See

discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/310481383

Potable water quality monitoring of primary

schools in Magura district, Bangladesh:
childrens health risk assessment

Article in Environmental Monitoring and Assessment November 2016

DOI: 10.1007/s10661-016-5692-6

CITATIONS READS

0 41

3 authors:

Md. Aminur Rahman Md Abul Hashem

Department of Public Health Engineering (DP Bangladesh Agricultural University
13 PUBLICATIONS 3 CITATIONS 80 PUBLICATIONS 281 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Md. Shahruk Nur-A-Tomal

Khulna University of Engineering and Techno
23 PUBLICATIONS 6 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Third Primary Education Development Programme (PEDP-3) View project

A novel method to preserve goat skin with indigenous plant extract to reduce chloride load in the
effluent View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Md. Aminur Rahman on 22 November 2016.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Environ Monit Assess (2016) 188:680
DOI 10.1007/s10661-016-5692-6

Potable water quality monitoring of primary schools

in Magura district, Bangladesh: childrens health risk
assessment
Aminur Rahman & Abul Hashem &
Shahruk Nur-A-Tomal

Received: 21 May 2016 / Accepted: 8 November 2016

# Crown Copyright as represented by: Crown body 2016

Abstract Safe potable water is essential for good meet the requirement of the World Health Organization
health. Worldwide, school-aged children especially in drinking water quality guideline, or the Drinking Water
the developing countries are suffering from various Quality Standards of Bangladesh.
water-borne diseases. In the study, drinking water sup-
plies for primary school children were monitored at Keywords Children . Drinking water . Human health .
Magura district, Bangladesh, to ensure safe potable Magura . Trace metals . Tube well
water. APHA standard analytical methods were applied
for determining the physicochemical parameters of the
water samples. For determination of the essential phys-
Introduction
icochemical parameters, the samples were collected
from 20 randomly selected tube wells of primary
Safe drinking water is essential for humans. Trace ele-
schools at Magura. The metal contents, especially arse-
ment impurities in surface and groundwater are a major
nic (As), iron (Fe), and manganese (Mn), in the water
concern in human health, especially for children be-
samples were analyzed by atomic absorption spectros-
cause they are vulnerable to the risk posed by any toxic
copy. The range of physicochemical parameters found
metals. Therefore, monitoring of potable water for trace
in water samples were as follows: pH 7.059.03, elec-
elements including their physicochemical properties is
trical conductivity 4002340 S/cm, chloride 10
very important.
640 mg/L, hardness 200535 mg/L as CaCO3, and total
Global potable water demand is increasing day by
dissolved solids 2081216 mg/L. The level of metals in
day. Potable water sources, e.g., surface and groundwa-
the tube well water samples were as follows: As 1 to
ter are continuously contaminated by the natural and
55 g/L, Fe 40 to 9890 g/L, and Mn 10 to 370 g/L.
anthropogenic activities (Kinniburgh and Kosmus
Drinking water parameters of Magura district did not
2002; Roussel et al. 2000). Industrialization increases
the disposing of mine tailings, metallurgical slags, mu-
A. Rahman nicipal sewage sludge (Jacob and Otte 2004; Stoltz and
Department of Public Health Engineering, Zonal Laboratory, Greger 2006; Ettler et al. 2004) and manufacturing
Khulna, Bangladesh
industries leave their mine spoils, dump slags, and tail-
A. Hashem (*) : S. Nur-A-Tomal ings in nearby areas which generally contain extremely
Department of Leather Engineering, Khulna University of high concentrated heavy metals including arsenic
Engineering & Technology (KUET), Khulna 9203, Bangladesh (Krysiak and Karczewska 2007). Hence, the soil be-
e-mail: hashem_518@yahoo.com
comes contaminated by the subsequent leaching of
A. Hashem heavy metals into groundwater or surface water or enters
e-mail: mahashem@mail.kuet.ac.bd human body through metabolism. The contamination of
680 Page 2 of 10
surface water or groundwater with heavy metals poses a
potential risk to the livings.
Potable water containing arsenic (As), manganese
(Mn), and iron (Fe) has a negative effect on children
from the ages of 5 to 10 years. Arsenite As (III) is 60
times more toxic than arsenate As (V) (Fazal et al.
SH
Proteins + Cl2AsR
SH
Arsenic exposure has a risk factor for Alzheimers
and Parkinsons diseases (Rodriguez et al. 2003;
Vizcaya-Ruiz et al. 2009). Children who are exposed
to As show impaired learning and memory, sleep dis-
turbances, abnormality, and hearing problem (Yadav
et al. 2011). Patients of As exposure may develop im-
pairments of higher neurological functions including
learning, memory, and attentiveness (Rodriguez et al.
2003).
Manganese is an essential metal for normal function-
ing of a variety of physiological process (Erikson et al.
2005). It plays an essential role in immune system
functioning (Erikson and Aschner 2003); in the brain,
it is an important cofactor for a variety of enzymes
(Hurley and Keen 1987). Over exposure to Mn, howev-
er, causes childrens developing nervous system to be-
come especially vulnerable to the neurotoxic effect
(Agustin et al. 2013). High concentration of Mn in
drinking water could be related to neurological impair-
ment (Weiss 2006), of course in the early stages of
intoxication symptoms may be reversible (Bowler
et al. 2006).
Worldwide, 46% school-aged children in the develop-
ing countries are suffering from anemia (Beinner et al.
2005). Fe plays a dynamic role in oxygen utilization and
energy requirements in cells. Deficiency of Fe steals the
vitality of the young and old and impairs the cognitive
development of children (UNICEF/UNU/WHO/MI
Technical Workshop 1998). In natural fresh water, Fe is
found at the levels of 0.5 to 50 mg/L, while the established
provisional maximum tolerable daily intake (PMTDI) is
0.8 mg/kg of body weight, except for instances when iron
supplements need to be taken during pregnancy or for
specific clinical requirements (WHO 2011).
Environ Monit Assess (2016) 188:680
2001), because it binds to sulfhydryl (SH) groups and
has broad toxicity (NRC 2001), which impairs the func-
tion of many proteins (Kumaresan and Riyazuddin
2001). Sulfur containing protein can react with As (III)
as the Eq. (1) to form products that will cause biological
body malfunction (Wang and Wai 2004).
S
Proteins AsR + HCl - - - - - - - - (i)
S
In this study, potable water of primary school in
Magura district, Bangladesh, was monitored to ensure
safe drinking water for the children from the ages of 6 to
10 years. The elemental (e.g., As, Mn, Fe) analysis was
performed by atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS)
because of its reliability and ease of use. The
physicochemical parameters of the samples were
determined following APHA (2012) standard analytical
methods. The investigated results complied with the
international and national standards for drinking water.
Materials and methods
Study area
The study was carried out in Magura district, Bangla-
desh. Magura district (Fig. 1) is in the Khulna adminis-
trative division of the southwestern part of Bangladesh.
It is bound by Rajbari on the north, Jessore and Narail
on the south, Faridpur on the east, and Jhenaidah district
on the west.
Sampling
The drinking water samples were collected from the
20 randomly selected tube wells of primary schools
in Magura district. The samples were collected di-
rectly from the tube well after allowing the water to
run for at least 25 min in the prewashed high-density
polyethylene (HDPE) bottles and were identified as
follows: S1, S2, S3, S4, S5, S6, S7, S8, S9, S10,
S11, S12, S13, S14, S15, S16, S17, S18, S19, and
S20. Physical, chemical, and/or biochemical
Environ Monit Assess (2016) 188:680
Fig. 1 Location Map of Magura district, Bangladesh
reactions might take place in the sample container,
which may lead to change in the intrinsic quality of
the sample during collection for analysis. Consider-
ing the fact that physical, chemical, and/or biochem-
ical reactions might take place in the sample con-
tainer, which may lead to change in the intrinsic
quality of the sample during collection for analysis,
before the metal analysis, the samples were filtrated
through a Millipore cellulose membrane (0.45 m)
in HDPE bottles and acidified with 1% nitric acid.
All samples were kept in the refrigerator at 4 C to
complete the experiment. On-site measurement of
water samples was performed for electrical
Page 3 of 10 680
conductivity (EC), pH, and total dissolved solids
(TDS). The sampling points and locations were con-
firmed by GPS meter (GARMIN 72H), as shown in
Table 1.
Reagents
All stock solutions were prepared from the analytical
reagents (AR). Freshly prepared double deionized dis-
tilled water was used in all experiments. Arsenic (As),
Manganese (Mn), and Iron (Fe) standard solutions were
from Fluka-Analytical, Switzerland. Twenty percent po-
tassium iodide (Sigma-Aldrich, USA) solution was used
680 Page 4 of 10 Environ Monit Assess (2016) 188:680

Table 1 Sampling location and points of Tube well water sample at Magura district, Bangladesh

ID Location Sampling points Type Depth (m)

S1 23 23 N 89 26 E Sayed Rupati Reg. Primary School Tara Deep 170.73

S2 23 20 N 89 29 E Dohor Singhra Govt. Primary School Tara Deep 167.68
S3 23 28 N 89 28 E Bogia Govt. Primary School Tara Deep 170.73
S4 23 25 N 89 29 E Satrujitpur Reg. Primary School Tara Deep 160.06
S5 23 28 N 89 20 E Pakakhordo Govt. Primary School Tara Deep 147.25
S6 23 30 N 89 31 E Raipur Char Salamatpur Govt. Primary School Tara Deep 159.28
S7 23 26 N 89 35 E Sindain Reg. Primary School Tara Deep 163.28
S8 23 22 N 89 35 E Dhursrail Community Primary School Tara Deep 153.28
S9 23 19 N 89 33 E Kalishakhali Govt. Primary School Tara Deep 153.28
S10 23 25 N 89 30 E Parvatpara Govt. Primary School Tara Deep 167.36
S11 23 19 N 89 26 E Hatbaria Govt. Primary School Tara Deep 155.48
S12 23 18 N 89 28 E Gangarampur Govt. Primary School Tara Deep 141.76
S13 23 22 N 89 22 E Arpara K.G Reg. Primary School Tara Deep 167.28
S14 23 23 N 89 19 E Chatia Reg. Primary School Tara Deep 113.15
S15 23 17 N 89 23 E Shatapara Reg. Primary School Tara Deep 160.06
S16 23 32 N 89 25 E Bakhera Govt. Primary School Tara Deep 158.53
S17 23 35 N 89 22 E Purbo Sreekol Govt. Primary School Tara Deep 179.87
S18 23 36 N 89 24 E Charsreepur Reg. Primary School Tara Deep 164.63
S19 23 36 N 89 27 E Hat Dariapur Govt. Primary School Tara Deep 155.48
S20 23 32 N 89 30 E Raynagar Govt. Primary School Tara Deep 158.53

to reduce As(V) to As(III). Arsenic trihydride (AsH3) Measurement of EC and TDS

generation was performed with 5 M HCl (Sigma-Al-
drich, USA), 0.6% sodium borohydride solution (Sig-
ma-Aldrich, USA).
Physicochemical analyses
The physicochemical quality of water was measured in
terms of pH, electrical conductivity (EC), total dissolved
solids (TDS), chloride, and total hardness. All the ex-
aminations were conducted according to standard
methods of APHA (2012).
The EC and TDS of the water samples were determined
on-site by using an instrument 117 (Sension-156,
HACH, USA). In the case of EC determination, firstly
the instrument was calibrated by using standard
1000 S/cm sodium chloride (NaCl) solution. The in-
strument was verified after measuring five samples each
by the EC standard solution. In the case of TDS, the
instrument was calibrated by 1000 mg/L TDS standard
and measurement was performed by the same method as
EC measurement.
Determination of total hardness

Determination of pH Total hardness was measured by the standard EDTA

pH was measured by using the digital pH instrument
(sensION -MM340, HACH, USA). Before measur-
ing pH, the instrument was calibrated in three points
with the standard solutions of pH 4.01, 7.00, and 10.00,
respectively. The instrument was verified after measur-
ing five samples each.
titrimetric APHA method. Erichrome Black T (Merck,
Germany) was used as an indicator. A 25 mL water
sample was diluted to 50 mL with deionized water;
2 mL of buffer solution (ammonium hydroxide-
ammonium chloride), and 1.0-mL indicator were added
in a conical flask. Then, the mixture was titrated with
0.01 M EDTA, until the reddish tinge disappeared.
Environ Monit Assess (2016) 188:680
Determination of chloride content
Chloride content was measured by following APHA
standard argentometric method. A 100-mL water sam-
ple was taken in a conical flask and the pH was adjusted
in the range of 7 to 10. After that, 1.0-mL potassium
dichromate (K2CrO4) indicator was pipetted. Then, the
solution was titrated with silver nitrate titrant (0.0141 N)
to a pinkish yellow end point. The titrant was standard-
ized and reagent blank value was established.
Determination of heavy metals
The As, Mn, and Fe contents were analyzed by atomic
absorption spectrophotometric APHA method. At first,
the calibration curve was made using the working stan-
dard solutions from the different concentrations of the
certified reference solutions. Arsenic was measured by
the hydride vapor generation (HVG) method; argon was
used as carrier gas and recordings were taken at the
wavelength of 193.7 nm.
The Mn and Fe content were measured using direct
flame (air acetylene) at the wavelength of 279.5 nm and
248.3 nm, respectively.
Results and discussion
Physiochemical properties of tube well water
The physical and chemical properties of the tube well
(TW) water are shown in Table 2. The pH values were in
the ranges of 7.059.02. The pH at the point S19 (Hat
Dariapur Govt. Primary School) was 7.05 and at the
point S8 (Dhursrail Community Primary School) was
9.02.
The pH values were within the recommended ranges
(6.58.5) according to both Bangladesh and WHO
drinking water quality standards, excluding the water
samples S4, S6, S7, S8, S10, and S11. Hence, the pH of
all water samples could not be classified as suitable for
the drinking purposes. However, the pH does not com-
promise the groundwater quality in terms of human
consumption, as it only reflects the geological compo-
sition of the grounds (Bityukova and Petersell 2010).
The higher pH may irritate the eyes, mucous mem-
branes, and skin, pH below 8.0 may reduce chlorination
effects (WHO 1996).
Page 5 of 10 680
The EC values of the tube well water range from 400
to 2340 S/cm. The EC was 400 S/cm at the point S13
(Arpara K.G Reg. Primary School) and 2340 S/cm at
the point S9 (Kalishakhali Govt. Primary School). The
results indicate that the water samples contained higher
levels of dissolved mineral salts. The higher EC may be
due to the higher concentration of the ionic constituents
present in the water bodies. Organic compounds do not
have much influence on EC because organic com-
pounds are not very good electrical conductors
(USEPA 2012). The presence of salts and other sub-
stances as well as the conductivity affects the quality of
water. According to the water supply (Water Quality)
regulations 2001, conductivity in drinking water higher
than 2500 S/cm at 20 C is not recommended for
human consumption. It is clear from the Table 2 that
on average, 55% TWs (11 out of 20) supply drinking
water which is good (EC <800 S/cm) and 45% TWs (9
out of 20) supply drinking water (ECs were in between
800 and 2500 S/cm) which is consumable. Drinking
water with higher conductivity is not always safe to
consume regularly as it may be the cause of hyperten-
sion, kidney failure, and stone deposition in various
parts of the intestine.
Total dissolved solids (TDS) include inorganic salts,
mainly bicarbonate, chloride, and sulfate compounds of
calcium, magnesium, potassium, and sodium (WHO
2011). TDS of the samples were found within the range
of 208 mg/L (S13) to 1216 mg/L (S9). High amounts of
TDS affect water properties mainly in terms of its taste
and therefore could affect the acceptability for consump-
tion, although very low mineral content in water can
also be turn it insipid (WHO 2011). High TDS levels
(>500 mg/L) result in excessive scaling in water pipes,
which decrease the durability of service apparatus, water
heaters, boilers, and household appliances.
Chloride is naturally present in groundwater and may
also originate from the diverse sources, e.g., weathering,
leaching from the sedimentary rocks and infiltration of
seawater. In the analyzed water samples, the lowest
chloride concentration at the point S5 (Pakakhordo
Govt. Primary School) was 10 mg/L and the highest
concentration of chloride was 640 mg/L at S9
(Kalishakhali Govt. Primary School). The concentration
of chloride varied from 10 to 640 mg/L. Chloride pro-
duces salty taste at 250 to 500 mg/L (Trivedy and Goel
1984), which makes the water unacceptable for human
consumption. According to the Bangladesh drinking
standard (BDS), chloride content below 600 mg/L is
680 Page 6 of 10 Environ Monit Assess (2016) 188:680

Table 2 Physicochemical characteristics and metals concentration of the tube well water samples

ID pH EC (S/cm) Chloride Hardness a TDS (mg/L) Metals conc. (g/L)

(mg/L) CaCO3(mg/L)
As Mn Fe

S1 8.02 0.02 1071.09 1.13 163.90 0.21 349.90 0.30 555.92 0.26 1.00 0.01 10.04 0.07 59.92 0.23
S2 7.88 0.15 2330.02 1.10 573.96 0.29 529.91 0.25 1208.09 0.08 2.99 0.02 50.03 0.08 770.00 0.12
S3 8.22 0.18 479.12 0.96 14.77 0.20 260.22 0.71 251.50 0.84 8.07 0.12 9.97 0.06 40.02 0.07
S4 8.95 0.16 674.64 0.57 73.88 0.22 259.77 0.69 351.01 0.01 41.08 0.13 69.99 0.03 2010.29 0.72
S5 8.08 0.08 429.99 1.03 9.97 0.29 269.93 0.25 223.16 0.15 54.98 0.04 70.33 0.58 660.19 0.73
S6 8.72 0.13 505.51 0.72 15.02 0.09 270.23 0.72 263.03 0.07 27.00 0.01 49.96 0.07 1620.21 0.72
S7 8.74 0.10 745.27 0.76 14.94 0.21 339.92 0.24 386.89 0.29 28.99 0.02 349.97 0.09 4279.91 0.27
S8 9.02 0.06 486.04 0.08 9.88 0.23 259.97 0.17 253.03 0.08 21.03 0.06 160.03 0.07 2680.01 1.08
S9 8.50 0.02 2340.09 0.87 640.01 0.12 535.08 0.20 1216.25 0.47 2.04 0.06 359.99 0.12 9889.97 0.70
S10 8.90 0.13 542.02 0.08 24.92 0.25 209.99 0.33 282.09 0.19 24.04 0.07 260.03 0.07 8210.22 0.71
S11 9.04 0.06 509.93 0.25 19.92 0.24 210.11 0.84 265.10 0.18 3.00 0.01 99.91 0.26 1779.93 0.24
S12 8.17 0.04 1638.30 0.53 311.96 0.26 469.92 0.24 851.93 0.25 2.04 0.07 90.03 0.08 580.04 0.17
S13 8.71 0.01 400.33 0.68 19.94 0.03 199.97 0.16 208.07 0.12 34.07 0.12 149.93 0.24 759.97 0.19
S14 8.31 0.08 728.99 0.35 29.97 0.17 339.92 0.24 379.03 0.09 12.03 0.06 209.93 0.24 1709.93 0.25
S15 8.22 0.02 675.01 0.11 39.94 0.24 229.81 0.43 350.93 0.25 2.04 0.06 30.02 0.10 669.94 0.23
S16 8.06 0.06 1272.93 0.22 178.92 0.23 439.92 0.24 662.02 0.38 1.99 0.01 249.92 0.24 3500.34 0.80
S17 7.83 0.06 1140.82 0.25 5.03 0.08 349.45 0.51 593.03 0.08 5.03 0.06 119.92 0.22 1879.98 0.28
S18 8.19 0.01 1168.09 0.20 155.03 0.09 370.00 0.12 606.92 0.27 5.00 0.01 369.93 0.23 999.96 0.17
S19 7.05 0.01 944.92 0.26 104.99 0.34 440.25 0.68 491.02 0.34 33.03 0.06 159.98 0.04 619.93 0.25
S20 8.02 0.01 940.93 0.25 117.04 0.09 330.11 0.22 489.06 0.08 8.04 0.06 10.03 0.08 239.95 0.31

permissible which means except S9, other TWs water
was consumable by humans. A lot of salts, especially
NaCl, may be present in dissolved state in groundwater
from the tube well water (S9). High chloride content in
groundwater is likely to originate from pollution
sources, e.g., domestic effluents, fertilizers, septic tanks,
and from natural sources including rainfall and dissolu-
tion of fluid inclusions. Increase in chloride level is
injurious to people suffering from diseases of the heart
or kidney (WHO 2011). Chloride toxicity has been
observed in such cases where it is paired with sodium
(WHO Regional Office for Europe 1978). Excess pres-
ence of chloride concentration with excess sodium con-
centration may cause congestive heart failure (Brooker
and Johnson 1984) and hypertension (ISO 1989).
Total hardness of the samples was within the ranges
of 200 mg/L (S12) to 535 mg/L (S9) as CaCO3. In this
study, no sample was in the soft (060 mg/L as CaCO3),
moderately soft (61120 mg/L as CaCO3), or hard cat-
egories (121180 mg/L as CaCO3) on the basis of total
hardness. All TWs water was very hard (>181 mg/L as
CaCO3), which reflect on the geological composition of
the area, Magura, being limestone grounds (WHO
2011). The hardness of water is mainly due to the
presence of calcium and magnesium salts, which re-
duces lather formation and increases the boiling point
of the water (Langmuir 1997). The hardness of water is
not considered as a factor for health concern (Leurs et al.
2010; Moslemi et al. 2011). The BDS recommendation
allows hardness of water within the range of 200
500 mg/L as CaCO3 (ECR 1997). In this study, only
the water hardness of the samples S2 (Dohor Singhra
Govt. Primary School) and S9 (Kalishakhali Govt. Pri-
mary School) was above 500 mg/L as CaCO3 whereas
in other samples, it was within the permissible level of
BDS. Water with hardness values below 100 mg/L as
CaCO3 might have low buffering properties which lead
to the possibility of the pipes being corroded. On the
other hand, hardness above 200 mg/L as CaCO3 can
also lead to an excessive use of soap to produce foam
(APHA 2012), precipitation of soap scum and higher
accumulation on tubs and showers, white deposits on
Environ Monit Assess (2016) 188:680
glassware, and also a reduction of efficiency of water
heating devices (NHDES 2008). The investigated re-
sults indicate that TWs of S2 and S9 water were very
hard, which is harmful or totally unacceptable for the
children as well as other consumers, as it may cause
inflammation of the intestines.
Heavy metals content in tube well water
The metal (As, Mn, and Fe) content in the tube well
water is shown in Table 2. The lowest As concentration
was detected 1 g/L (S1, Sayed Rupati Reg. Primary
School) and the highest was 55 g/L (S5, Pakakhordo
Govt. Primary School). The WHO guideline value for
As in drinking water is 10 g/L and Bangladesh drink-
ing water standard for As is 50 g/L.
It is clear from the Table 2 that in the water samples
from the S4 (Satrujitpur Reg. Primary School), S6 (Rai-
pur Charsalamatpur Govt. Primary School), S7 (Sindain
Reg. Primary School), S8 (Dhursrail Community Pri-
mary School), S10 (Parvatpara Govt. Primary School),
S13 (Arpara K. G Reg. Primary School), S14 (Chatia
Reg. Primary School), and S19 (Hat Dariapur Govt.
Primary School), As was at the acceptable level for
Bangladesh standards for drinking water guideline but
the values are several times higher than the WHO
guideline value. On average, 55% TWs (11 out of 20)
provide almost As (<10 g/L)-free water, following
both BDS and WHO permissible limit. In the TWs of
S4, S6, S7, S8, S10, S13, S14, and S19, the As content
(>10 g/L, <50 g/L) was higher than WHO guideline
but within the BDS limit. Only As content of S5 water
sample was higher than the BDS level, and hence de-
clared unsafe for children.
Based on oxidation theory, As is released in the
shallow aquifer due to oxidation of the sulfide minerals
(arsenopyrite). Due to over-exploitation of groundwater
for irrigation, atmospheric oxygen enters into aquifers
where it reacts with the arsenopyrite which influences
the release of As into the groundwater (Singh 2006).
The commonly reported symptoms of As exposure are
skin lesions, developmental effects, cardiovascular dis-
ease, melanosis, keratosis, ulcer, gangrene, peripheral
vascular disorder, lung disease, kidney failure, liver
failure, neurotoxicity, and arsenicosis (FAO et al. 2010).
The highest Mn concentration detected was 370 g/L
(S18, Charsreepur Reg. Primary School) and the lowest
detected was 10 g/L in three points S1 (Sayed Rupati
Reg. Primary School), S3 (Bogia Govt. Primary
Page 7 of 10 680
School), and S20 (Raynagar Govt. Primary School). It
would appear that in the water sample from the points
S7, S8, S9, S10, S13, S14, S16, S17, S18, and S19, Mn
levels were over the Bangladesh drinking standards
(BDS) and in some cases, ~4 times higher than the
BDS level. It is suggested that Mn is most probably
produced from different ores that dissolve into ground-
water. To elaborate, the presence of Mn in the ground-
water could be due to its percolation from granitic and
metamorphosed rocks, i.e., water-rock interaction. In
nature, Mn occurs in ores that may erode and seep into
groundwater sources. Excessive Mn concentration at the
level of 100 g/L imparts an unpleasant taste to drinking
water; excessive Mn concentration at 500 g/L poses
health risk.
Manganese (Mn) effects the central nervous system
(ATSDR 2 000); the synd rome is k nown as
Bmanganism^ which is caused by the exposure to very
high Mn levels. High level of Mn exposure causes
weakness, anorexia, muscle pain, apathy, slow speech,
monotonous tone of voice, 236 emotionless Bmasklike^
facial expressions, and slow, clumsy movement of the
limbs (Roels et al. 1992; Mergler et al. 1994).
The highest Fe found was 9890 g/L (S9,
Kalishakhali Govt. Primary School) and the lowest
was 40 g/L (S3, Bogia Govt. Primary School Magura
Sadar Upazilla). The Bangladesh drinking water stan-
dard for iron is 3001000 g/L. There were three TWs
(S1, S3, and S20) which contain iron below the Bangla-
desh drinking water standard. There were seven TWs
(S2, S5, S12, S13, S15, S18, and S19) containing 0.30
1.0 mg/L and were within BDS permissible limit. In the
water samples from the S4, S6, S7, S8, S9, S10, S11,
S14, S16, and S17, iron concentrations exceeded the
Bangladesh drinking water standard. The percentage
and the high concentrations measured prove that the
taste of water and also the color is a concern in this area.
It may be suggested that iron is most probably produced
from iron oxides that occur in groundwater, and along
with the other elements, e.g., Mn and As, are most
probably attributed to secondary minerals in the aquifer
rocks. A few scientists have suggested that the presence
of iron in underground drinking water could be due to its
percolation from granitic and metamorphosed rocks,
i.e., water-rock interaction. High amounts of iron in
drinking water can give it an unpleasant metallic taste.
Iron when present in high detectable amounts can affect
the flavor of tea, coffee, and alcoholic beverages. It can
also promote the growth of iron bacteria in water and
680 Page 8 of 10 Environ Monit Assess (2016) 188:680

Table 3 Physicochemical characteristics and metals concentration of the tube well water in comparison WHO and BDS

ID pH EC (mg/L) Chloride (mg/L) Hardness as CaCO3 (mg/L) TDS (mg/L) Metal Conc. (g/L)

As Mn Fe

S1 ++ + + + ++ ++ +
S2 ++ + ++ ++ +
S3 ++ + + + ++ ++ +
S4 - + + + + ++
S5 ++ + + + - ++ +
S6 - + + + + ++
S7 - + + + + -
S8 + + + + -
S9 ++ ++ -
S10 - + + + + -
S11 - + + + ++ ++
S12 ++ + + + ++ ++ +
S13 ++ + + + + - +
S14 ++ + + + + -
S15 ++ + + + ++ - +
S16 ++ + + + ++ -
S17 ++ + + + ++ -
S18 ++ + + + ++ - +
S19 ++ + + + + - +
S20 ++ + + + ++ ++ +
WHO 6.58.5 10 100
BDS 6.58.5 150600 200500 1000 50 100 3001000

WHO World Health Organization guideline, BDS Bangladesh standard

++ values are between WHO and BDS, + values follow only BDS, - values above WHO and BDS, values above BDS, no
recommendation

Table 4 Comparison between parameters of WHO and BDS

Parameters This study Guideline

Range Mean WHO Bangladesh

pH 7.059.04 8.3 6.58.5 6.58.5

EC (S/cm) 400.32340.09 951.2
Chloride (mg/L) 5.03640.01 126.2 150600
Hardness as CaCO3 (mg/L) 200.0535.08 333.2 200500
TDS (mg/L) 208.071216.30 494.4 1000
As (g/L) 1.0055.00 15.9 10 50
Mn (g/L) 10.03369.90 144.0 100 100
Fe (g/L) 40.029890.0 2148.03 3001000

no recommendation
Environ Monit Assess (2016) 188:680
also makes the water distasteful (Yagoub and Ahmed
2009); however, no health-based guideline value for
iron has been proposed (WHO 2011).
Comparison with standards
Tables 3 and 4 show the comparative measures between
the WHO guidelines and Bangladesh drinking water
standard. The water quality parameters exceed the
WHO and Bangladesh standards. In some cases, e.g.,
Mn and Fe, the levels are several times higher than the
standard level.
Conclusion
Safe drinking water is the prime requisite for childrens
health. The monitoring activity aids the service workers
to identify the areas that need to be improved. All
quality parameters of the drinking water samples did
not follow the World Health Organization drinking wa-
ter quality guidelines, or the Bangladesh drinking water
quality standards. It is essential to mark the tube wells
which are safe or which are unsafe for use as drinking
troughs. The unsafe tube wells should be sealed, and
new tube wells installed in a place where access to safe
potable water for children can be ensured.
References
Agustin, R. T., Agudelo, Y. R., Schilmann, A., Vivanco, R. S.,
Montes, S., Rodriguez, H. R., Lugo, M. C., & Rios, C.
(2013). Effect of environmental manganese exposure on
verbal learning and memory in Mexican children.
Environmental Research, 121, 3944.
Yagoub, S. O., & Ahmed, R. Y. (2009). Microbiological evalua-
tion of the quality of tap water distributed at Khartoum State.
Research Journal of Microbiology, 4(10), 355360.
American Public Health Association (APHA) (2012). Standard
methods for the examination of water and wastewater (22nd
ed.). Washington DC: American Public Health Association,
American Water Works Association, Water Environment
Federation.
ATSDR (2000). Toxicological Profile for Manganese, Atlanta,
GA, United States Department Of Health and Human
Services, Public Health Service, Agency for Toxic
Substances and Disease Registry.
Beinner, M. A., Lamounier, J. A., & Tomaz, C. (2005). Effect of
iron-fortified drinking water of daycare facilities on the he-
moglobin status of young children. Journal of American
College of Nutrition, 24(2), 107114.
Page 9 of 10 680
Bityukova, L., & Petersell, V. (2010). Chemical composition of
bottled mineral waters in Estonia. Journal of Geochemical
Exploration, 107, 238244.
Bowler, R. M., Gysens, S., Diamond, E., Nakagawa, S., Drezgic,
M., & Roels, H. A. (2006). Manganese exposure: neuropsy-
chological and neurological symptoms and effects in
welders. Neurotoxicology, 27, 315326.
Brooker, M. P., & Johnson, P. C. (1984). The behavior of phos-
phate, nitrate, chloride and hardness in 12 welsh rivers. Water
Research, 18(9), 11551164.
Environment Conservation Rules. (1997). Department of
Environment & Forest Ministry, Bangladesh.
Erikson, K. M., & Aschner, M. (2003). Manganese neurotoxicity
and glutamate-GABA interaction. Neurochemistry, 43(45),
475480.
Erikson, K. M., Dorman, D. C., Lash, L. H., & Aschner, M. (2005).
Persistent alterations in biomarkers of oxidative stress resulting
from combined in utero and neonatal manganese inhalation.
Biological Trace Element Research, 104(2), 151163.
Ettler, V., Komarkova, M., Jehlicka, J., Coufal, P., Hradil, D.,
Machovic, V., & Delorme, F. (2004). Leaching of lead metal-
lurgical slag in citric solutions-implications for disposal and
weathering in soil environments. Chemosphere, 57, 567577.
FAO, UNICEF, WHO, WSP. (2010). Towards an arsenic safe
environment.
Fazal, M. A., Kawachi, T., & Ichion, E. (2001). Extent and severity
of groundwater arsenic contamination in Bangladesh. Water
International, 26, 370379.
Hurley, L. S., Keen, C.L., In: Underwood, E., Mertz, W., editors.
Manganese trace elements in human health and animal nu-
trition. New York: Academic Press. 1987, 185223.
ISO (1989). Water quality determination of chloride. Geneva, ISO,
9297.
Jacob, D. L., & Otte, M. L. (2004). Influence of Typha latifolia and
fertilization on metal mobility in two different PbZn mine
tailings types. Science of the Total Environment, 333(13), 924.
Kinniburgh, D. G., & Kosmus, W. (2002). Arsenic contamination
in groundwater: some analytical considerations. Talanta, 58,
165180.
Krysiak, A., & Karczewska, A. (2007). Arsenic extractability in
soils in the areas of former arsenic mining and smelting, SW
Poland. Science of the Total Environment, 379, 190200.
Kumaresan, M., & Riyazuddin, P. (2001). Overview of speciation
chemistry of arsenic. Current Science, 80(7), 837846.
Langmuir, D. (1997). Aqueous environmental geochemistry.
Upper Saddle River: Prentice-Hall Inc..
Leurs, L. J., Schoutent, L. J., Mons, M. M., Goldbohm, R. A., &
Van den Brandt, P. A. (2010). Relationship between tap water
hardness, magnesium, and calcium concentration and mor-
tality due to ischemic heart disease or stroke in the
Netherlands. Environmental Health Perspectives, 118(3),
414420.
Mergler, D., Huel, G., Bowler, R., Iregren, A., Belanger, S.,
Baldwin, M., Tardif, R., Smargiassi, A., & Martin, L.
(1994). Nervous system dysfunction among workers with
long-term exposure to manganese. Environmental
Research, 64, 151180.
Moslemi, K. M., Saghafi, H., & Joorabchin, S. M. A. (2011).
Evaluation of biochemical urinary stone composition and
its relationship to tap water hardness in Qom province,
680 Page 10 of 10
central Iran. International Journal of Nephrology and
Renovasccular Disease, 4, 145148.
National Research Council (2001). Arsenic in drinking water.
Washington, DC: National Academy Press Update.
New Hampshire Department of Environmental Services
(NHDES) (2008). Hardness in drinking water, in environ-
mental fact sheet. New Hampshire: New Hampshire
Department of Environmental Services.
Rodrguez, V. M., Capdeville, M. E. J., & Giordano, M. (2003).
The effects of arsenic exposure on the nervous system.
Toxicology Letters, 145, 118.
Roels, H. A., Ghyselen, P., Buchet, J. P., Ceulemans, E., & Lauwerys,
R. R. (1992). Assessment of the permissible exposure level to
manganese in workers exposed to manganese dioxide dust.
British Journal of Industrial Medicine, 49, 2534.
Roussel, C., Neel, C., & Bril, H. (2000). Minerals controlling
arsenic and lead solubility in an abandoned gold mine tail-
ings. Science of the Total Environment, 263, 209219.
Singh, A. K. (2006). Chemistry of arsenic in groundwater of Ganges
Brahmaputra river basin. Current Science, 91(5), 599606.
Stoltz, E., & Greger, M. (2006). Release of metals and arsenic
from various mine tailings by Eriophorum angustifolium.
Plant and Soil, 289, 199210.
Trivedy, R. K., & Goel, P. K. (1984). Chemical and biological
methods for water pollution studies. Karad, India:
Environmental Publications.
View publication stats
Environ Monit Assess (2016) 188:680
UNICEF/UNU/WHO/MI (1998). Preventing iron deficiency in
women and children: Technical Consensus on Key Issues,
New York, 79 October.
USEPA (2012). Water: monitoring & assessment-5.9
Conductivity.
Vizcaya-Ruiz, A. D., Barbier, O., Ruiz-Ramos, R., & Cebrian, M.
E. (2009). Biomarkers of oxidative stress and damage in
human populations exposed to arsenic. Mutation Research,
674, 8592.
Wang, J. S., & Wai, C. M. (2004). Arsenic in drinking watera
global environmental problem. Journal of Chemical
Education, 81(2), 207213.
Weiss, B. (2006). Economic implications of manganese neurotox-
icity. Neurotoxicology, 27, 362368.
WHO (1996). Chlorine in Drinking waterGuidelines for drink-
ing-water quality, 2nd Edition, Geneva.
WHO (2011). Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality, 4th 310
Edition, Geneva.
WHO Regional Office for Europe (1978). Sodium, chlo-
rides, and conductivity in drinking water, a report on a
WHO working group. Copenhagen, EURO Report and
Studies, 2.
Yadav, R. S., Chandravanshi, L. P., Shukla, R. K., Sankhwar, M.
L., Ansari, R. W., Shukla, P. K., Pant, A. B., & Khanna, V. K.
(2011). Neuroprotective efficacy of curcumin in arsenic in-
duced cholinergic dysfunctions in rats. Neurotoxicology, 32,
760768.