)
33