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Tropical Coasts

Vol. 9 No. 2 ISSN 0117- 9756 December 2002

Rare...
Endangered...
For sale.
$
Is responsible marine wildlife
trade a means to sustainability $ $
or a contributing cause
to decline?
E D I T O R I A L several approaches are recommended including recognizing the ecological
concerns and analyses limits of coral reefs and establishing ecological reserves as fishery management tools.

Sustainable Trade in It is a common notion that reef conservation and the marine aquarium
trade are incompatible as the latter is often cited as one of the causes of coral
reef destruction due to destructive collection practices, overexploitation, high

Marine Endangered post-harvest mortality and the threat of extinction of target species. Holthus
and Spalding present a different view in support of the industry, highlighting
the socioeconomic benefits and motivation for reef stewardship created by the

Species marine aquarium trade. The authors cite that collectors or marine ornamentals
often become active reef stewards due to the socioeconomic benefits, such as
creation of jobs and income that the trade brings to them. The Marine Aquarium
Nancy A. Bermas Council (MAC) is spearheading a certification system in support of a sustainable
Issue Editor marine aquarium trade, which aims to eliminate the negative aspects and
accentuate the positive aspects of trade. To date, the certification system is
gaining wide acceptance, which provides an impetus for MAC to aim at certifying
a significant portion of the industry within the next five years.

Countries in East Asia, notable the Philippines and Indonesia are major
exporters of aquarium fish, invertebrates and live corals. The Global Marine
Aquarium Database (GMAD), which contains trade records from exporting and
importing countries can generate a profile of species in trade and rank these
species in term of the proportion of exports and imports. Green describes the
usefulness and intricacies of GMAD and expounds on the contribution of East
Asia to the global aquarium trade. Likewise, he expresses support to the
marine aquarium trade. This despite controversy over its benefits and costs
due to the difficulty in determining which species and how many of each species
are traded. Better knowledge and understanding of the life history patterns
Endangered species have gained considerable attention in the past and ecological dynamics of important species in trade, in combination with the
decade as an issue of global proportion. At the recently concluded World existing information contained in the GMAD will hopefully provide answers to
Summit on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg, South Africa, concerns unfounded speculations and uncertainties concerning species used in trade, and
over endangered species were articulated and suggested actions to reduce the aquarium trade in general.
the current rate at which species are being wiped out were included in the
Plan of implementation. Shifting our focus to species-specific issues, giant clams constitute one of
the most sought-after marine species in trade due to high demand for their
Species become endangered or threatened when their population is meat and shells. Gomez and Licuanan state that throughout Southeast Asia,
reduced to unsustainable levels. Such is a result of, or a combination of wild tridacnid populations have been depleted and some species like Tridaca
various causes as human numbers grow and the demands on resources are gigas are depleted to the point of becoming virtually extinct. Illegal shell trade
mounting. The trade in endangered species is fuelled largely by market still continues despite inclusion of the giant clams in Appendix II of CITES. The
demand, which encourages commercial exploitation and poaching of high- authors propose that developing mariculture technology for tridacnids is
priced and rare species. This issue of Tropical Coasts presents seven articles primarily needed to provide clam seed for restocking as well as meeting the
which look at the status of important species in trade, the nature and demands of commercial trade. Innovative ways of managing giant clams are
magnitude of the threats, some recommended and tested management also presented, which consider merging several approaches. In the Philippines,
measures being undertaken to ensure sustainable use of resources, as well species restocking is being undertaken through stewardship agreements with
as the successes and challenges in enforcing and implementing CITES local government units, people’s organizations and private groups. On a regional
(Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna scale, efforts to re-establish giant clam populations are being concentrated in
and Flora). marine protected areas.
Domestic and international trade in considered to have caused the For marine turtles, the scenario is similar. Chan and Shepherd’s article
overexploitation of coral reefs, removal of rare and key species and the use provides a glimpse of the current level of exploitation of marine turtles in the
of destructive fishing practices in Southeast Asia, home to 34 percent of the region, which is mainly driven by the demand for their eggs, shells, meat, skin
world’s coral reefs. Best’s article describes the major issues and impacts of and bones. Egg collection for consumption has been considered as one of the
trade on coral reef ecosystems, presents innovative approaches to sustainable major forms of exploitation of marine turtles in Southeast Asia. For most
resource use, and specific recommendations for action. The article highlights populations, the rates of decline have been estimated to range from 50-80
the role of the United States in international trade and its responsibility in percent. The majority of countries in the region have acceded to CITES. Trade in
shaping conservation strategies and trade policies. To ensure more turtle products, however, continues across international boundaries. While
sustainable and responsible trade in coral reef animals and products,
continued on page 57

2 Tropical Coasts
in this issue
4

Tropical Coasts
w w w . p e m s e a . o r g
Coral Reefs in Crisis: Trade in Coral
Reef Animals and Products
Barbara A. Best
Volume 9 No.2 December 2 002
Chua Thia-Eng 12
Executive Editor Implementing an International
The Global Environment Facility/
United Nations Development
Certification System for a
S. Adrian Ross Programme/International Maritime Sustainable Marine Aquarium Trade
Olof Linden Organization Regional Programme Paul Holthus and Sylvia Spalding
Edgardo D. Gomez on Partnerships in Environmental
Editors Management for the Seas of East 18
Asia (GEF/UNDP/IMO PEMSEA),
Sida Marine Science Programme, Understanding the Trade in East
Nancy A. Bermas and the Coastal Management Cen-
Issue Editor ter (CMC) publish Tropical Coasts Asian Aquarium Species
biannually. This publication is geared Edmund Green
towards stimulating an exchange of
Abigail Mercado-Malto information and sharing of experi- 24
Leo Rex C. Cayaban ences and ideas with respect to envi-
Assistant Editors ronmental protection and the man-
agement of coastal and marine ar-
Giant Clam Conservation
eas. Readers are strongly encouraged in Southeast Asia
Jonel P. Dulay to send their contributions to: S. Suzanne Mingoa-Licuanan and Edgardo D. Gomez
Emmanuel Isla
Design/Illustration/DTP 38
Executive Editor
P.O. Box 2502 Marine Turtles: The Scenario in
Barbara A. Best Quezon City 1165
Paul Holthus Metro Manila, Philippines
Southeast Asia
Sylvia Spalding Eng-Heng Chan and Chris R. Shepherd
Edmund Green The contents of this publication do not necessar- 44
ily reflect the views or policies of the Global Envi-
Edgardo D. Gomez ronment Facility (GEF), the United Nations Devel- Conserving Migratory Species Through
opment Programme (UNDP), the International
S. Suzanne Mingoa- Maritime Organization (IMO), the Partnerships Ecoregion Conservation Approach:
Licuanan in Environmental Management for the Seas of
East Asia (PEMSEA), Sida Marine Science Pro- The Case of Sea Turtles in Sulu-
Eng-Heng Chan gram, Coastal Management Center (CMC), other Sulawesi Marine Ecoregion
participating organizations, or the editors, nor
Chris R. Shepherd are they an official record. The designation Romeo B. Trono and Jose Alfred B. Cantos
Romeo B. Trono employed and the presentation do not imply the
expression of opinion whatsoever on the part of 50
Jose Alfred B. Cantos GEF, UNDP, IMO, PEMSEA, Sida Marine Science
Program or CMC concerning the legal status of
Tomme Rosanne Young any country, territory or city or its authority, or
concerning the delimitation of its territory or Beyond the Promises: Enforcing and
Zulhasni boundaries. Implementing CITES
Contributors
ISSN 0117-9756 Tomme Rosanne Young

departments
on the cover
• Editorial 2 • PEMSEA Events 60
Going... Going... Gone? • PEMSEA News 58 • Facts and Figures 64
The trade in marine
endangered species continues special feature
in the face of increasing global
awareness to the
environmental risks involved. 32 The Bali and Danang
As experts race to find ways in Coastal Strategy
making the trade sustainable, Declarations:
international instruments and United with a common vision and purpose, Bali and A Stakeholder Response
on-the-ground efforts provide Danang lay the foundations for a comprehensive for a Common Vision and
vital clues on moving forward. strategy and action plans for their coastal and Future
marine environment.

December 2 0 0 2 3
Barbara A. Best*
Coastal Resources Advisor
Bureau for Economic Growth,
Coral Reefs in Crisis:
Agriculture and Trade
US Agency for International
Development
Washington, DC, USA
Trade in Coral Reef
I ntroduction Animals and Products
Coral reefs around the world are in
crisis, threatened by a powerful
combination of stresses. In Southeast
Asia, trade is driving the
overexploitation of reefs, the removal
of rare and key species, and the use of
fishing practices that physically destroy
reefs. These unsustainable and
destructive practices are endangering
coral reefs, altering the ecosystem
functions of reefs and greatly
diminishing the long-term economic

US Fish and Wiladlife Service


value and ecosystem benefits to local
communities. Declining reef health
threatens food security, jobs and
livelihoods - from fisheries to tourism -
for hundreds of millions in the region.
Corals and seashells for trade.

Both new and proven management


approaches need to be widely adopted O verview of Trade
T rade species in trade as coral reefs. Trade

throughout the region to reverse reef involves:

degradation. Clear limits need to be Coral reefs can be easily

set on the trade and ecological reserves overexploited. Due to their high · reef substrate, live corals, fish
biodiversity and large number of and invertebrates for the marine
established. Local communities, fishing
species, reefs are characterized by aquarium trade;
co-operatives, commercial fishers and
many species with relatively low · live reef fish, giant clams, giant
the national government must all population numbers. Many rare tritons, lobsters, shrimp, clams
assume responsibility for promoting species, complex food webs and and snails for the live food fish
sustainable collection practices and reef tight-nutrient recycling - all make trade;
stewardship. Exporting and importing reefs especially vulnerable to · dead and dried sea cucumbers,
countries can play strong roles through overexploitation. fish, sharks, sea turtles,

creative export/import requirements. seahorses and other


No other ecosystem supports invertebrates for the dried food
*The views and opinions expressed in this article are
solely of the author and are not necessarily those of the diversity and large number of and medicinal trades; and
the institution she is affiliated with.

4 Tropical Coasts
· dead and dried corals, precious
corals, seashells, starfish and other
invertebrates for the curio and
jewelry trades.

In Southeast Asia, overexploitation


and the use of destructive fishing
practices (i.e., those that physically
destroy reef habitats, such as poisons,
blasting, dredging and trawling), are
driven largely by domestic and
international trade in coral reef animals

Lida Pet-Soude
and products. International trade for
live food and aquarium fish is driving
the use of cyanide and other poisons to
Dynamite blast fishing.
temporarily stun reef fish for easier
collection. The poisons also kill coral
and other reef animals, and can kill and · destructive fishing practices that Rare and Endangered
injure the target fish. destroy the habitat, such as blast
fishing, poisons, dredging, Globally, coral reefs are rare
Blast fishing, trawling and trawling and muro-ami drive ecosystems, covering only about 0.2
dredging are generally associated with nets; percent of the ocean's area. Coral
trade for dead and dried food products. · targeting of grouper spawning reefs are also endangered
These practices often leave reefs totally aggregation sites that rapidly ecosystems - over 25 percent of
destroyed or severely damaged, with decimate adult populations; coral reefs have already been lost or
little prospect for rapid recovery. The · expansion of fishing and severely degraded, and another 30
collection of live coral and reef collection into deeper reef areas; percent may be lost over the next 30
substrate is destructive in that vital · lack of appropriate marine years. Major factors contributing to
components of the reef habitat are zoning, especially large-scale, this coral reef crisis include
permanently removed. permanent ecological reserves overfishing and the use of destructive
where extractive uses are fishing practices, sedimentation and
International trade in reef animals prohibited; pollution from unsound coastal
is largely unregulated and in many · environmental impacts of development and poor land use
cases illegal and unreported. While seaweed mariculture in reef practices and bleaching from rising
many countries prohibit the use of environments; sea surface temperatures (Burke et
poisons, fish collected with the use of · vulnerability of reefs to extractive al., 2002).
cyanide are still entering the market uses following bleaching events;
illegally, along with prohibited species. and More than 30 years ago, there
· high incidence of paralysis and was strong international concern that
Major issues associated with trade death in collectors associated some coral reef species were
include: with unsafe diving practices, endangered or may become
inappropriate use of diving threatened through trade. Some of
· overexploitation of reef resources equipment (such as hookah rigs) those species are listed under the
and removal of rare and key species; and lack of diving regulations. Convention on the International

December 2002 5
Trade in Endangered Species of Wild
Fauna and Flora (CITES), and include
2,000 species of hard (stony) corals,
black coral, giant clams, Queen conch,
and sea turtles.

Since the first reef animals were


listed on CITES, the known status of
corals and reefs indicate that they have
become even more endangered from
trade and other stresses. Given the
coral reef crisis and the mounting
threats to reefs, reef species and
ecosystems can be considered as

Burke et al,. 2002


endangered and threatened.

Overfishing and
Figure 1. Map of Southeast Asia indicating reefs
at low, medium and high risk from overfishing. Destructive Fishing

Nowhere is the threat to corals


and reef animals from trade more
evident than in Southeast Asia, home
to 34 percent of the world's coral reefs
and the center of marine biodiversity.
Eighty-eight percent of reefs in the
region are threatened by human
activities, according to a recent
assessment of the risks to reefs
conducted by the World Resources
Institute and regional collaborators.
The greatest threats are posed by
overfishing (Figure 1) and destructive
fishing practices (Figure 2),
threatening an estimated 64 percent
and 56 percent of reefs in the region,
respectively (Burke et al., 2002). Many
Burke et al,. 2002

countries have 50 percent or more of


their reefs classified as threatened by
overfishing, while destructive fishing
threatens over two-thirds of reefs in
Figure 2. Map of Southeast Asia indicating
the Philippines, Malaysia and Taiwan
reefs at low, medium and high risk from
destructive fishing. and over 50 percent of the reefs in
Indonesia (Table 1).

6 Tropical Coasts
The severity of overfishing from play an important role in ensuring The Role of the United
trade is highlighted by five years of that corals are not overgrown by States
Reef Check surveys (Hodgson and more rapidly growing macro-algae.
Liebeler, 2002). Many species of high The overexploitation of key species, While many food fish
commercial value for the food, such as top predators and products primarily go to Asian
aquarium and curio trades were competitors, can lead to instability markets, reef animals and
absent, or present in very low and cascading negative impacts on products for the marine aquaria
numbers, in almost all the reefs reef ecosystems (Carr et al., 2002). and curio trades primarily go to
surveyed. The commercial trade is the USA, the European Union
relatively mobile; even remote reefs For some species, deeper and Canada. The USA is the
are targeted for collection, reefs may be spatial refugia that number one consumer of live
particularly as nearby reefs are have been maintaining fisheries corals and fish for marine
overfished. despite the intense fishing aquaria, coral skeletons and
pressures in shallower habitats. other dried animals for curio
Exploitation in these deeper reefs is and jewelry markets. Each year,
Trade Impacts increasing as technology improves the USA imports 60-80 percent
and as local fishers move into of the live coral, over 50 percent
Domestic and international deeper waters. Very little is known of the curio coral, and 95
trade is driving the use of destructive about the ecology of these deeper percent of the live rock and reef
fishing practices, overfishing and the reefs or the potential impacts from substrate in international trade
selective removal of key groups from exploitation and it is extremely (Bruckner, 2001). This trade is
coral reefs. Rare fish and coral difficult to monitor or manage reefs increasing by 10-30 percent
species are often targeted by the at these depths. each year (Figure 3). The USA
aquarium trade for the wild pet
industry, as these can fetch higher
United States imports:
prices. The trade also targets large-
• ~ 80% of all live corals
polyped corals, which tend to be the
• ~ 95% of the “live rock”
slowest growing and the least 700
Others • ~ 50% (8 million) marine
Volume (thousands of live coral colonies)

common. Marine ornamental fish are Canada


600 aquarium fish per year
presently collected in over 40 Asia
Europe
countries to supply hobbyists 500 United States
primarily in the United States,
European Union, Japan and Canada. 400
Overexploitation, the use of cyanide,
and the local loss of rare or endemic 300

species have been reported in many


200
countries (Best et al., 2002).
NOAA/NMFS; Bruckner, 2001

100
By targeting large groupers and
wrasses, the live food fish trade 0
removes key predator species from 1988 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 1998
reef ecosystems, thus altering their
dynamics. Trade also removes other Figure 3. International trade in live coral from 1988 to
1998, showing the major importing countries. Trade has
fishes that feed on algae, and thus
increased 10-30 percent each year.

December 2002 7
Local communities, fishing cooperatives,
Approaches for More
commercial fishers and the national Sustainable Resource
government must all assume Use

responsibility for promoting sustainable How should the use of coral


reefs be approached to ensure more
collection practices and reef stewardship. sustainable and responsible trade,

Exporting and importing countries can and future benefits to the local
communities so dependent upon

play strong roles through creative them? First, clearly recognize that
there are ecological limits to the
export/import requirements. bounty provided by coral reefs. A
precautionary approach, coupled
with an ecosystem-based
also imports about 8 million of increased over 400 percent and management approach, should be
the 14-30 million aquarium fish that in live reef rock has increased used to set limits on the volume and
in trade, two-thirds of which 1,700 percent. As a major type of animals collected, and where
originate in the Indo-Pacific and importer and world leader in both and how fishing occurs. Second, a
are largely caught with cyanide trade and coral reef conservation, strong social approach is needed to
(Anon., 2000; Wood, 2001). the USA could play a critical role in equitably allocate those resources
shaping conservation strategies among potential fishers -
Since 1988, the trade in and more responsible trade subsistence and commercial - and
coral for marine aquaria has policies. to promote strong incentives for
stewardship. Third, both exporting
and importing countries can play a
Table 1. Estimates of the percent of reefs at risk from
role in promoting more responsible
overfishing, destructive fishing and integrated threats
(aggregated for all human activities) for each area and the trade and for shifting the burden of
Southeast Asian region. (Burke et al., 2002.) proof onto those who benefit

THREAT commercially from reef resources.


Area
Overfishing Destructive Fishing Integrated Specific recommendations for

Brunei Darussalam 0 0 21 actions are listed in Box 1.


Cambodia 100 Unknown 100
India (Andaman, Nicobar) 55 3 55
Indonesia 64 53 85 Recognize the Ecological
Japan 70 0 78
Limits of Coral Reefs
Malaysia 56 68 85
Myanmar (Burma) 48 10 56
People's Republic of China 75 23 Reefs are extremely vulnerable
92
Philippines 80 70 98 to overexploitation due to complex
Singapore 48 22 100 food webs and tight nutrient
Spratly and Paracel Islands Unknown 100 100 recycling. There must be a cautious
Taiwan 70 75 100 approach how much and what types
Thailand 50 51 77
of animals are removed from reefs,
Vietnam 63 85 96
where and when fishing is allowed,
Southeast Asia 64 56 88

8 Tropical Coasts
Nowhere is the threat to corals and reef
and how animals are removed - i.e.,
follow a precautionary approach to animals from trade more evident than in
setting boundaries for responsible
removal and collection. Destructive
Southeast Asia, home to 34 percent of
fishing practices are inherently the world’s coral reef and the center of
unsustainable and must be
vigorously addressed through marine biodiversity.
improved stewardship and stronger
government enforcement and
penalties. Species or sizes of animals
that are inappropriate for trade - and fishing practices, including with the local fishers. However, to
such as rare or key species and those unfished reserves. Replenishment ensure sustainable large-scale
that form the essential reef habitat - reserves or no-take reserves, where commercial fisheries and
need to be identified and then all extractive uses are prohibited, functional reef ecosystems, large-
excluded from trade. can be effective fisheries scale ecological reserves are
management tools (Ward et al., urgently needed (Pauly et al.,
2001). Small-scale ecological 2002).
Establish Ecological Reserves reserves have been effective in
as Fishery Management Tools enhancing municipal coastal How large should ecological
fisheries in the Philippines, reserves be? For the marine
Coastal marine areas should be especially where local management aquarium fish trade, evidence
zoned into areas for different uses and enforcement authority resides suggests that setting aside 33
percent of the collection area as
no-take may not be sufficient and
Box 1. Recommendations for actions.
a larger area may be needed to
ensure sustainability (Tissot et al.,
• Adopt precautionary, ecosystem-based approaches to reef management.
2002).
• Prohibit commercial exploitation of species until a management plan has been
developed that includes that particular species.
• Develop management plans with strong stakeholder involvement; balance
commercial uses with local uses. Promote Strong Incentives
• Utilize environmental performance bonds, posted by commercial operators, as
for Resource Stewardship
stakeholder investment.
• Establish substantial ecological, no-take areas as integral components of all
management plans. Strong, decentralized, local
• Zone specific areas for specific uses and users, and establish appropriate monitoring governance can help promote
plans for each area. Where appropriate, establish well-defined, small geographic
responsible stewardship,
areas that can be used as concessions to individuals, cooperatives or communities to
increase stakeholder investment in sustainable use. management and equitable
• Address destructive fishing practices through strong enforcement, appropriate fines allocation of resources among the
and stewardship incentives. various users. Strong stewardship
• Importing countries - require individual importers to show documentation that animals
incentives can be promoted
and products were not taken by destructive means, and that they are from areas
under sustainable management. Stiff fines should be levied on importers for through co-management
falsification of documentation. approaches, establishment of
• Address the health impacts on divers from excessive diving and hold commercial fishing co-operatives and the use
operators responsible for diving safety. Include collector health as a component of
of concessions - assigned and
permitting and eco-certification schemes.

December 2002 9
While many food fish products
delineated fishing areas to individual
primarily go to Asian markets, fishers or fishing cooperatives.
Commercial users can be required to
reef animals and products for the post environmental performance bonds

marine aquaria and curio trades as incentives for, and assurances of, good
stewardship.

primarily go to the United States,


European Union and Canada. Shift the Burden of Proof and
Expand the Role of Exporting and
Importing Countries

Creative trade regulations and


market incentives may be used to reward
and encourage responsible use of coral
reef resources. Central to the use of
these regulations and market forces is the
concept of shifting the burden of proof -
commercial users must demonstrate that
products are collected sustainably and
without the use of destructive practices,
rather than the burden falling on others
to prove that harm has been done
(Dayton, 1998).

Through export regulations and


licenses, exporting countries could shift
the burden of proof onto those exporters
engaged in the live food fish and
aquarium trades, where cyanide use is
widespread. Exporters could be required
to cover the cost of establishing and
maintaining cyanide-testing facilities and
for random, independent testing of live
fish exports.

Importing countries must share


responsibility along with exporting
countries for creating incentives for
B. Best

sustainable products. Importing


countries could require individual
Women cleaning seashells in the importers to show evidence (beyond the
Philippines for the curio trade. CITES documents) that products came

10 Tropical Coasts
from areas under sustainable eco-certified products. A
management and were collected by consumer who purchases an eco-
nondestructive methods. certified product should be assured
Importers would then have to work that the product is ecologically
with the exporters and collectors in sustainable. Therefore, any eco-
the source country to ensure certification scheme must clearly
sustainable practices are document, before the products
implemented and that effective enter the market stream, that they
management and monitoring are were collected in an ecologically
occurring. Such import sustainable manner. Animals or
requirements could also galvanize products that cannot be assured of
eco-certification schemes (Anon., sustainability, are rare or
2000). inappropriate for trade, or come
from areas that are not under

B. Best
In some trades, it may be sustainable management, should
possible to channel consumer not be certified and allowed in Variety of dead and dyed
demand in importing countries for
starfish for sale in the
trade.
United States.

References

Anon. 2000. International trade in coral and coral reef species: Hodgson, G. and J. Liebeler. 2002. The global coral reef crisis:
the role of the United States. Report of the Trade Subgroup trends and solutions. Reef Check Foundation, USA. Avail
of the International Working Group to the US Coral Reef from: http://www.reefcheck.org
Task Force, USA. Avail from: http://www.coralreef.gov
Pauly, D., V. Christensen, S. Guenette, T.J. Pitcher, U.R.
Best, B.A., R.S. Pomeroy and C.M. Balboa. 2002. Implications for Sumaila, C.J. Walters, R. Watson and D. Zeller. 2002.
coral reef management and policy: relevant findings from Towards sustainability in world fisheries. Nature
the Ninth International Coral Reef Symposium. US Agency 418:689-695.
for International Development, USA. Avail from: http://
www.usaidwater.org Tissot, B.N., W.J. Walsh and L.E. Hallacher. 2002. The
effectiveness of marine protected areas and the impacts
Bruckner, A. 2001. Tracking the trade in ornamental coral reef of aquarium fish collection in Hawaii. Tech. Rep. 2001.
organisms: the importance of CITES and its limitations. Avail from: http://www.coralreefnetwork/com/kona/
Aquar. Sci. Conserv. 3:79-94. publications.htm

Burke, L., E. Selig and M. Spalding. 2002. Reefs at risk in Ward, T.J., D. Heinemann and E. Nathan. 2001. The role of
Southeast Asia. World Resources Institute, USA. Avail from: marine reserves as fisheries management tools: a review
http://www.wri.org/wri/reefsatrisk of concepts, evidence and international experience.
Bureau of Rural Sciences, Australia. Avail from: http://
Carr, M.H., T.W. Anderson and M.A. Hixon. 2002. Biodiversity, www.brs.gov.au
population regulation, and the stability of coral-reef fish
communities. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 99(17):11241-11245. Wood, E. 2001. Collection of coral reef fish for aquaria:
global trade, conservation issues and management
Dayton, P. 1998. Reversal of the burden of proof in fisheries strategies. Marine Conservation Society, UK. 80 p.
management. Science 279: 821-822.

December 2002 11
Paul Holthus
Executive Director
Implementing an
Marine Aquarium Council, Inc.
Honolulu, Hawaii, USA

and
International Certification
Sylvia Spalding
Communications Director
Marine Aquarium Council, Inc.
System for a Sustainable
Honolulu, Hawaii, USA
Marine Aquarium Trade
Background

A responsible marine aquarium


trade provides incentives for reef
management and conservation.
Unfortunately, there is an
assumption among some that reef

© Marine Aquarium Council, Inc.


conservation and the marine
aquarium trade are incompatible.
Most of this current
misunderstanding revolves around
three main issues: destructive
fishing, overfishing and high post- Certification of the marine aquarium industry aims to
eliminate the destructive use of cyanide and promote
harvest mortality. However, only the environmentally sustainable use of hand nets.
some marine aquarium industry
operators employ these Environmental Issues been used to capture larger live reef
unsustainable practices. and the Marine fish for sale to specialty restaurants

Furthermore, this assumption fails Ornamental Trade in Asian cities with large Chinese
populations (Johannes and Riepen,
to take into account the
1995). Despite the fact that cyanide
socioeconomic benefits and
Destructive Practices fishing is nominally illegal in most
motivation for reef stewardship
countries, the high premium paid for
created by the marine aquarium
Destructive aquarium fishery live reef fish, weak enforcement
trade. The Marine Aquarium collecting practices include the use of capacities and corruption have
Council has established a sodium cyanide and other chemicals spread the use of the poison across
certification system that aims to to stun and catch fish, and the the Asia-Pacific region (Barber and
eliminate the negative aspects and breaking of corals. Cyanide was first Pratt, 1997).
accentuate the positive aspects of used to stun and capture aquarium

the trade. fish in the 1960s in Taiwan and/or the The use of cyanide involves
Philippines (McAllister et al., 1999). dissolving tablets of the chemical in
Since the late 1970s, cyanide has also a bottle of seawater and then

12 Tropical Coasts
A growing amount of qualitative evidence
squirting the solution at the target
fish, which is usually hidden in a coral
of aquarium fish populations in fished
crevice. The stunned fish can then be areas is coming from underwater surveys
caught or sometimes, after divers
have pried the reef apart. They are and observations by reef scientists and
later revived in uncontaminated
seawater. Apparently, it is very
fisheries experts. The information is
difficult to know how many targeted
fish are killed directly by cyanide use.
varied. Some indicate there may be some
The effects of the chemical also affect reductions in fish populations, at least
how well the fish survive the
additional stress of handling and temporarily, among heavily fished species.
transport. Many cyanide caught fish
die before or soon after they have
Others report that there is no noticeable
been sold, with mortality figures
decline in fish diversity and abundance.
ranging up to 80 percent (Hanawa et
al., 1998). to recruitment patterns. This also Since live coral and live rock
complicates the ability to determine the form part of the reef structure, their
Cyanide also kills or damages effects of fishing effort on reef fish collection and export create
corals and nontarget fish and populations (Doherty, 1991). additional concerns that high levels of
invertebrates, although there is harvesting from limited areas may
limited field research and data on this A growing amount of qualitative affect the ability of the reef to
(Jones and Steven, 1997). In addition, evidence of aquarium fish populations maintain itself and its ecosystem
cyanide use is a health risk for in fished areas is coming from functions. The trade in all hard (stony)
fishers, through accidental exposure underwater surveys and observations corals, both live and dead, is
to the poison and careless use of by reef scientists and fisheries experts. regulated under Appendix II of the
often shoddy compressed-air diving The information is varied. Some Convention on International Trade in
gear by untrained divers (Barber and indicate there may be some reductions Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and
Pratt, 1997). in fish populations, at least Flora (CITES), which provides an
temporarily, among heavily fished important level of control and data
species. Others report that there is no gathering for the trade in coral
Overfishing noticeable decline in fish diversity and species.
abundance.
The depletion of fish stocks due The most comprehensive review
to collection of marine ornamentals The only systematic study on of the coral trade based on CITES data
has often been considered unlikely aquarium fish harvesting effects was concluded that, globally, the trade in
(Randall, 1987), although rare undertaken in Hawaii, which found coral is not a high impact industry
species may be an exception to this declines in six of the seven most (Green and Shirley, 1999). In
(Lubbock and Polunin, 1975). abundantly collected fishes (Tissot, Indonesia, coral harvesting for the
Overfishing seemed especially 1999). The study also showed that aquarium trade is managed by a fairly
improbable for abundant species there is no evidence of habitat broad quota system and the harvest
with pelagic eggs, as there is destruction due to fishing practices of coral is considered to be a
tremendous spatial and temporal and no increase in algae growth where relatively minor risk to the overall
variation in reef fish populations due herbivore populations were being collected. health of the coral reef ecosystem

December 2002 13
(Bentley, 1998). Due to the importance of live coral to the characteristics of the species involved and level of
reef ecosystem, specific area-based fishery management for experience of the collector and others handling the
coral harvesting is needed, as well as for the growing live animal. The quality of the husbandry, handling, holding
rock collection in some countries (Grigg, 1984; Wells et al., and transport facilities, and practices are particularly
1994). critical to the health of the fish, e.g., water quality and
packing densities. Fortunately, most of the quality
Post-harvest Health controls that are needed to maintain the health of
and Mortality aquarium animals and minimize mortality are known. In
addition, many aquarium industry operators have
Even when collected in an environmentally sound excellent facilities and high quality practices, and some
manner, aquarium organisms often suffer from poor retailers and importers in a few countries adhere to a
husbandry and transport practices resulting in stress, “code of practice”.
reduced health and increased mortality. This unnecessary
mortality creates added pressure on coral reefs as more
organisms are collected to make up for those that die. There Positive Aspects of the Marine
are wide variations in the estimated levels of post-capture Ornamental Trade
fish mortality - from a few percent for net caught fish that
are handled by high quality operations to 80 percent or Socioeconomic Benefits
more for cyanide caught fish that are poorly handled.
Collecting and exporting marine aquarium
There are many variables that affect post-harvest organisms in developing countries creates jobs and
health and mortality, such as collection method, income in rural low-income coastal areas that have limited
resources and economic options (Holthus, 1999).
Collecting marine aquarium organisms provides one of
the few possibilities for a sustainable local industry. For
example, there are estimated 7,000 aquarium fish
collectors in the Philippines. Many of them support
families. A report of the United Nations Educational,
Scientific and Cultural Organization estimates the number
of people in Sri Lanka directly involved in the export of
reef animals as high as 50,000 (Kenchington, 1985).

Marine ornamentals are in fact one of the highest


value added products possible to harvest sustainably
from coral reefs, bringing a higher economic return than
© Marine Aquarium Council, Inc.

most other reef uses. For example, live coral in trade is


estimated to be worth about US$7,000 per tonne, while the
use of harvested coral for lime production yields only
about US$60 per tonne (Green and Shirley, 1999). The
figures for reef fish are even more striking. Reef fish
harvested for food from one island country were valued at
US$6,000 per tonne. Aquarium fish from the same
Certification will help tremendously in the area of
post-harvest handling, minimizing mortalities and country realized a return of over US$496,000 per tonne
the demand for replacement fish from the reefs. (FAO, 1999).

14 Tropical Coasts
Because of the important socioeconomic
Reef Conservation Benefits
benefits the aquarium trade brings to
Due to the important socio- rural, coastal communities in developing
economic benefits that the aquarium
trade brings to rural coastal countries, fishers and their families have
communities in developing countries,
fishers and their families have an
an incentive to ensure their reefs are
incentive to ensure their reefs are
healthy, managed for sustainable use
healthy, managed for sustainable use
and continue to produce aquarium and continue to produce aquarium fish.
fish. As a result, collectors of marine
ornamentals and their communities future of local reefs. It could also be conservation and the marine
often become active reef stewards. by the local fishers themselves. aquarium industry has now begun in
They guard these valuable resources Without a sustainable income from earnest through the work of the
against destructive uses and aquarium fisheries or other Marine Aquarium Council (MAC) to
sometimes create informal sustainable use, they could be forced bring together aquarists, the
management systems or de facto into poverty-driven use of aquarium industry, conservation
conservation areas. destructive fishing practices in order organizations, government agencies
to get food for their families. Without and public aquariums (Bunting et al.,
This is often in areas that are far income generation options in the in press). As the international, multi-
from reach of government capability to rural areas, they could also be forced stakeholder certification organization
provide resource management or law to migrate to overpopulated urban for the marine aquarium industry,
enforcement. Many government areas, adding burden to social issues MAC has undertaken the following:
agencies in developing countries admit in the country.
that they will never have the staff or · developed standards for quality
funds to adequately manage or police products and sustainable
most coral reefs. Nor are there going Certification for a practices;
to be outside "savior" investments, Sustainable Marine · established a system to certify
such as beach hotels, dive tours or Ornamental Trade compliance with these standards
ecotourism, for the vast majority of the and label the results; and
world's "working" reefs. These coral The collection and export of · begun creating consumer
reefs and the adjacent coastal marine aquarium organisms can be demand and confidence for
communities depend on each other for based on quality and sustainability to certification and labeling.
their survival. achieve a balance among reef health,
aquarium animal collection and the
On the other hand, without benefits described above. This was Standards Development
sustainable use of coral reefs - such as proven by the many successful
the responsible collection of aquarium industry operations and aquarists The MACSM Standards outline
animals and the incentives that this that provide and maintain high the requirements for third-party
creates for local resource stewardship quality, healthy aquarium organisms certification of quality and
- reefs would probably become open to with minimal mortality. sustainability in the marine aquarium
more destructive uses. This could be in industry -- from Reef to RetailSM.
the form of destructive fishing by Fortunately, the symbiotic There are three MACSM Standards
outsiders that have no stake in the relationship between reef covering the entire supply chain:

December 2002 15
· The Ecosystem and Fishery Certification and Labeling the Indonesia Coral, Shell and
Management Standard Ornamental Fish Association - is
addresses in-situ habitat, stock The MAC SM
Certification system working closely with a consortium of
and species management and was launched in November 2001 Indonesian conservation groups to
conservation by verifying that along with the unveiling of the MACSM develop a pilot project for the
the collection area is managed Certified label. Following the launch, implementation of MACSM Standards
to ensure ecosystem health 70 marine aquarium companies in in that country.
and the sustainable use of the more than a dozen countries
marine aquarium fishery. worldwide publicly stated their On the demand side, MAC is
commitment to become certified. actively working with several
· The Collection, Fishing and MAC has accredited five independent importers and retailers in the United
Holding Standard addresses certifiers to audit compliance of States and possibly in Europe, aiming
harvesting of fish, coral, live marine aquarium operators to the for certification before the end of
rock and other coral reef MACSM Standards. 2002.
organisms; handling prior to
export; holding; and, The first implementation of
packaging and transport, to MACSM Certification took place in the Creating Consumer Demand
ensure destructive practices Philippines in June 2002. Three export
are not used, the sustainable companies, three collector MAC is undertaking a
use of the marine aquarium associations and three collection multifaceted campaign to inform
fishery and the optimal health areas were audited by a MACSM consumers about issues in the
of the harvested organisms. Accredited certifier. The exporters marine aquarium trade and to
were located in Metro Manila. The encourage them to use their
· The Handling, Husbandry and collector associations and collection purchasing power to demand MACSM
Transport Standard addresses areas were located in Palauig (province Certified organisms. These are
the handling and tracing of of Zambales in Luzon) and in Tubigon collected in a MACSM Certified
marine life during export, and Clarin (province of Bohol in the collection area by certified collectors
import and retail to ensure Visayas). Informal communications and pass through only MACSM
their optimal health, their from the certifier sound promising. Certified facilities.
segregation from uncertified The results will be made public after
organisms and proper the certifier's formal audit reports are Consumers can visit the MAC
documentation to show that finalized. website at www.aquariumcouncil.org to
they pass only from one MAC find a list of the MACSM Certified
Certified industry operator to Elsewhere in the Pacific, Fiji is retailers. These retailers can carry
another. positioning itself to be among the first both certified and noncertified
South Pacific countries with MAC organisms. Hence, when visiting
The MACSM Standards are Certified collection and export. Closer certified shops, consumers will look
available at to MAC headquarters in Honolulu, for the tanks with the MACSM
www.aquariumcouncil.org. They are work on marine ornamentals Certification label and ask to review
accompanied by Best Practice certification in Hawaii has received the shop's list of MACSM Certified
Guidance documents that provide dedicated support and will be ramped organisms. The first MACSM Certified
advice to industry operators on up in the coming months. In organisms are expected to be in the
how they might be able to comply Indonesia, the Asosiasi Koral Kerang market by 2002. Major media
with the standards. dan Ikan Hias Indonesia (AKKII)-i.e., campaigns are planned for 2003.

16 Tropical Coasts
Conclusion

To date, MACSM Certification for


the marine aquarium trade has
proven to be highly successful. This is
largely due to the multi-
stakeholder approach to work with the
entire chain of custody, particularly
the village-based fishers and their
communities, as well as national and Consumers are being
local government agencies and informed on how they can
help promote reef
nongovernment organizations. Within
conservation by shopping
the first six months of the at MACSM Certified stores
certification system launch, many of MAC Certification is also a success and purchasing certified
organisms, located in
the industry operators seeking MAC for environmental certification, in
tanks with the MACSM
Certification paid for their own audits. general. Already MAC is being Certified label.
MAC is on track to having a significant called upon to assist in developing
portion of the industry certified within industry standards for other kinds
five years, which will allow MAC itself of trade in natural resources, such
to become financially self-sustaining. as the trade in live reef food fish.

References

Barber, C. and P. Vaughn.1997. Sullied seas: Green, E. and F. Shirley. 1999. The global trade in coral. Kenchington, R. 1985. Coral reef ecosystems: a
strategies for combating cyanide fishing in SE WCMC Biodivers. Ser. No. 9. World Conservation sustainable resource. Nat. Resour. 21 (2): 18-27.
Asia and beyond. World Resources Institute Monitoring Centre, USA.
and International Marinelife Alliance- Lubbock, H. and N. Polunin. 1975. Conservation and
Philippines. Grigg, R. 1984. Resource management of precious the tropical marine aquarium trade.
corals: a review and application to shallow water Environmental Conserv. 2:229-32.
Bentley, N. 1998. An overview of the exploitation, reef building corals. Mar. Ecol. 5 (1): 57-74.
trade and management of corals in Indonesia. McAllister, D., N. Caho and C. Shih. 1999. Cyanide
TRAFFIC Bull. 17 (2): 67-78. Hanawa, M., L. Harris, M. Graham, A. Farrell and L. fisheries: where did they start? . Info. Bull. 5:18-
Bendall-Young. 1998. Effects of cyanide exposure 21. Secretariat of the Pacific Community Live Reef
Bunting, B., P. Holthus and S. Spalding. The marine on Dascyllus aruanus, a tropical marine fish Fish .
aquarium industry and reef conservation. species: lethality, anesthesia and physiological
Marine ornamentals: collection, culture and effects. Aquar. Sci. Conserv. 2:21-34. Randall, J. 1987. Collecting reef fishes for aquaria, p.
conservation. Iowa State University Press, 29-39. In B. Salvat (ed.) Human impacts on coral
Iowa, USA. (In press). Holthus, P. 1999. Sustainable development of oceans reefs: facts and recommendations, Antenne Musee,
and coasts: the role of the private sector. UN Nat. EPHE, French Polynesia.
Doherty, P. 1991. Spatial and temporal patterns in Resour. Forum 23 (2): 169-176.
recruitment, p. 261-293. In The ecology of coral Tissot, B. 1999. Adaptive management of aquarium
reef fishes, P. Sale, (ed.). Academic Press. Johannes, R. and M. Riepen. 1995. Environmental, fish collecting in Hawaii. Info. Bull. 6:16-19.
economic and social implications of the live fish Secretariat of the Pacific Community Live Reef Fish.
FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the trade in Asia and the Western Pacific. The Nature
United Nations). 1999. FAO news and Conservancy, USA. Wells, S., P. Holthus and J. Maragos. 1994.
highlights. Ornamental aquatic life: what's Environmental guidelines for coral harvesting
FAO got to do with it? Avail from: http:// Jones, R. and A. Steven. 1997. Effects of cyanide on operations. Rep. Stud. No. 75. South Pacific
www.fao.org/news/1999/990901-e.htm corals in relation to cyanide fishing on reefs. Mar. Regional Environment Programme .
Freshwat. Res. 48: 517-522.

December 2002 17
Edmund Green
Head
Marine and Coastal Programme
UNEP World Conservation
Understanding the
Monitoring Centre
Cambridge, United Kingdom
Trade in East Asian
Introduction
Aquarium Species
The aquarium industry has attracted
much controversy in recent years.
such as the Indonesian cardinalfish,
Opponents to the trade draw attention
Pterapogon kauderni, have extremely
to the damaging techniques sometimes limited biogeographical ranges, hence
used to collect fish and invertebrates, and there may be justifiable cause for
to the high levels of mortality associated concern if this species is traded in large
with insensitive shipping and poor quantities.
husbandry along the supply chain.
Aquarium species are typically gathered 2. How many of each species are

by local fishers using live capture traded??


The pan-tropical shrimp
techniques (such as slurp guns or barrier Stenopus hispidus is the most
traded invertebrate. The history of commercial food
and hand nets) or chemical stupefactants
fisheries provides too many depressing
(such as sodium cyanide). Consequently, The controversy over the benefits examples of previously numerous
the marine aquarium trade is frequently and costs of trade, in terms of populations of fish being decimated
referred to as a major contributing cause environmental impact, persists largely through overexploitation. Even
to the global decline of coral reefs. because of the difficulty in answering abundant species of aquarium
two questions: organisms cannot therefore be
Meanwhile, supporters of the aquarium assumed to be safe if the quantities by

industry maintain that it is potentially 1. Which species are involved? which they are collected are unknown.

highly sustainable, that proper collection In 2001, a pair of angelfish, collected


End consumers make most of from 100+ m using specialist deep
techniques have minimal impact on the
their purchasing decisions on diving techniques, sold for US$5,000
coral reef, and that the industry is
particular species, dictated either by each - an event which attracted a good
relatively low volume but with very high the constraints of their aquarium deal of attention. These fish are
value. There is little disagreement about system and the other organisms in it, believed to be rare. There was also
the latter – a kilo of aquarium fish from their experience and skill level, or by justifiable concern that such high
the Maldives was valued at almost fashion and impulse. Species which are prices would fuel collection targeted at
US$500 in 2000, whereas reef fish naturally rare or have highly restricted a vulnerable species. However, there is
harvested for food were worth only US$6. ranges can be reasonably expected to no indication that this was anything

Aquarium species are a high value source be vulnerable to overcollection. For other than an unusual sale to a highly
example, some species in trade, such specialized customer. If only a handful
of income in many coastal communities
as the Moorish idol, Zanclus cornutus, of these fish are collected and sold
with limited resources, with the actual
are widely distributed. It is therefore each year, then even with little idea of
value to the fishers determined largely
unlikely that trade is a threat to this the biology or population dynamics of
by market access. species. Other species of fish in trade, the species, it is unlikely to be

18 Tropical Coasts
threatened by trade. Clearly, an
Options for action would be restricted
understanding of the quantities by
which the species in trade are
to blanket global bans if the basis for
collected and sold is essential. targeted national level measures –
If certain aquarium species have where the organisms are coming from
been identified as being threatened by
trade or through a combination of
and where they are being shipped to –
their life history characteristics and
remain unknown.
the quantities by which they are
collected, then appropriate action the convention are obliged to compelling them to turn to perhaps
should be undertaken, in the interest produce annual reports specifying even more destructive, short-term
of both trade and conservation. the quantity of trade that has taken activities in order to feed their
Options for action would be restricted place in each listed species. Using families.
to blanket global bans if the basis for these reports, the magnitude and
targeted national level measures – taxonomic composition of the
where the organisms are coming from international trade can then be Global Marine Aquarium
and where they are being shipped to – calculated (Green and Shirley, 1999). Database
remain unknown. However, for all other organisms,
there is no standardized system of The best source of quantitative
Existing sources of data on the reporting used by governments and data on the aquarium trade are the
aquarium trade are inadequate to nor is there ever likely to be one. Yet, wholesale import and export
answer these questions. Appendix II of the marine aquarium trade continues companies which link the supply and
the Convention on International Trade to receive the attention of politicians retail ends of the business. As a
in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and conservation organizations, matter of routine business practice,
and Flora (CITES) lists all species of attracted by accounts of destructive companies keep records of their
hard corals and giant clams. Parties to collection practices, the introduction sales, either as paper copies of their
of alien species, overexploitation and invoices or on company computer
the threat of extinction of target databases. The exact nature of these
species. Some regulations have records varies, but each documents
already been established, more are the quantity of any individual species
being called for and might follow. At bought or sold, the date of every
stake is the employment of transaction and source or destination
thousands of people, particularly in of the shipment. Company sales
source nations, and the high records are therefore an excellent
incentives for coral reef stewardship, source of data on marine aquarium
which the marine aquarium trade is species in trade, and the only source
capable of providing. An ill-informed of information on unrecorded species
decision could therefore either under any other process (e.g., CITES).
encourage the continuation of an Over the past two years, the United
environmentally destructive practice Nations Environment Programme -
or deprive economically World Conservation Monitoring
disadvantaged communities of a Centre (UNEP-WCMC) has established
Live coral colony packed and
ready to be shipped. much-needed source of income, good working relationships with such

December 2 0 0 2 19
companies from all over the world, companies in the Philippines and How Does East Asia
with the help of the Marine Netherlands trading A. japonicus Contribute to the Global
Aquarium Council and regional other than those which have Trade in Aquarium
trade organizations such as the contributed their data to GMAD. Species?
Indonesia Coral, Shell and Therefore, this figure of 2,151 fish is
Ornamental Fish Association (AKKII) just a quantitative total on which to East Asia is the most important
and the Philippine Tropical Fish base estimates of the whole trade in source of marine aquarium species--
Exporters Association (PTFEA). The this species. 86 percent of all organisms in trade
companies have provided access to originate here. Most are destined for
their sales records. Data from 50 As a consequence, GMAD cannot North America, with trade between
representative wholesale exporters be used to calculate the absolute both regions accounting for just over
and importers of marine aquarium volume of trade on any of the
species (Table 1) have been identified species, or between any pair
harmonized by this process into a of countries. However, such
Table 1. Some 46 wholesale
single publicly available Global calculations are based on quantitative importers and exporters of
Marine Aquarium Database (GMAD), data and the degree to which these aquarium organisms have so far
which now contains more than data are indicative of the trade provided data to the GMAD.
60,000 trade records. Each trade depends partly on the proportion of
record is a total number traded for a operational wholesale export and Country Number of
companies
unique combination of: species import companies contributing data
Australia* 1
name (fish, corals, invertebrates to GMAD.
other than corals); country of
Bahrain 1
export; and country of import and If there are good reasons to Cook Islands 1
date (year). believe that companies supplying the Fiji 2
same markets do not differ France 2
For instance, to know the substantially in terms of the species Germany 3
number of powder brown tang or the quantities by which they trade, Indonesia 17
(Acanthurus japonicus) exported then GMAD data may be used to Maldives* 1
from the Philippines to the calculate the relative contribution of Marshall Islands* 1
Netherlands, calculate two numbers: any species, in any trading country or Mexico 1
the first, based on export data and region, with more certainty. To
Netherlands 2
the second, on import data. In continue the previous example, seven
Palau 1
September 2002, GMAD contained species of Acanthurus are exported
Philippines 6
export data from six Philippine from the Philippines. A. japonicus
Saudi Arabia* 1
exporters, and import data from constitutes 65 percent of the trade in
Solomon Islands 1
two Dutch importers. The above this genus, and one percent of the
Sri Lanka 3
query would yield an answer of trade in all the fishes from the
2,151 fish exported and 425 Philippines. If it is possible to assume
UK 3
imported. Given the respective that the Philippine export companies, USA 3
sources of the data, it is probable which have not contributed data to Data collected from exporters under
that the figure based on exports is GMAD, do not trade in substantially licensing agreements have also been
mostly representative of the trade in different quantities of this species, obtained from four management
authorities*, in each case, this
A. japonicus between the two then these percentages may be taken
represents the business activities of
countries. There are, of course, as representative. several more companies.

20 Tropical Coasts
Table 2. Regional trade links, expressed as percentage of the
total number of all species in the global aquarium trade.
half of the global total (Table 2). In

European Union
North America

South America
East Asia, Japan, Taiwan and

Wider Europe

Middle East

Australasia
Singapore are also significant

Unknown
East Asia
importers. About 14 percent of

Africa
IUCN category and title

Total
global trade consists of imports to
East Asia, approximately equal to the East Asia 52.7 14.0 13.0 4.9 0.6 0.2 0.1 0.1 <0.1 85.7
volume of imports to the European Caribbean 5.8 - <0.1 - - - - - - 5.8
Union. A proportion occurs within North America 4.3 - 0.2 - - - - - - 4.6
European Union 1.4 - 0.1 - - - - - - 1.5
East Asia - Taiwan, Japan and China
Red Sea 0.7 - <0.1 - - - - - - 0.7
(Hong Kong) are major importers
Australasia 0.4 - <0.1 0.5 - - - - - 1.0
(Table 3). The low volume of traded
Africa 0.2 - - - - - - - - 0.2
organisms quantified as passing East Pacific 0.1 - - - - - - - 0.1
-
through Singapore may be an South America <0.1 - 0.2 - - - - - - 0.2
artefact of the data because Indian Ocean <0.1 - <0.1 - - - - - - <0.1
Singapore is a significant supplier of Middle East - - <0.1 0.3 - - - - - 0.3
aquarium species to Europe. Total 65.7 13.5 5.7 0.6 0.2 0.1 0.1 <0.1 100

When the trade in different Table 3. Trade within East Asia expressed as a percentage of the trade
groups of organisms is examined, in 1.5 million organisms from 1999 to 2001.
the pattern is similar. East Asia, IMPORTERS Hong DPR RO
China Japan Malaysia Singapore Taiwan Thailand
mainly the Philippines and Indonesia, EXPORTERS Kong Korea Korea
exports 85 percent of all the Indonesia 0.01 3.33 27.48 0.64 0.37 0.23 0.69 1.34 0.02
aquarium fish in global trade and 75
Philippines – 13.00 8.69 0.29 – – 0.69 43.23 –
percent of the invertebrates other
than corals. The contribution to the
coral trade is even more dramatic - are imported to Japan from five Table 4. The top ten fish
99 percent of all live coral in trade countries. These are the Cook Islands, imports to Japan.

originates from the region, mostly Indonesia, the Maldives, the Philippines
Species %
from Indonesia. and Sri Lanka. However, this list certainly
reflects more of the spread of data Chromis viridis 8.6
GMAD contains trade records within GMAD, rather than a complete list
Chrysiptera parasema 5.4
from 30 exporting and 44 importing of nations supplying the Japanese
nations. For any of these countries, it market. Seven of the top imports to
Amphiprion ocellaris 5.4
is possible to generate a profile of Japan are damselfishes (Family Chromis caerulea 3.3
species in trade and to rank these Pomacentridae), a dartfish
Nemateleotris magnifica 3.1
species in terms of the proportion of (Nemateleotris magnifica), a
exports or imports. To illustrate the surgeonfish (Paracanthurus hepatus)
Thalassoma 1.8
amblycephalum
type of information that can be and a wrasse (Thalassoma
generated, Table 4 lists the chief amblycephalum). Chrysiptera springeri 1.8
imports of a relatively well-known Paracanthurus hepatus 2.2
group of organisms- coral reef fish - A total of 858 known species of
Amphiprion clarkii 2.2
into Japan, a market about which fish are exported from East Asia. To put
next to nothing is known. Fish from this regional trade in context, a total of Dascyllus albisella 1.8
200 genera and 425 known species, 1,196 fish species are traded globally.

December 2 0 0 2 21
... the ten most traded species account for
more than 50 percent of the organisms
exported from East Asia. Conversely, the
trade in more than 850 species of ‘other’
fish occurs in relatively low numbers, hence
in combination, it accounts for just 40 A giant clam on a coral reef in
the Philippines. Most clams in
percent of the total East Asian trade. trade are now cultured.

The East Asian species come from (Figure 1 a-c). In each case, the ten sustain. However, in the case of this
291 genera and there is trade in most traded species account for species, there is an alternative - it can
small numbers of unidentified more than 50 percent of the be easily reared in captivity.
species of fish from another 20 organisms exported from East Asia. Aquaculture, however, is no panacea to
genera. Almost two-thirds of species Conversely, the trade in more than concerns over wild harvest. Less than
are associated with coral reefs during 850 species of ‘other’ fish occurs in 100 species can be successfully
the majority of their life history and relatively low numbers, hence in cultivated with only a small fraction
presumably, are collected from reef combination, it accounts for just 40 being commercially viable. Generally
areas. Still, the relative number of percent of the total East Asian trade. speaking, for the majority of fish in
traded species, which are associated trade, which tend to be small, short-
with habitats other than reefs ( e.g., lived and fast growing herbivores,
mudflats, seagrass beds and Does the Aquarium collection in itself is unlikely to threaten
mangroves), is surprisingly high, Trade Threaten Marine extinction, unless the species has a
although those traded in most Species in East Asia? highly restricted distribution. However,
numbers are coral reef species. it is equally probable that collection, and
Some people think so. For some of the destructive practices used
There are 156 known species of coral instance, the Banggai cardinalfish’s in the process, may be threatening the
exported from East Asia, a (Pterapogon kauderni) status in the survival of rare fish by removing them
substantial additional quantity of wild is precarious, with heavy from these already-stressed
which are unidentified to the species collection for aquariums continuing. ecosystems. This has been claimed for
level. A total of 419 known species of The species is endemic to the Banggai the blue-spotted angelfish
other East Asian invertebrates and Islands of Indonesia and lives among (Chaetodontoplus caeruleopunctatus) in
unidentified species from a further the spines of the sea urchin, Diadema the Philippines.
39 higher taxa also originate from setosum, giving it a very restricted
the region and enter the global trade. range and specialized habitat. The next stage of work will be to
Although tens of thousands of combine life history and ecological data
Despite there being so many Banggai cardinalfish are exported, to highlight any species on which there
species traded in these three diverse this accounts for less than 0.1 may be concern. In 1999, the European
groups – fish, corals and other percent of all trade and no one knows Union suspended imports from
invertebrates – the majority of whether that level of collection is Indonesia of seven coral species on the
business is in relatively few species more than what the population can basis that the trade was not

22 Tropical Coasts
Figure 1a-c. Major species in the aquarium trade.

a. Fish demonstrably sustainable. In 2000, two


species were further added to this list as
were all species of Euphyllia and Plerogyra.
This suspension forbade trade in four of the
10 most traded species (Catalaphyllia
jardinei, Euphyllia divisa, E. glabrescens, E.
cristata and Trachyphyllia geoffroyi) and
closed a major market to one-third of the
coral exports from the region. The
suspension has since been lifted, but
without a better comprehension of the
ecology and dynamics of these species, it is
not possible to state that collection has not
adversely affected source populations.
b. Corals

Our lack of understanding of the


ecology of aquarium species is particularly
acute for invertebrates. The ‘top 10’ in
Figure 1(c) consist of small crustaceans
(shrimp and hermit crabs), cnidarians
(anemones) and echinoderms (starfish and
urchins). None of these, superficially, are
cause for concern because they are likely to
occur in populations far exceeding the
numbers being taken for the aquarium
trade and are more widely distributed. This
is, however, purely conjecture. Clearly, a
better understanding of the numbers of
species in trade will only ever be partially
useful for management purposes as long as
c. Other Invertebrates
large gaps remain in our knowledge of
target species’ ecology.

References

Green, E.P. and F. Shirley. 1999. The global trade in coral.


World Conservation Monitoring Centre, World
Conservation Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom.

Hawkins, J. and C.M. Roberts. 2000. The threatened status


of restricted-range coral reef fish species. Anim.
Conserv. 3:81-88.

December 2 0 0 2 23
S. Suzanne Mingoa-Licuanan
University Researcher
Marine Science Institute
University of the Philippines
Giant Clam Conservation
in Southeast Asia
Quezon City, Philippines

and

Edgardo D. Gomez
Professor
Marine Science Institute
University of the Philippines Tridacnids are important Fishers collect wild clams as
Quezon City, Philippines ecologically and commercially. Clam they encounter them while fishing.
populations add topographic detail to These may be consumed on the boat,
the seabed and serve as nurseries to searanched near the fisher's house
Introduction
various organisms, especially fish. Their by the sea to be eaten on special
calcified shells are excellent substrata for occasions (Salamanca and Pajaro,
sedentary organisms, such as stony 1996), or sold in the local market. In
Of the nine extant species of giant corals, soft corals, algae, sponges, Mactan Island of Cebu, Philippines, a
clams (Table 1) found only in the Indo- bryozoans, shell-boring worms, as well popular restaurant serves giant clam
Pacific region (Figure 1), seven are as other bivalves, thereby increasing the dishes to locals and foreigners alike,
found in Southeast Asia (Figure 2). reef's biodiversity. They contribute to regardless of the nationwide ban on
reef production. By their photosynthetic clam harvesting. In Coron Island,
zooxanthellae, tridacnids are primary north of Palawan, tribal Tagbanuas
Tridacnids or giant clams are algal
producers. Nitrogenous wastes and traditionally gather Tridacna crocea
symbionts. They obtain nutrients from
photosynthetic by-products are largely from shallow reefs where they are
their photosynthetic endosymbiotic
recycled between the giant clam host most abundant. The clams are
dinoflagellates (Griffiths and Streamer,
and its zooxanthellae. For a bivalve, the shucked and the meat is dried and
1988) and filter feeding (Klumpp et al., giant clam's biomass production is sold in the local market on skewers.
1992). Giant clams thrive in relatively impressive, and is a food source for
shallow sunlit waters. They are various predators, such as some Aside from utilizing the clam
broadcast spawners engaging in mass flatworms, octopus, various carnivorous meat, shells have been traditionally
spawning, usually as the new or full gastropods and fish, crabs and hermit used by man in various ways. They

moon approaches. Their yolk-laden crabs, fish, some marine turtles and are common household items, such
humans. as soap dish, salad bowl, garden
planktonic larvae take about a week to
metamorphose into shelled
pediveligers, acquiring a foot that Table 1. Taxonomic classification of tridacnids or giant clams.
allows them to select suitable substrata
for attachment. Juvenile tridacnids are Kingdom : Animalia Genus Tridacna Bruguiere
Rosewater, 1965 and 1982; Lucas et al., 1991;

vulnerable to predation and tend to be


Newman and Gomez, 2000; Sirenko and

Phylum : Mollusca Species: Tridacna gigas (Linne, 1758); T. derasa (Roding, 1798);
T. squamosa (Lamarck, 1819); T. maxima (Roding,
cryptic. As they grow, they deposit 1798); T. crocea (Lamarck, 1819); T. mbalavuana (Ladd,
Class : Bivalvia
more shells, which serve as sole 1934) =T. tevoroa (Lucas, Ledua and Braley, 1991);
and T. rosewateri (Sirenko and Scarlato, 1991).
protection for their soft body parts. Subclass : Heterodonta
Scarlato, 1991.

Order : Veneroida Genus Hippopus Lamarck

Family : Tridacnidae Species: Hippopus hippopus (Linnaeus), H. porcellanus Rosewater

24 Tropical Coasts
Modified from Rosewater, 1965 and 1982; Lucas, 1988; Sims
and Howard, 1988; Zann and Ayling, 1988.
Figure 1. Map showing the distribution of tridacnids in the Indo-Pacific region.
TG=Tridacna gigas, TD= T. derasa, TS=T. squamosa, TMA=T. maxima, TC=T. crocea,
TMB=T. mbalavuana (=T. tevoroa), TR=T. rosewateri, HH=Hippopus hippopus, HP=H.
porcellanus.

ornament and food trough for mollusc meat, and is called compoy
Commercial Trade:
domesticated animals. or ganbei (Lucas, 1994). Although
Past and Present
Presen t
clam mantle and dried clam meat
In the Philippines, shellcraft- are consumed, frozen and fresh
Giant clam meat is consumed in
making is practically a cottage adductor muscles are preferred
most Southeast Asian nations like
industry for families living along the (Dawson, 1986; Tisdell and Chen,
Taiwan, Japan and Hong Kong (Shang et
coast. Whenever giant clam shells 1992).
al., 1991; Conservation Science
are available, workers use them for
Department WWF Indonesia-Sahul
shellcrafts. Regardless of the ban on With the demand for giant clam
Bioregion, 2000). In the 1960s and
giant clam products, shell curios, meat, harvesting natural clam stocks
1970s, annual landings were estimated
jewelry or craft are still being sold by may not be sustainable. In 1985,
at 100-400 tonnes in Taiwan. Because
peddlers and small-time giant clams were included in the
giant clam meat is often obtained by
entrepreneurs. Convention on International Trade in
poaching, it is mixed with other

Figure 2. Tridacnid species in Southeast Asia.

Tridacna gigas T. derasa T. squamosa T. maxima

T. crocea Hippopus hippopus H. porcellanus

December 2002 25
The remaining giant clam populations
are threatened by commercial container with clam shells while in transit
through Rotterdam Harbour (Lochen,
exploitation, bleaching, disease, 1997).

pollution, poaching and illegal fishing


More recently, giant clams are
practices that degrade habitats. being sold as aquarium pets. In the
Philippines, a popular commercial
establishment in Manila continues to
Endangered Species of Wild Fauna sourcing clam meat from giant clam sell clams for the aquarium. There is
and Flora (CITES) Appendix II list, hatcheries in Palau, the Solomon a huge aquarium market in Europe,
(i.e., the giant clam trade is now Islands, and the Marshall Islands. Japan and the USA (Dawson, 1986).
regulated in order to ensure that Between 60,000 and 80,000 clams are
utilization of the species does not On the other hand, clam shells traded annually; tridacnids entering
compromise species survival). from the Philippines were also being the USA comprise over 70 percent
Signatory countries to CITES must imported by Japan, Australia, Europe (NOAA-National Marine Fisheries
abide by and support its rules and and the USA. However, with the Service, 2001). Most species, except
regulations. However, 1986 reports government ban covering most giant T. mbalavuana (=T. tevoroa) and
indicate that giant clams are still clam species, much of the legal shell T. rosewateri, are available from
being traded, with consumers largely trade is now locally confined, and hatcheries in Palau, the Solomon
in Malaysia, Singapore and Japan continues to thrive despite the trade Islands and the Marshall Islands.
(Stanton, 1994). High-grade ban. The illegal shell trade, however,
adductor muscle products were continues. In 1996, Rotterdam Different tridacnid species for
being sold at retail prices of US$100 Customs officials confiscated a aquarium are priced depending on
per kilogram (Firdausy and Tisdell, shipment containing 11,000 tridacnid mantle coloration. Current prices for
1992; Lee, 1988). In 1989, wholesale shells (Lochen, 1997). T. maxima at 4-13 centimeters are
prices for T. gigas adductor muscle US$25-149 per piece. T. crocea at
(>400 gram) were sold at US$29-31 Indonesians have found use for 2.5-10 centimeters shell length are
per kilogram, while T. derasa and H. fossilized shells of T. gigas and T. derasa US$15-105 a piece. T. gigas
hippopus adductor muscles (about buried in reef flats by cutting them into juveniles are priced at US$25 - 45 per
200 gram) were sold at for US$15-19 terrazo tiles. Unfortunately, shells from clam. T. derasa at 5 - 7.5
per kilogram (Shang et al., 1991). live clams are also being used. In 1982, centimeters are being sold at US$16
records show that this tile industry - 42 per clam. T. squamosa at 4 -
Until 1996, the Philippines was produced 600 t onnes of tiles per month 7.5 centimeters are being sold at
exporting wild T. crocea, after the (Usher, 1984). From 1978 to 1983, US$15-35 per clam. Despite the
Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic between 20 and 200 tonnes of such shell availability of cultured clams,
Resources declared a selective lifting materials were moved from the Karimun aquarium shops also sell wild clams.
of the collection ban beginning 1991 Jawa Islands to the nearby tile production The reasons for this may either be
(BFAR, 1991and 1996). Wild T. crocea center in Semarang, at US$5-20 per because wild clams still enter the
was largely exported to Japan. The tonne (Brown and Muskanofola, 1985). It market and shop owners will take
estimated annual demand for whole appears that shells were also being whatever is available, or because wild
clams in 1991 reached 500 tonnes exported, as Netherlands Customs clams are being offered at lower retail
(Shang et al., 1991). Japan was also officials were able to seize a shipment prices than cultured ones.

26 Tropical Coasts
Other Threats have direct effects on clam survival if Sulawesi and in Irian Jaya have also
dynamite were thrown over clam been reported, mostly committed
In addition to commercial populated areas. Furthermore, by locals from surrounding islands
exploitation, the remaining giant Rodriguez et al. (1993) indicated that (Aw, n.d.; Conservation Science
clam populations are threatened by larval requirements for WWF Indonesia-Sahul Bioregion,
bleaching, disease, pollution, metamorphosis and settlement 2000). According to reports from
poaching and illegal fishing practices (hence recruitment) largely depend the Ministry of Agriculture of
that degrade habitats. on larval recognition of spatial Malaysia, tourists often perpetrate
interactive patterns of physical, clam poaching. They collect clam
Clams that are stressed ( e.g., biological and chemical features of meat from marine protected areas
from lack of nutrients, extreme the microenvironment. Degraded and hide it in their dive jackets or in
temperatures, suboptimal light habitats are less likely to present the a safe place for later retrieval, or
conditions, etc.) manifest different required cues for larval settlement. they pay islanders directly to
levels of mantle bleaching, from collect for them.
paling to whitening. Endosymbiotic Humans remain the most
zooxanthellae are lost and eventually formidable threat to giant clams, as
the mantle coloration. When the they can harvest a population within Mariculture
mantle has completely bleached, hours. Decline in clam populations
clam mortality is usually expected. has been associated with their There is an obvious need to
In addition, stressed clams may proximity to human settlements. develop a mariculture technology
succumb to disease or acquire Commercial fishers have expanded for tridacnids to provide clam seed
secondary infections as a result of their fishing grounds, even crossing for restocking, as well as an
stress (Alder and Braley, 1988; boundaries, in order to harvest giant alternative source of clams for the
Norton et al., 1993). clams. There have been several demands of commercial trade. As
incidents in the Philippines of clam cultured clams become readily
Reef pollution by industrial and poaching by foreign Asian fishing available to local and international
domestic wastes, siltation, or cyanide vessels. Although some of these markets, harvest pressure on wild
(used to collect aquarium fish) result vessels have been impounded, others stocks may decrease. It is
in environmental degradation and have gone scot free because marine important that the remaining wild
destruction of potential giant clam patrols are ill-equipped. populations be allowed to recover,
habitats. Blast fishing likewise results In Indonesia, several incidents of either naturally or by infusion of
in habitat degradation, and would clam poaching in the south of cultured stock.

Table 2. Giant clam hatcheries in Southeast Asia that produce giant clams for research and reseeding.

Country Location and cultured species


Indonesia Hassanudin University Marine Station, Barrang Lompo Island, South Sulawesi (TG, TD, HH)
Malaysia Muka Head Marine Station, Centre for Marine Coastal Studies, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang (no data)
Bolinao Marine Laboratory, The Marine Science Institute, University of the Philippines-Diliman (TG, TD,
Philippines TM, TC, HH) Silliman University-Marine Laboratory, Dumaguete City, Negros Oriental (TS, TM, TC, HH)
Guiuan Development Foundation, Inc. , Eastern Samar (TG, TD, TS,TC, HH)
Singapore Tropical Marine Science Initiative, National University of Singapore (TS)
Thailand Aquatic Animals Spawning Development Center, Prajuab Kirikan Province (no data.)

December 2002 27
In the 1980s, scientists from Stock assessments of wild extinct. Surveys in Ko Kradad (Trad
Australia, the Philippines and several tridacnid populations in the Province) and the Mu Ko Surin Marine
Pacific Island nations (including Fiji, Philippines date back to the 1984- National Park indicate that there may
Kiribati, the Solomon Islands and 1986 surveys done by the University be three remaining extant species:
Palau) collaborated through an of the Philippines Marine Science T. squamosa, T. maxima and
international research program to Institute (UPMSI) and the Silliman T. crocea (http://www.TalayThai.com,
develop the giant clam mariculture University Marine Laboratory (SUML). 2001).
technology. Studies have shown that T. gigas, T. derasa and Hippopus
tridacnids make good mariculture porcellanus have been reported as The clam populations
species because of their short overfished (Juinio et al., 1989). What (T. squamosa, T. crocea, T. maxima
planktonic life and autotrophic remains of the T. gigas populations and H. hipppopus) in Malaysia are
(=self-feeding, no need for may still be found in the south, such mostly found in the waters of Johor,
additional feeds) nature (Lucas, as in the province of Palawan. On the but only T. crocea occurs in relative
1988). Several culture manuals have other hand, remnant T. derasa abundance. T. gigas is virtually
already been produced (Heslinga et populations may still exist in the east, extinct (Tan and Yasin, 1998).
al., 1990; Braley, 1992; Calumpong, in the peninsular province of Eastern
1992; Mingoa-Licuanan et al., 2000). Samar, and in the west, in the Island of There are limited reports on
Table 2 lists the clam hatcheries in Maricaban (province of Batangas). tridacnids in other areas of Southeast
Southeast Asia. H. porcellanus may be virtually extinct, Asia. T. maxima has been reported
and if ever a few populations remain, in Hong Kong and Taiwan. T. gigas is
these might be located in the further extinct in Taiwan. T. squamosa,
Conservation south of the Philippines. On the other T. maxima, T. crocea and H. hippopus
hand, T. squamosa, the burrowing have been specifically reported from
The larger species have been species T. crocea, T. maxima and H. North Borneo. T. crocea and
subjected to greater fishing pressure hippopus are still relatively abundant, H. hippopus have been reported from
than the smaller species, mainly although local extinctions may have Singapore. T. gigas is known to be
because of the former's greater already occurred. native to Myanmar (Rosewater, 1965;
biomass and large shells. Table 3 CITES, 1999). T. squamosa,
presents a checklist of tridacnid In Thailand, T. gigas and T. T. maxima and T. crocea are found in
species in Southeast Asia. derasa have already been reported as Vietnam (Groombridge, 1994).

Table 3. Checklist of tridacnid species in Southeast Asia.

Area Species
T. gigas T. derasa T. squamosa T. maxima T. crocea H. hippopus H. porcellanus
Hong Kong, extant
China
Indonesia extant extant extant extant extant extant extant
Malaysia extinct extant extant extant extant
Myanmar extinct
Philippines extant extant extant extant extant extant virtually extinct
Singapore extant extant
Taiwan extinct extant extant extant
Thailand extant extant extant
Vietnam extant extant extant

28 Tropical Coasts
Management of giant clam resources needs
Management
to merge several approaches. One approach
The Philippines, Myanmar,
Thailand, Taiwan, Indonesia, Hong
would be for researchers to cultivate the
Kong, Singapore and Brunei, are species, and conduct a strategic reseeding
signatories to CITES. Hence,
tridacnids are to different degrees program, which involves research scientists,
protected by law, e.g., one that bans
the collection of wildstock and
empowered local government units and
imposes corresponding penalties for
community stakeholders.
mere possession, etc., over and
above CITES requirements. Export of
all giant clam species is controlled by several approaches. Banning clam all Philippine species. It is culturing
the designated management collection may be the beginning, but it tridacnids for research and
authority of the State. However, is not the end. Similarly, regulation of restocking. To develop its
implementation of such laws leaves the export trade may look good on broodstock collections for hatchery
much to be desired. paper, but it does not address the spawning, the UPMSI obtained larvae
illegal trade because concerned and clam seed from foreign and local
In countries where ethnic government agencies cannot or do not sources (Coastal Aquaculture Centre-
groups traditionally eat giant clams enforce the law effectively. Another Solomon Islands, Micronesian
for food, the law may lean towards approach would be for researchers to Mariculture Demonstration Center-
tolerance, such as in the Philippines cultivate the species, and to take it a Palau, James Cook University of
regarding the Tagbanua tribe in the step further, conduct a strategic Northern Queensland-Australia and
south. The Chulalongkorn University reseeding program, which involves the SUML-Philippines). Local
Social Research Institute in Thailand research scientists, empowered local broodstock were also collected from
is attempting to involve the Mokens government units (LGUs) and selected reefs.
in clam mariculture in the Surin community stakeholders. Educational
Islands through a clam culture campaigns should be conducted With little financial support, the
project. The Mokens, a semi- regarding the reseeding program. UPMSI began transplanting cultured
nomadic group, belong to the Chao They should disseminate information clam seed of different species in a few
Lay or sea nomads inhabiting the on the merits of using cultured clams sites in 1986. Since then, as interest
eastern shores of the Andaman Sea. and the demerits of collecting clams in clam seeding grew and
The Mokens, however, have from the wild. Where applicable, sponsorships were solicited, the
established themselves on the Surin alternative or supplementary sources number of restocking sites have
Islands and have moved their village of livelihood need to be undertaken. increased. In 1995, the UPMSI was
sites from time to time. For the past able to spawn T. gigas, the first time
two decades, the Surin Islands have in the Philippines that this species
been in existence as a national park, Species Restocking was spawned in captivity. The
with implications to the way of life of institute has reseeded cultured
the Moken inhabitants. Conservation measures to re- T. gigas belonging to at least seven
establish giant clam populations in cohorts, into 24 out of 27 restocking
Management of giant clam reefs are being undertaken in the sites, from Ilocos Norte (Luzon) in the
resources, therefore, needs to merge Philippines. The UPMSI has spawned north, to Tawi-Tawi (Mindanao) in the

December 2002 29
Ten coral reef sites in the Philippines are
being established as demonstration
and is restocking clams in the
areas for coral reef enhancement context of their community-based

through the transplantation of coral and coastal resources management


program (Calumpong et al., 2000).

the restocking of giant clams. The GDFI has recently spawned


their T. gigas broodstock, which
originated from the UPMSI. The
south, from Pagasa Island (Kalayaan throughout the country are being
foundation has been involving
Islands Group) in the west, to established as demonstration areas
neighboring coastal communities
Eastern Samar (Visayas) in the east for coral reef enhancement through
in its clam reseeding program.
(Figure 3). The UPMSI is also the transplantation of coral and the
soliciting stewardship agreements restocking of giant clams, principally
To re-establish giant clam
with LGUs, people's organizations, the true giant clam, T. gigas.
populations, clam restocking
nongovernment organizations and
programs in Southeast Asia are
private groups in the Two other Philippine
concentrating on marine protected
implementation of its clam institutions, the SUML (Dumaguete)
areas (MPAs), such as sanctuaries
restocking program. Recently, the and the Guiuan Development
and national parks. Although MPAs
species restocking effort received a Foundation, Inc. (GDFI) are
are initially protected by law,
substantial boost from the Pew producing cultured tridacnids for
oftentimes, the participation of
Marine Conservation Fellowship for reef restocking. The SUML is
organized local communities
one of the authors (EDG). In this culturing most Philippine species
seems to be more relevant in
program, some 10 coral reef sites except T. gigas and H. porcellanus,
effectively maintaining protection
over a particular MPA. Outside of
Figure 3. Map of the Philippines showing UPMSI's the MPA, giant clam resources in
sites (blue star) for giant clam restocking. communal fishing grounds are still
traditionally treated as communal
property.

Enhancement of MPAs by
transplanting giant clams is one
means of developing ecotourism.
The Great Barrier Reef is an
example of how ecotourism may
be used as a management tool to
conserve natural resources and
generate revenues at the same time
(Reichelt and Williams, 2001). The
UPMSI is restocking the Hundred
Islands National Park (managed by
the Philippine Tourism Authority)

30 Tropical Coasts
In Southeast Asia, clam restocking programs
with 10,000 cultured clams.
are concentrated on marine protected areas.
Similarly, there are plans in The UPMSI is restocking the Hundred
Malaysia to re-introduce cultured
giant clams in the Tunku Abdul Islands National Park with 10,000 cultured
Rahman Marine Parks (Gayana
Resort Bay Sdn Bhd, 1999). The
clams. In Malaysia, there are plans to re-
Cendrawasih Bay Marine National
Park of Indonesia named one of its
introduce cultured giant clams in the Tunku
reefs “Tridacna” because of its Abdul Rahman Marine Parks.
conspicuous giant clam
populations. Remote areas need
to capitalize on their existing
marine resources to develop the References
tourism industry. For example,
Indonesia is promoting the remote
Aw, M. 2002. The Napoleon crisis. Avail from: CCS (Compass Consulting Services). 1986. Clam meat
Alder, J. and R.D. Braley. 1988. Mass mortalities of
http://www.oceanenvironment.com.au/ market survey, preliminary report. Sydney,
Togean Islands of Central Sulawesi giant clams on the Great Barrier Reef. In Giant
napoleons2.htm Australia.
clams in Asia and the Pacific. ACIAR
(south of the equator) for their
BFARMonograph
(Bureau of No.Fisheries
9. Australian
andCentre
Aquaticfor CII (Conservation International Indonesia). 2000.
breeding grounds for giant clam, International
Resources). 1991.Agricultural Research,
Amending Section 14 of Togean ecotourism network. Avail from: http:/
marine turtle and coconut crab Canberra.
Fisheries 230 p.
Administrative Order No. 168, series /www.conservation.or.id//cii/Field_Program/
(Conservation International of 1990. Fisheries Administrative Order No. Togean/togean.html
168-1, series of 1991. 1 p.
Indonesia, 2000). CITES (Convention on International Trade in
BFAR (Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora).
Resources). 1996. Suspension of the effectivity 1999. Eleventh Regular Meeting. Fed. Regist.
of FAO No. 168-1, series of 191. Fisheries 64(130): 36893-36916. Avail from: http://
Conclusion Administrative Order No. 168-2, series of www.wais.access.gpo.gov
1996. 1 p.
CSD (Conservation Science Department) WWF
By and large, conservation Braley, R.D., editor. 1992. The giant clam: Indonesia-Sahul Bioregion. 2000. Avail from:
efforts to re-establish tridacnid hatchery and nursery culture manual. ACIAR http://members.tripod.com/wwfsahul_cs/
Monogr. No. 15, 144 p. Australian Centre marine.htm
populations in Southeast Asia may
for International Agricultural Research,
be beginning to shift gears, as Canberra, Australia. Dawson, R. 1986. Report on the study of the market
governments, both local and for giant clam products in Japan, Taiwan, Hong
Brown, J.D. and M.R. Muskanofola. 1985. An Kong and Singapore, p. 90-123. In The
national, are beginning to support investigation of stocks of giant clams (Family marketing of products for the South Pacific.
projects on clam restocking Tridacnidae) in Java and of their utilisation University of the South Pacific, Institute of Pacific
nationwide. Clams cultured for
and potential. Aquacult. Fish. Manage. 1: Studies, Suva.
25-29.
restocking programs require a Firdausy, C. and C. Tisdell. 1992. Mariculture as part of
certain lead time to obtain suitable Calumpong, H., editor. 1992. The giant clam: an Indonesia's economic development strategy -
ocean culture manual. ACIAR Monogr. No. seaweed and giant clam culture as cases. In Giant
reseeding sizes. Tridacnids are
16, 68 p. Australian Centre for International clams in the sustainable development of the South
long-living species, and if left Agricultural Research. Canberra, Australia. Pacific:socioeconomic issues in mariculture and
undisturbed on the reefs, will conservation. ACIAR Monogr. No. 18: 80-100.
Calumpong, H.P., A.B. Apao, J.R. Lucanas and J.S. Australian Centre for International Agricultural
continue to be productive Estacion. 2000. Community-based giant clam Research, Canberra, Australia.
components of reef systems. restocking: hopes for biodiversity
conservation (abstract). Ninth International
Coral Reef Symposium, 23-29 October 2000,
continued on page 56
Bali, Indonesia. 191 p.

December 2002 31
The Bali and Danang CoCoas
A Stakeholder Response for a
BALI, INDONESIA
In 2001, an estimated 1.5 million foreign
tourists entered Indonesia through Bali’s
Bali has the popular image of a tropical paradise. The island’s international airport, with many more traveling
beautiful natural attractions include miles of sandy beaches, to the island from other parts of the country
picturesque rice terraces, towering volcanoes and tropical forests bringing in huge tourism revenues.

rich in exotic wildlife. Infused within this backdrop is a palpable and


enduring Hindu culture with numerous ceremonies that have
become attractive events. The local culture, combined with Bali’s
natural environment are a major attraction for visitors from all over
the world, making tourism a significant contributor to Bali’s
economy.

However, in recent years, many major developments along the


coastal areas of Bali have led to the destruction and degradation of
its coastal and marine environment and resources. Although the
Balinese stakeholders understand the benefits of such development
projects can lead to social and economic improvements, they are
also aware that their revered traditions are threatened by these
development activities. They recognize the need to protect their
coastal and marine environment and resources from such changes.
The Tri Hita Karana, a doctrine which is part of traditional Balinese
culture, effectively addresses these concerns. The doctrine has been
used as a guiding principle in developing the Bali coastal strategy,
as a tool for achieving sustainable economic development, and in
conserving and protecting the coastal and marine environment and
resources in Bali.

On 2 June 2002, the Coastal Strategy of Bali Province was formally


presented and approved by the Balinese stakeholders in a
Declaration Ceremony, which was witnessed by the Delegates for
the Fourth Preparatory Committee Meeting for the World Summit on
Sustainable Development (WSSD). The Balinese declared their
commitment to the environmental protection and sustainable
development in the province of Bali and resolved to fulfill their roles
and responsibilities to implement the Bali Coastal Strategy. “The Bali
Declaration for the Implementation of Coastal Strategy” was signed
by 21 representatives, including the Governor of Bali Province,
Regents, the Mayor, and Chairmen of the Legislative Assemblies of
different regencies of Bali. The Minister of Environment for
Indonesia also witnessed the Declaration, which was
overwhelmingly supported by stakeholders.

Balinese always envision Bali to be a prosperous and peaceful place


for all. They firmly believe that their traditional ‘Tri Hita Karana’,
which balances spiritual development with the economic growth,
cultural preservation and environmental protection, is effective in
protecting their coastal and marine environment and resources. The
Bali Coastal Strategy embodies this doctrine, and provides the Bali
people with a framework and series of action programs for
achieving the desired equilibrium.
The Bali Declaration for the Implementation of the
Coastal Strategy was signed by stakeholders in a
declaration ceremony held on 2 June 2002.

32 Tropical Coasts
oastal
astal Strategy Declarations:
r a Common Vision and Future
DANANG, VIETNAM
The literacy rate of Danang is 98.3 percent, generating a
large pool of dynamic and capable human resources. Its
modern infrastructure facilities and policies for investment Danang is located on the central coast of Vietnam and is considered to be one of the
make it one of the most promising destinations for most important economic growth centers of the country, due to its strategic
domestic and foreign investors. geographical location and rich ecological, historical, cultural and economic values. The
City offers favorable climate for the development of trade and the service sectors, such
as tourism, transportation, shipping, aquaculture, manufacturing and construction.

In parallel to economic development, Danang is also challenged with environmental


management issues, such as pollution from land- and sea-based sources,
overexploitation of marine and coastal resources, degradation of habitats, inadequate
planning for sea- and land-use, weak local capacity, and limited public awareness on
the importance of managing and protecting the marine and coastal environment.

In response to the challenges Danang initiated measures to balance economic and


industrial development with environmental protection. In November 2001, Danang
completed its Coastal Strategy a document that provides a broad management
framework - the sustainable development of the City. Its development served as a
vehicle for stakeholder consultation, particularly in identifying the values and threats
to the coastal and marine resources and environment. To address the identified
concerns, strategies and long- and short-term action programs were developed,
covering multiple use conflicts, improving environmental quality, preserving
biodiversity, promoting environment-friendly economic development, creating
environmental investment opportunities and, more importantly, outlining a common
vision of how the Danang people see their coastal and marine environment in the
future.

The Coastal Strategy was developed following a long process of consultation with
stakeholders. It is therefore considered a “people’s strategy”, since it reflects the
common aspirations of the concerned community at large. The development of the
Coastal Strategy elicited positive results, notably the expressed commitment of the
local leadership in overseeing its implementation. Public awareness was also
enhanced, which subsequently elicited changes in the people’s perception concerning
the values and the vital role of the environment and natural resources.

On 26 December 2001, the People’s Committee of Danang City approved the Coastal
Strategy through Decision Number 8294/QD-UB. The People’s Committee then
organized the Danang Coastal Strategy Declaration workshop on 6 June 2002. The
workshop was aimed at increasing public awareness on the Danang Coastal Strategy,
sharing experiences on its development, declaring the commitment of the city, and
mobilizing various stakeholders at the national and local levels for its effective
implementation. More than 70 people, including local stakeholders and
representatives from central government agencies, 11 coastal cities and provinces,
PEMSEA, media and an international donor agency, attended the event. The Vice
Chairman of the People’s Committee of Danang City and the Chairmen of the People’s
Committee of the 6 districts comprising Danang signed the Declaration.

Danang’s efforts in developing and implementing the Strategy were highly recognized.
The need to replicate the process in other coastal provinces and cities in Vietnam was
The People's Committee organized a workshop on
6 June 2002 to introduce the Strategy, share also highlighted.
experiences on its development and declaring the
commitment of the city for its implementation.

December 2002 33
· Establishment of an integrated environmental
Bali Declaration for information system to provide the public with ready
access to relevant information on state of the
environment;
Coastal Strategy · Strengthening multi-sectoral coordinating mechanism
to enhance local capacities and collaboration in
Implementation planning, managing and monitoring the marine and
coastal environment;

· Strengthening existing laws and regulations and/or


enactment of new legal instruments to safeguard
Commitment on partnerships among stake- sustainable development of marine and coastal
holders for implementation of integrated resources, and to prevent pollution from land-based
coastal management in the coast of Bali and sea-based human activities;

RECOGNIZING G that the coast of Bali is a place of God, · Mobilization of stakeholders in economic sectors such
where the philosophy ‘Tri Hita Karana’ guides the life as tourism and fisheries to exercise corporate
of people and their relations to God and the natural responsibility in the planning, development and
environment; implementation of sectoral activities;

APPRECIATING G that the coastal and marine · Setting up a favorable policy and investment
resources provide Balinese people with economic and environment to support and serve as incentives for
social development opportunities as well as a cultural private sector investments in environmental facilities
uniqueness; and services;

APPRECIATING G that the natural habitats of the coast · Enhancement of capacity building initiatives to train
of Bali such as mangroves, coral reefs, and seagrass local agencies and communities in the implementation,
beds play key roles in protecting biodiversity, monitoring and enforcement of environmental
maintaining water quality, and safeguarding shoreline regulations, as well as in land- and sea-use spatial
against erosion or natural disasters; planning and management practices;

UNDERSTANDING G that the resource system of the · Adoption and implementation of appropriate policies
coast of Bali is threatened by high development and management programs to minimize and prevent
pressure; beach erosion, and to protect public facilities and
sacred places in coastal areas;
RECOGNIZING G that socioeconomic concerns, such as
poverty alleviation, human health protection, · Application of appropriate regulatory and economic
environmental management, economic growth and instruments to control both land- and sea-based
equitable distribution of resources, are integral sources of contamination to rivers, coastal areas and
components of sustainable development; the sea, and to promote the development of affordable,
socially acceptable environmental facilities and services
COMMITTING G ourselves, the Ministry of Environment among communities, industry and business sectors in
for Indonesia, the Provincial Government of Bali, and Bali;
other stakeholders in public and private sectors, to
work in partnership, with the help of Asung Kertha · Incorporation of conservation, rehabilitation and
Wara Nugraha Ida Sang Widhi Wasa (God Almighty), sustainable use of coastal habitats into relevant
for the sustainable development of marine and sectoral plans and programs to enhance biological
coastal resources of Bali; diversity and the sustainability of important economic
activities such as fisheries, aquaculture and tourism;
NOW THEREFORE E, we hereby pledge to implement
‘the Coastal Strategy of Bali’ with particular emphasis · Strengthening controls over the exploitation and
on the following: consumption of groundwater and the implementation
of water conservation programs across sectors of
· Implementation of information, education and society; and
awareness campaigns among various stakeholder
groups in communities throughout the area; · Mobilization of traditional villages, civil society groups,
religious leaders, media and scientific communities to
· Formation of communication forums at the village manage and conserve heritage areas, structures and
and subdistrict levels, to enhance the public traditional activities of socio-cultural and religious
participation in decision-making processes; significance.

34 Tropical Coasts
We hereby declare our commitment to keep Bali Bersih (clean), Aman (safe), L estari (sustainable) and Indah (beautiful).

SIGNED in Bali, Indonesia on the 2nd June 2002.

December 2002 35
Danang Declaration communities in managing and protecting the coastal and
marine environment and their resources through:

for Coastal Strategy · Effective public awareness and education programs


including the establishment of an integrated information
management system, information centers and
communication networks;
Agreement on partnerships among stakeholders for
the implementation of integrated coastal manage- · Improved education programs on the environment and
ment in Danang City research and development programs to upgrade the
livelihoods of local communities; and
Danang City is recognized as:
· Pilot sites on community-based beach clean-up and
- The emerging international gateway of Vietnam and one waste segregation, ISO 14000 implementation and other
of the most important economic growth centers of the resource conservation programs.
country owing to its strategic geographical location and
rich historical, cultural, economic and ecological values; SUSTAINING G the use of resources and environment in the
coastal area through:
- The transport hub of the north-south rail, highway and
air routes; the key point of the East-West corridor to the · Innovative policies on water resource development and
highlands and neighboring countries in the Mekong River management and water quality standards to protect
sub-region, with several commercial seaports and an coastal ecosystems and public health; and
international airport promoting trade not only within its
neighboring provinces but also with the other countries · An ecosystem management approach to fisheries
in the region; planning and development, integrating fisheries
management into coastal management programs of the
- The commercial and industrial focus of Central Vietnam, City.
supporting a wide variety of industrial activities and
providing an environment conducive for investments; and PRESERVING G biodiversity and areas of natural, social,
historical and cultural significance through:
- An important tourism site owing to its favorable weather,
rich history and culture, proximity to several UNESCO · Establishment of coastal and marine protected areas and
World Cultural Heritage Sites and presence of famous development of land- and sea-use zoning scheme; and
landscapes and seascapes.
· Stakeholder mobilization and building effective
Ecologically, the coastal areas of Danang support a variety of partnerships among conservation groups, scientists,
aquatic habitats and resources that provide immense concerned sectors and communities to manage, preserve
socioeconomic value to the people of the area; and restore areas of ecological, social and cultural
significance.
Rapid economic development, however, brings about
environmental problems, such as pollution from domestic,
industrial and agricultural sources, booming tourism, habitat PROTECTING G the ecosystems, environment, human health
and biodiversity loss and overexploitation of resources that and society from risks caused by natural disasters and human
threaten the integrity of the coastal resource systems; activities through:

We acknowledge that development of the coastal areas of · Partnerships with the private sector in investment
Danang and protection of the coastal ecosystems and their opportunities for the rehabilitation of polluted rivers and
resources must be mutually supportive to promote sustainable lakes and the protection of ground water and surface
development; water quality;

We envision that sustainable development can be achieved · Community-based clean up programs to build
through Danang people’s determination and commitment to awareness and enhance cooperation among the different
integrate sustainable management practices with economic stakeholders regarding environmental protection and
development; management;

We commit ourselves to work in partnership for the effective · Forest watershed management programs to prevent soil
implementation of the Coastal Strategy of Danang City. and beach erosion to prohibit illegal forest exploitation
and increase green cover in urban areas; and
NOW THEREFORE E, we, the representatives of Danang City,
hereby pledge to ensure the sustainable development of · Recovery of clean-up costs and compensation for
marine and coastal resources of Danang by: environmental damages from oil and chemical spills.

Strengthening communication, education and information DEVELOPING G areas and opportunities that contribute to
exchange in order to raise awareness and mobilize the economic prosperity while protecting the environment and
participation of different sectors, organizations and preserving the ecological values through:

36 Tropical Coasts
· Policies, regulation and administrative arrangements to promote investments on environmental facilities and services
and environment-friendly industries; and

· Cooperative arrangements with Thua Thien, Hue and Quang Nam provinces, to effectively address transboundary
environmental problems such as oil spills, flooding and inundation, introduction of alien species, protection of migratory
species, and management of fishery resources.

We hereby agree to work in partnership with one another, and with the People’s Committee, the central government, relevant
government agencies, the private sector, local communities, and scientific institutions/academe to implement these strategies
and action programs to achieve the shared vision of the Danang people.

Signed in Danang City, Vietnam on 6 June 2002


on behalf of the

People’s Committee of Danang City

December 2002 37
Eng-Heng Chan
Professor
Sea Turtle Research Unit
Faculty of Science and Technology
Marine Turtles:
University College of Science
and Technology Malaysia
Kuala Terengganu, Malaysia

and
The Scenario in
Chris R. Shepherd
Programme Officer
TRAFFIC Southeast Asia
Selangor, Malaysia
Southeast Asia
Introduction
Marine turtles have been utilized by people in
Southeast Asia in many different ways. The eggs,
which are of high nutritive value and said to possess
special qualities have been harvested commercially
for decades, while the animals are hunted for their
shell, meat, oil, skin and bones. Products are used
for both domestic purposes and international
export, often violating national and international
legislations.

Egg collection for consumption is one of the major Prof. Chan (standing, first from left) examining turtle
forms of exploitation of marine turtles in the eggs being freely sold in the markets of Brunei
Darussalam. The vendor openly informed the author
Southeast Asian region, with the Philippines, that these eggs did not originate from the country, but
Indonesia and Malaysia known to be source and were obtained through a well-established network of
suppliers operating in the region.
consumer countries. In the Philippines, although
national laws now prohibit turtle egg collection, it is
The world's largest trade in live green turtles has been centered
common knowledge that at the local level in the
in Bali, Indonesia, for many decades. This trade has supplied turtle
Tawi-Tawi Islands, up to 70 percent of the eggs are
meat and shell to countries as far as Japan, Hong Kong and Europe, in
harvested and smuggled through an effective
addition to meeting the local demand where turtle meat is served as
network which supplies neighboring countries. The food in Balinese-Hindu culture. Although government decree sets
turtle egg industry of the Berau District of East the quota at 5,000 turtles to be captured, it is believed that many
Kalimantan, Indonesia, which supports the largest times over this number are harvested. Government Regulation No. 7
aggregations of green turtles in the country has of 1999 has now outlawed the exploitation of all marine turtles.
been estimated to generate an income of over
US$200,000 a year. In Malaysia, commercial egg Hawksbill turtles have been and still are relentlessly hunted in

collection takes place only in Terengganu where the the past for their carapace, which is fashioned into ornamental
products, commonly known as tortoise shell. The supply of hawksbill
local government issues licenses to the local
shells to Japan has supported a guild of several hundred craftspeople
villagers by tender. The value of this activity is
in Japan in what is known as the " bekko industry". Tortoise shell is
estimated at no more than US$50,000 per year.
38 Tropical Coasts
also imported by dealers in China, including
Hong Kong, Taiwan, South Korea and other
countries.

In some societies, sea turtles bear a


cultural value. In Bali, for instance, green turtles
are offered sacrificially in temple ceremonies,
while in Buddhist culture which practices "release
of life", marine turtles recovered from incidental
captures are kept collectively for eventual
release during special occasions as in Taiwan. In
Thailand, hatchlings are raised in captivity for
Stuffed specimens of sub-adult and juvenile of
several months and later used in similar green and hawksbill turtles, and products made
ceremonies. This practice has recently been from turtle scales are commonplace in any
souvenir shop in Vietnam, such as this one in
adapted by the Sea Turtle Research Unit
Vung Tau City. A national sea turtle action plan
(SEATRU) in Malaysia where Buddhist groups hopes to reduce exploitation in the next few
make nest adoptions which are purchased from years.
licensed egg collectors for in-situ incubation by
SEATRU. The "release of life" is achieved through
the natural release of hatchlings as they emerge
on the beach. This novel approach is gaining
acceptance among local religious groups and
offers an alternative to the purchase of caged
animals for release (which ultimately supports
detrimental wildlife trade), besides supporting
the nest adoption program of SEATRU.

The long-term consumptive use of marine


turtles, coupled with incidental captures in
fishing gear, loss of feeding and breeding
habitats, and marine pollution have resulted in
dramatic declines in the major nesting
populations of the region. The loss of the
leatherbacks in Terengganu, Malaysia, is often
cited as a classic example of population crash.
Similar trends of decline have recently been Figure 1. The migration of green turtles
between nesting grounds in Malaysia and
reported for the leatherback populations of the
resident feeding grounds in nearshore waters of
Pacific Ocean. Declines in hawksbill and olive neighboring countries demonstrates that marine
ridleys turtles have been no less dramatic. turtles are shared resources among the
countries of Southeast Asia. Hence,
Currently, only the green turtle continues to nest
conservation efforts must be undertaken
in significant though much reduced numbers, in collaboratively to ensure that all habitats
Indonesia, Malaysia and the Philippines (Figure critical to the survival of the populations in
question are adequately protected.
1). Notwithstanding, the rates of decline in the

December 2 0 0 2 39
The long-term consumptive use of
marine turtles, coupled with incidental recognized by their pliable,

captures in fishing gear, loss of feeding parchment-type shell and ping-pong


ball shape and size, can be purchased

and breeding habitats, and marine in many markets in the region. As


recently as September of 2002, 120
pollution have resulted in dramatic kg of turtle eggs were seized from an
Indonesian fishing vessel by Customs
declines in the major nesting officers in Singapore. Seizures of

populations of the region. lorry loads of the eggs smuggled


from Indonesia have also been
occasionally reported in Sarawak,
region have been estimated to range However, these conventions and Malaysia. Tortoise shell products as
from 50 to 80 percent for most agreements must be effectively well as stuffed turtles are available for
populations. It is critical that implemented and enforced if they are sale in handicraft and souvenir shops
conservation work be intensified to to have an impact on marine turtle in many countries, often in large
ensure that the remaining conservation. quantities. Many of these are sold to
populations can be sustained in the tourist and retailers, and taken to
long-term. At the global level, the other countries, which is in direct
Convention on International Trade in violation of CITES regulations.
Endangered Species of Wild Fauna
Conservation Efforts and Flora (CITES) serves as the major While regional and international
instrument in curbing the agreements and conventions set the
Marine turtle conservation in international trade of marine turtles. stage for intergovernmental efforts, it
Southeast Asia has taken an upswing All species of sea turtles are listed on is often the local grass-roots level
in the last five years. Testimony to Appendix I of CITES, which prohibits projects which help address the
this is the conclusion of several any trade for commercial reasons. everyday issues in marine turtle
regional instruments: the All countries in Southeast Asia are conservation.
establishment of the transboundary party to CITES, with the exeption of
Turtle Islands Heritage Protected Lao PDR and East Timor.
Area in 1996; the Memorandum of Brunei Darussalam
Understanding on ASEAN Sea Turtle The status of hawksbill and
Conservation and Protection in 1997, leatherback turtles has been listed as Currently, there is no law to
and the Memorandum of "critically endangered" by The World prohibit egg collection and exploita-
Understanding (MOU) on the Conservation Union, although some tion, although the Wildlife Protection
Conservation and Management of parties have made attempts at Act prohibits the hunting, killing or
Marine Turtles and their Habitats of downlisting certain populations of capture of sea turtles. Hatcheries
the Indian Ocean and Southeast Asia hawksbill turtles. Green, loggerhead have been established and local egg
in 2001. The latter was facilitated by and olive ridley turtles are listed as collectors are encouraged to surren-
the Convention on Migratory Species. "endangered". Though most of the der eggs for incubation. A national
This MOU contains 24 programs and countries in Southeast Asia have committee, headed by the Director of
105 specific activities, which aim to ratified CITES, international trade of Fisheries, has been formed to carry
reverse the decline of marine turtle sea turtle products in the region is out turtle conservation, research and
populations throughout the region. still rife. Sea turtles, easily educational projects.

40 Tropical Coasts
Box 1. The species in question.

Cambodia

Very low nesting activity, probably


less than 50 nests per year, has been
recorded. Currently, sea turtles and
eggs are exploited by the rural poor for
consumption and trade. There is
currently no existing national
legislation for the protection and
conservation of sea turtles, but plans
are in place to develop relevant laws
and regulations, and to initiate public

Queensland Department of Environment and Heritage


awareness campaigns. A National Sea
Turtle Training Workshop held on 2-4
September 2002 in Sihanoukville served
as the springboard to marine turtle
conservation in the country.

Indonesia

All six species of sea turtles are


listed as endangered and are protected Of the seven species of sea turtles which roam the world's oceans, the six
depicted above are found in Southeast Asia.
by law. Government Regulation (PP) No.
7/1999 together with Act No.5/1990 Only one significant nesting population of leatherbacks remains - in Bird's
prohibit utilization of both live or dead Head Peninsula, Irian Jaya, Indonesia, where up to 3,000 nests are currently
documented. The once renowned population in Terengganu, Malaysia, is now
sea turtles or their parts and
essentially extinct. Myanmar has reported about 300 nests of olive ridleys
derivatives. Commercial egg collection per year, while elsewhere in Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand and Brunei
is controlled by law. In January 2002, Darussalam, less than 50 nests are known to be found per year. The only
important remaining populations of hawksbills occur in Malaysia and
the local government of the Berau
Indonesia. In Malaysia, between 400-600 nests are deposited in the Sabah
District in East Kalimantan introduced Turtle Islands and 200-300 in Melaka; while overall density in Indonesia
new rules to reduce the level of egg ranges from 1,000 to 2,000 nests per year.
exploitation and to protect up to 60
Loggerheads are rarely found since these are a subtropical nester. However,
percent of the eggs produced. In a few Myanmar has documented up to 100 nests of loggerheads per year.
locations ( e.g., Kepulauan Seribu)
head-starting programs are practiced. The Australian flatback does not nest here, although some have been
reported to feed in the waters of Indonesia.

The green turtle is the only species which nests in appreciable numbers in the
Malaysia region. Current densities in Indonesia, Malaysia (mostly in the Turtle Islands
of Sabah and Sarawak) and the Philippines (Tawi-Tawi Islands) stand at
10,000-20,000 nests per year, while Myanmar and Thailand have reported
Malaysia has a long history of sea 500 and 300 nests, respectively, per year.
turtle conservation programs, dating
(NB: Since marine turtles lay about 5-6 nests per season, it is necessary to divide nesting density by this
back to the 1970s. Efforts are focused factor to arrive at an estimated number of mature female turtles in the population)

December 2 0 0 2 41
Egg collection for consumption is one of the
major forms of exploitation of marine Philippines

turtles in the region with the Philippines, The Wildlife Resources

Indonesia and Malaysia known to be source Conservation and Protection Act or


Republic Act No. 9147, which was

and consumer countries. The turtle egg approved by Congress in July of


2001, is intended to form the
industry of the Berau District of East “backbone of marine turtle
conservation and protection” in the
Kalamantan, Indonesia, which supports the Philippines (citing Atty. Wilfrido

largest aggregations of green turtles in the Pollisco, Director of the Department


of Environment and Natural

country have been estimated to generate Resources, in July 2002). This law
bans the exploitation of all
an income of over US$ 200,000 a year. endangered species, including
marine turtles and their eggs. In
spite of strong opposition from the
mainly in protection of turtle eggs. by the media. Other activities, such as local communities, implementing
Sabah and Sarawak currently protect long-term turtle volunteer programs rules and regulations are expected
close to 100 percent of eggs and turtle camps, help spread the to be approved soon and enforced.
deposited while in Peninsular message.
Malaysia, less than 50 percent of the Eight islands have been
eggs deposited are protected. While declared turtle sanctuaries by the
major nesting sites are protected, Myanmar Philippine Department of
some of them (in Peninsular Environment and Natural Resources
Malaysia) are still leased to local Conservation work on marine (DENR) but currently, only Baguan
inhabitants for commercial egg turtles here is carried out by the Island, one of six Philippine Turtle
collection. Department of Fisheries, which has Islands, is actively protected.
been responsible for providing Commercial egg harvest has been
Marine turtle conservation complete protection to turtle nesting allowed up to 2001 on the
comes under the purview of the state beaches since 1997. This involves remaining five islands where as
governments, which have mainly egg incubation in natural nests much as 70 percent of the eggs are
enactments specifically for the and hatcheries. Public educational marketed. In other remote islands,
management and protection of sea programs have also been initiated. turtles are still exploited not just for
turtles. Uniform legislation for sea their eggs, but for the meat as well.
turtle protection is currently being Myanmar Marine Fisheries DENR is monitoring and
developed at the federal level for legislation has provisions for the confiscating sea turtles in trade,
adoption by the various states of the protection of sea turtles, their habitats but such enforcement efforts are
country. and nesting beaches with major difficult to carry out in remote
nesting beaches being declared regions. An information and
Sea turtle conservation issues sanctuaries. Waters within 3 miles of education campaign is being
are well known among the Malaysian the coastline of sanctuaries are also carried out jointly by a few
public since these are well covered protected. agencies.

42 Tropical Coasts
While regional and international
Thailand
agreements and conventions set the
stage for intergovernmental efforts, it is
In Thailand, many provisions
have been made to protect sea often the local grass-roots level projects
turtles. The commercial harvest, sale
and consumption of sea turtle meat,
which help address the everyday issues
eggs and other products are now
in marine turtle conservation.
banned. Important feeding grounds,
such as seagrass beds and coral
reefs, are protected by law. Harmful
fishing gear (such as pushnets and
Conclusion
trawl) are prohibited. Nesting
beaches are protected, with all eggs Trade in marine turtle some countries, exploitation of
transferred to hatcheries for products remains an important turtles and their eggs is a deep-
incubation. In some locations, conservation issue in the seated tradition, which cannot be
hatchlings are raised for a short Southeast Asian region. Although easily abolished by new legislation.
period before release. Although most of the countries in question Educational programs aimed at
release of headstarted hatchlings, as have acceded to CITES, sea turtle various stakeholders in sea turtle
mentioned earlier is in accordance products continue to be traded exploitation, coupled with strict
with practices in Buddhism, its across international boundaries. enforcement of legislation
effectiveness as a conservation The traders who are involved will designed to protect the turtles
measure needs to be reviewed. continue to operate as long as should be carried out if sea turtles
there is a demand for the products in Southeast Asia are to survive
and money to be made. Within into the future.
Vietnam

Sea turtles have only recently R e f e r e n c e s


received national protection in
Vietnam. Turtle eggs and meat have Bali, J., H.C. Liew, E.H. Chan and O.B. Tisen. 2002. cooperation in sea turtle conservation, p.
Long distance migration of green turtles from 73-75. In Proceedings of the International
been widely consumed, while the the Sarawak Turtle Islands, Malaysia, p. 32- Congress of Chelonian Conservation, 6-10
hawksbill has been heavily exploited 33. In Proceedings of the Twentieth Annual July 1995, Gonfaron, France.
Symposium on Sea Turtle Biology and
for its shell. Stuffed sub-adults and
Conservation, 29 February-4 March 2000, Nasir, M.T.M, A.K.A.Karim, and M.N. Ramli. 1999.
juveniles of both green and hawksbill Orlando, Florida, USA. NOAA Tech. Memo. Report of the SEAFDEC-ASEAN Regional
turtles are prominently displayed in NMFS-SEFSC-447. Workshop on Sea Turtle Conservation and
Management, 26-28 July 1999, Kuala
large quantities in souvenir and Chan, E.H. 2001. Status of marine turtle conservation Terengganu, Malaysia.
handicraft shops around the country, and research in South-east Asia. In Proceedings
of the Training Workshop on Marine Turtle Nguyen, T.D. 1999. Marine turtle status report
which are sold illegally, both within
Research and Conservation in Vietnam, 24-28 in Con Dao National Park, 1995- 1998.
the country as well as abroad. A July 2001, Vung Tau - Con Dao. WWF Indochina Programme and Con Dao
National Action Strategy is currently National Park.
Convention on Migratory Species Bull. No. 14.
being developed to expedite the Pollisco, W. 2002. Personal communications to
conservation of marine turtles and Liew, H.C., E.H. Chan, F. Papi and P. Luschi. 1995. the author.
Long distance migration of green turtles from
impotant nesting areas in the
Redang Island, Malaysia: the need for regional
country.

December 2 0 0 2 43
Romeo B. Trono Conserving Migratory
VP Conservation
and Field Operations/Director
Sulu-Sulawesi Marine Ecoregion Program
World Wide Fund for Nature
Species Through Ecoregion
Quezon City, Philippines
Conservation Approach:
and

Jose Alfred B. Cantos


The Case of Sea Turtles
in Sulu-Sulawesi
Program Assistant
Sulu-Sulawesi Marine Ecoregion Program
World Wide Fund for Nature
Quezon City, Philippines

Marine Ecoregion
Introduction

The Sulu-Sulawesi Marine


Ecoregion (SSME) is located in the
Indo-West Pacific, the global center
of marine biodiversity (Briggs,
1999). Within this center is an
area of maximum coral and
tropical reef fish diversity called
the Coral Triangle. The SSME is
situated at the apex of this
triangle. Geographically found
between 15o N latitude and 116o E
longitude and 0 o N latitude and
127o E longitude just above the
equator, the SSME touches the
coastlines of Indonesia, Malaysia,
and the Philippines, and covers an
area of nearly a million square
kilometers (Figure 1). It comprises
the Philippine Inland Seas
(Sibuyan Sea, Visayan Sea,
Camotes Sea, and Bohol/Mindanao
Sea), the Sulu Sea, the Sulawesi
Sea, and the small islands and Figure 1. The SSME comprises the Philippine Inland Seas
(Sibuyan Sea, Visayan Sea, Camotes Sea, and Bohol/
large island provinces within.
Mindanao Sea), the Sulu Sea, the Sulawesi Sea, and the
small islands and large island provinces within.

44 Tropical Coasts
Ecoregion is defined as a
Thirty-five million identified. Of the over 200
inhabitants directly benefit from terrestrial, freshwater, and
relatively large unit of land
the biodiversity of this marine
ecoregion in terms of fisheries,
marine ecoregions, the SSME
was identified as one of WWF's
or water that is biologically
tourism, navigation for trade and priority marine ecoregions. distinctive and harbors a
commerce, transportation and This evolutionary approach is
communication. Coastal designed to conserve, and characteristic set of species,
development has significantly where necessary, restore the
progressed to support various fullest possible range of
ecosystems, dynamics and
economic activities and for biodiversity over large spatial
environmental conditions.
human habitation. Unsustainable and temporal scales.
trends in the use of these
resources and the complex The first step in the
patterns of human-mediated process for developing an
activities in the region however, ecoregion conservation Box 1. Biodiversity of the SSME.
resulted in local extinction of program is the reconnaissance
species, depletion of biological - a rapid assessment of the
populations, and degradation and ecoregion's biodiversity, threats
loss of habitats. and opportunities for
conservation as well as the
Recognizing that small- identification of existing
scale and site-specific interventions and key actors.
approaches to conservation do The next step is the formulation

Jurgen Freund
not achieve full conservation of the biodiversity vision where
results, the World Wide Fund for the aspirations for conserving
Nature (WWF) developed a more and restoring the biodiversity of
comprehensive, long-term, and the Sulu-Sulawesi Seas are
large-scale approach to articulated. This vision is set by
The SSME harbors, among others, 22
biodiversity conservation called a broad range of stakeholders
species of whales and dolphins including
ecoregion conservation. and experts based on the
Ecoregion is defined as a biophysical and socioeconomic sperm and killer whales; 5 of the world's
relatively large unit of land or assessments. The vision, a 50- 7 species of sea turtles; the endangered
water that is biologically year goal for biodiversity dugong or sea cow; whale shark, the
distinctive and harbors a conservation in the ecoregion, is
largest fish in the world; the very rare
characteristic set of species, anchored on the four
megamouth shark; the highly prized
ecosystems, dynamics and fundamental goals of
environmental conditions (WWF, conservation: Napoleon wrasse; and even the
1998). Through WWF's extremely rare deep-dwelling coelacanth,
comprehensive analysis of the · The representation of all the only living representative of a group
earth's biological wealth, 238 distinct natural
of fishes from the dinosaur era.
ecoregions, which represent the communities within a
earth's biodiversity were network of protected areas;

December 2 0 0 2 45
The biodiversity of the
· The maintenance of ecological and
Sulu-Sulawesi Marine Ecoregion evolutionary processes that create and

provides direct benefits in terms of sustain biodiversity;

fisheries, tourism and navigation · The maintenance of viable populations of


species; and
for trade and commerce,
· The conservation of blocks of natural
transportation and communication habitats large enough to be responsive to

to 35 million inhabitants. large-scale periodic disturbances and long-


term changes.

Based on the biodiversity vision, a broad


stakeholders' Ecoregional Conservation Plan is
The SSME Vision
developed through stakeholders’ workshops
and situation analysis. The conservation plan
sets the 10-15 year conservation goals for the
ecoregion and identifies conservation actions to
achieve these goals.

The vision for the SSME was formulated


through the Workshop to Formulate the
Biodiversity Conservation Vision for the Sulu-
Sulawesi Marine Ecoregion (SSME) held in March
2001. Seventy-eight biophysical and socio-
Jurgen Freund

economic experts from Indonesia, Malaysia and


the Philippines participated in the workshop.

A marine ecoregion that remains to be globally While the Ecoregion Conservation Plan is
unique and a center of diversity with vibrant being formulated, an interim WWF action plan
has been developed. This plan was based on the
ecological integrity, harboring representative
biodiversity vision and the recommendations of
species, assemblages, communities, habitats,
the visioning workshop. It outlines specific
and ecological processes. A highly productive targets, actions to achieve the targets, and
ecoregion that sustainably and equitably activities to be undertaken by WWF over a period
provides for the socioeconomic and cultural of five years. This provides basis for WWF's
conservation interventions on issues that
needs of the human communities dependent
require immediate action while the planning
on it. An ecoregion where biodiversity and
process is still being completed. The over-all
productivity are sustained through generations goal of the interim WWF action plan is to ensure
by participatory and collaborative management continuous adoption of the fundamental goals
across all political and cultural boundaries. of biodiversity conservation and advocate

46 Tropical Coasts
economic development compatible Indonesia. These islands play an in the SSME. To address this need,
with biodiversity conservation. important part in the life cycle of sea the WWF-SSME Program is currently
Under the plan, WWF will pursue ten turtles in the region (Figure 2). facilitating a tri-national initiative for
objectives, one of which is: a coordinated conservation of sea
“threatened species and their To strengthen and increase turtles within the context of the
habitats protected to maintain viable effectiveness of conservation efforts ecoregion program. In line with this,
populations”. at the national and regional scales, the program brought together 22
WWF along with other relevant local managers, decisionmakers,
The ecoregion functions as stakeholders from Indonesia, NGO representatives, and
important habitat for both human Malaysia and the Philippines through government officials from Indonesia,
communities as well as diverse its SSME Program recognized the Malaysia and the Philippines for the
populations of marine wildlife need to establish a tri-national first Tri-National Training Program
including, among others, five of the conservation program for sea turtles on Sea Turtle Biology and
seven species of sea turtles. Since
these highly migratory marine
reptiles are susceptible to extreme
development-driven threats and
unsustainable fishing practices,
conservationists have recommended
all species except the Australian
flatback and Kemp's ridley to be
included in The World Conservation
Union (IUCN) Red List as endangered
or vulnerable. All seven sea turtle
species are also listed under
Appendix I of the Convention on
International Trade in Endangered
Species of Wild Fauna and Flora
(CITES), and under Appendices I and
II of the Convention on Migratory
Species (CMS). Three important
habitats of green and hawksbill
turtles are found in the Sulu-Sulawesi
Seas. These include the nine islands
of the Turtle Islands cut across by
national borders placing six within
the Philippines and three within
Malaysia; the Sipadan Island, located
in one of the corridors that connect
the Sulu and Sulawesi Seas; and the Figure 2. Three important habitats of green and
hawksbill turtles can be found in the Sulu-Sulawesi
Derawan Group of Islands on the side
Seas. These include the nine islands of the Turtle
of Sulawesi Sea, in East Kalimantan, Islands cut across by national borders.

December 2 0 0 2 47
The Tri-National Turtle Protected
Conservation. The training which was held in
Area hopes to initiate Derawan Islands, Indonesia from 27-30 March

on-the-ground formal tri-national 2002, enhanced the participants' understanding


of sea turtle biology, ecology, and increased their

collaboration and cooperation in the technical competence on conservation and


sustainable management of marine turtles. It also
conservation of sea turtles in the provided a venue to share lessons learned and
opportunities to broaden collaboration and
Sulu-Sulawesi Seas. If the partnerships and initiated a process to effect the

expansion of the Turtle Islands establishment of a tri-national sea turtle reserve.

Heritage Protected Area to include Immediately following the highly successful


training, the Strategic Planning Workshop for a
Derawan Islands in Indonesia Tri-National Sea Turtle Conservation Program for

materialized, it will become the Indonesia, Malaysia, and the Philippines was held
in Berau, East Kalimantan from 01-04 April 2002.

world’s first tri-national sea turtle Sixty-two participants from the three countries
participated in the workshop. The planning
protected area. workshop reviewed the population status and
existing management arrangement and issues
relevant to the conservation of sea turtles in the
three countries; validated the need for a tri-
national management program for sea turtle
conservation; formulated a tri-national
conservation program for conservation involving
the three states and generated an action plan to
launch and implement the tri-national sea turtle
program.

This workshop formulated a comprehensive


tri-national sea turtle conservation program for
the SSME through consensus building. The
program outlines in-country and transboundary
interventions, which will form part of a
consolidated action plan to be developed and
adapted to national situations while maintaining
The Tri-National Training Program on Sea Turtle alignment with the existing national and regional
Biology and Conservation held in Derawan
Islands, Indonesia from 27-30 March 2002, conservation programs. This program consists of
provided a venue to share lessons learned and seven objectives, one of which determines the
opportunities to broaden collaboration and involvement of stakeholders in turtle
partnerships, and initiated a process to effect
management and conservation.
the establishment of a
tri-national sea turtle reserve.

48 Tropical Coasts
The workshop also agreed to hawksbill turtle with a satellite There are however,
pursue the establishment of the transmitter on 31 January 2001, tremendous challenges to
world's first tri-national sea turtle from Selingaan Island in Sabah, effectively implement this tri-
protected area through the Malaysia. The turtle was tracked for national sea turtle conservation
expansion of Turtle Island Heritage 45 days passing through possible program. Current security
Protected Area (TIHPA) to include feeding areas in Derawan Islands in problems and political conflicts
the Derawan Islands in East East Kalimantan. More recently, a among the three neighboring
Kalimantan, Indonesia. The tri- green turtle tagged from the states particularly along their
national turtle protected area hopes Philippines Turtle Islands was borders inhibit effective
to initiate on-the-ground formal recovered in Derawan. Derawan collective conservation
tri-national collaboration and Islands provide habitats crucial to interventions. Another challenge
cooperation to conserve sea turtles the various life stages of sea we face is to prove that this
in the Sulu-Sulawesi Seas. This will turtles, such as growth and conservation initiative is
also serve as a platform to expand development, reproduction and economically beneficial to the
the tri-national initiative to other feeding. states’ constituents.
conservation concerns, e.g., coral
reef, mangrove, and seagrass
conservation. Conclusion

The WWF-SSME Program is The tri-national sea turtle


currently coordinating with the WWF conservation program is
offices in Indonesia, Malaysia and envisioned to effectively conserve References
the Philippines to promote the the largest green and hawksbill
endorsement of the Tri-National turtle populations and their Briggs, J.C. 1999. Coincident
Sea Turtle Conservation Program habitats in the Southeast Asian biogeographic patterns: Indo-West
Pacific Ocean. Evolution 53(2): 326-
by the governments of the three region. This will also provide a
335.
nations. The WWF-SSME Program is springboard for broader
also working with the TIHPA-Joint conservation efforts and Miclat, E. F. B. and R. B. Trono (eds). A vision
for life: biodiversity planning for the
Management Committee to opportunities for trade, security, Sulu-Sulawesi Marine Ecoregion.
establish the tri-national protected and ecotourism in several priority WWF. 289p. (In prep.).
area. These initiatives are highly conservation areas adjacent to the
Trono, R.B. 2001. An ocean of treasures.
motivated by a recent finding that territorial boundaries of Indonesia, In Sulu-Sulawesi Seas. Makati City:
the three countries share these sea Malaysia, and the Philippines. If The Bookmark, Inc. and WWF-
Philippines (Kabang Kalikasan ng
turtle resources. This was proven effective, this initiative may Pilipinas). 109p.
scientifically proven when the expand to other sea turtle habitats
National Oceanic and Atmospheric in other ASEAN countries. Most
WWF (World Wide Fund for Nature). 1998.
In Proceedings of the Ecoregion-
Administration of the US importantly, the tri-national based Conservation Workshop.
Department of Commerce through conservation program for sea Washington, D.C. January 1998.
Sabah Parks, WWF and the Philippine turtles in the Sulu-Sulawesi Seas
WWF (World Wide Fund for Nature). 2001.
Department of Environment and can foster regional collaboration Commitment to life. Sulu-Sulawesi
Natural Resources - Parks and that can contribute to an improved Marine Ecoregion. WWF. 32p.

Wildlife Bureau, tracked a nesting quality of life for its constituency.

December 2 0 0 2 49
Tomme Rosanne Young
Senior Legal Officer
Environmental Law Centre
Beyond the Promises:
IUCN - The World Conservation Union
Bonn, Germany
Enforcing and
Implementing CITES
Introduction

In many ways, the Convention on


International Trade in Endangered
Species of Wild Fauna and Flora
(CITES) broke new ground when it
was adopted, particularly in its Controlling Both Sides These prohibitions were adopted

approach to enforcement and the of Trade under the CITES provisions that allows
members to adopt stricter controls
commitment of the parties. Since
CITES creates a "two-edged than under CITES. Initially this
then, it has had remarkable initial
sword" to combat illegal or destructive approach was sometimes necessary
success at controlling a major
wildlife trade. Its mandatory controls where systems, technology and/or
catalyst of species destruction: on trade are imposed both when the capacity were limited in their ability to
international trade in wildlife and specimen or product leaves the impose the detailed regulatory
its parts and products. The time has country of origin and when it arrives at controls necessary for implementing
come, however, for CITES to begin an interim or final destination. the Convention. In the intervening
to "mature," to build on the initial years, both the US and the EU have

successes in a way that fosters a In practice, this approach is a imposed more detailed systems,

longer-term "steady-state" major contributor to CITES’ success. which enable them to impose the
Very promptly after the Convention's CITES limitations and distinctions.
protection and in this way, become
entry into force, Europe, the United
a true "sustainable development"
States and Canada (major importers of In more recent years, this
convention. This maturation will
specimens and products at the time) concept of "stricter controls at the
necessarily require new imposed import controls, including national level" has come under
developments in the manner in absolute prohibitions on all trade in scrutiny. Many parties claim that
which the Convention is several Appendix 1 species. This such controls conflict with the role of
implemented and enforced. In immediate implementation of controls CITES in setting international quotas,
preparation for it, it is important to promptly produced an impact on the and the potential of CITES to be a
consider both the Convention's amount of trade and on the amount determinant of the sustainability of

successes to date, and the and nature of takings from the wild, use of listed species. They also may
even where the countries of export had be considered in some cases as a
challenges that have arisen and
not taken any effective steps to means by which some countries may
need to be faced.
implement the Convention. overcome national sovereignty

50 Tropical Coasts
regarding environmental
CITES must evolve in order to both
conservation. address the evolution in the nature of
On the other side of this wildlife trade and to better satisfy the
controversy, many small and
developing countries note that it is
needs of the new millennium - to live
always easier to implement stricter
controls (which are usually
up to its potential as a “sustainable
prohibitions with few exceptions), development” convention.
than it is to enforce controls based on
complex testing or external quota by the CITES COP continues to be a nature of wildlife trade and to better
systems. An example of this is found sharp and significant sanction, and a satisfy the needs of the new
in the various limitations that exist or strong incentive to compliance with millennium - to live up to its potential
are voluntarily accepted regarding the Convention. The strongest use as a "sustainable development"
ocean species. Often the only way to of this sanction has been against convention. The forces mandating
determine whether whale meat, for countries that have either failed to this evolution arise both organically
example, is that of a permitted species adopt the necessary legislative (within the Convention itself) and
is by DNA analysis - something that measures required under the externally.
may be nearly impossible for many convention; or failed to implement or
countries to undertake as part of a enforce those measures effectively.
systematic programme of CITES An "Explosion" of Listing
implementation, even where they
favor and support the limitations on Evolution of CITES The need for development can
traffic in certain species. Implementation be discerned simply from the fact
that Appendices I and II currently list
CITES was adopted as a matter more than 30,000 species of plants
International Attention of urgency, in light of a perilous and animals. This volume clearly
situation facing many rare, places an extraordinary demand on
A second component of CITES important, and valuable species. It every party. Even trade in whole
effectiveness has been its Conference has been extraordinarily successful specimens may be difficult to control
of the Parties (COP), which has not in many instances in achieving this and it may be difficult to equip
only continuously reviewed the lists of initial goal. Where, in 1972, many officials with the ability to recognize
species and the procedures of the experts feared that elephants and listed species. Where international
Convention, but has also stood as a whales would soon be extinct, today traffic involves a "part, product or
guardian of the Convention's process, those species are populous enough derivative" of a specimen, capacity to
censuring parties that do not comply that some parties are seeking to have identify it becomes even more
with their CITES obligations. CITES- them "downlisted" ( i.e., moved from complex and demanding. To ensure
related trade with such parties may be Appendix I - trade prohibited; to that the Convention is properly
restricted and, perhaps worse, the Appendix II - trade allowed subject to implemented, enforcing officers need
Party's reputation among eco- quotas and other controls). access to experts, databases,
tourists, donors, and others may be identification techniques and
negatively impacted. International law At this point, however, the equipment, in addition to training in
includes relatively few strong Convention must evolve in order to the various CITES processes and
enforcement mechanisms. Censure both address the evolution in the permit systems.

December 2 0 0 2 51
The fact that a species is endangered
increases its value, as well as the
know or determine that the purchased
demand. Where the supply is controlled item contains alcohol and know or

or curtailed, the price will continue to determine that the buyer was
underage. These factors are much

spiral as long as demand exceeds the more difficult to determine and to


document with appropriate evidence.
available supply.
Of course, the fact that a
prohibition is simpler to enforce does
Legal trade in wildlife, however, astoundingly large number of species. not mean that it will be more effective.
is an important component of This evolution is increasing the One need only examine the United
"sustainable use" of these species by difficulties faced by CITES parties in States' experience with the complete
their countries of origin. This trade enforcing the convention. prohibition of all sales of alcohol in
can be seriously disadvantaged by the 1930's. Although normal alcohol
delays, such as the delays required It is always more complicated sales were curtailed, the public (or a
in order to undertake the process of and costly (in both human and large fraction of it) did not agree with
identification and of confirming that financial terms) to "control" the purpose of the law. As a result, an
relevant documents of permission something than to prohibit it. For enormous illegal trade developed and
are genuine. example, laws in many countries limit flourished, creating a very successful
the opening hours of pubs and other criminal class. It is clear that this kind
establishments that serve alcohol. of impact is possible in wildlife trade
Controlled Legal Trade Often, this is an absolute prohibition. as well, if the public does not support
No pub may be open for this type of appropriate penalties or other
Another challenge can be seen business during the "closed hours". controls and the demand for the
in the comparison between Such a law is comparatively easy to product remains unabated. This is
Appendix I with Appendix II. police - if the establishment is open, it one force which may be leading to the
Appendix II, which includes in some is violating the law. This does not creation of a new wildlife trade
cases whole genera rather than mean that all violations can be found underground - a new avenue of
individual species, currently and cited; however, a pub's operation criminality.
comprises more than 90 percent of requires public custom, so that an
the species contained on the two open pub is usually easy to find. Implementing officials in
lists. Trade in Appendix II species is receiving countries must evaluate the
further enhanced by the fact that By contrast, it is much more legitimacy of export permits
CITES management authorities have difficult to regulate the activities of an presented, as well as the factors
been duly authorized in the operation which is being conducted underlying that permit's issuance.
overwhelming majority of the legally. Staying with the alcohol The evidentiary requirements
contracting parties. example, many countries permit the necessary in order to prove that a
sale of alcoholic beverages only to particular import is illegal are much
As a result, CITES is persons above a certain age. This more complicated, where the trade is
increasingly focused on controlled, type of "regulation" or "control" of the "legal but controlled," than where it is
sustainable trade rather than on market is quite onerous to police. The simply prohibited. In addition, each
prohibition, but must cover an officials must actually observe a sale, Party must maintain constant

52 Tropical Coasts
CITES creates a “two-edged sword” to
awareness of species numbers and
combat illegal or destructive wildlife
status and of the various side-effects trade. Its mandatory controls on trade
of species trade, in order to participate
effectively in setting and implementing are imposed both when the specimen or
international quotas.
product leaves the country of origin and
Perhaps the greatest challenge,
when it arrives at an interim or final
however, is found outside the
Convention. destination.

Demand for "the Rare" value of ivory and tortoise shell Creation of a "New"
appear to arise primarily out of their Criminal Class
Although CITES has been rarity.
effective in severing the lines of supply In recent years, an alarming
of protected wildlife products, it does In some cases, the fact that a shift has become apparent -
not address demand for them. Often, species is endangered increases its smugglers and criminals who have,
although the reasons underlying the value, as well as the demand. in the past focused on commodities,
original demand have disappeared, the International advertisements for such as drugs and stolen artworks,
demand remains. Ivory and tortoise unique hunting experiences are are increasingly turning to trade in
shell offer good examples of this predicated on the fact that a particular listed animals and plants.
phenomenon. species will soon disappear from the Sometimes, the black-market value
wild. The discerning hunter, they of these commodities is astounding,
Ivory was originally prized for its claim, should not miss one of the last but even where the value is
"carveability," because it had neither opportunities to kill the species in its moderate, the profits of this trade
the grain of wood nor the fracturability natural setting and to obtain a trophy can be substantial. Beyond the value
of stone. Few substances could be that will soon be unobtainable. of this activity, however, the
worked artistically and still possess pernicious inducement to criminals
the hardness, color, workability and Standard economic principles to trade in species is inexorably
durability of ivory. In the modern recognize that, so long as a demand connected to the fact that the
world, however, many substances for a product exists, the supply of penalties involved are very low -
possess these qualities. Similarly, that product will control the price. In either by statute, or by application.
tortoise shell was originally valued for other words, the harder it is to find a In many countries, statutory
its plasticity - it could be worked and product-in-demand, the higher the authority to punish wildlife trade
moulded into many items of value price of that product will be. Where violations does not even exceed the
(adornments, dressing table items, the supply is controlled or curtailed, value of the specimens the violator
etc.) Here also, progress has the price will continue to spiral as possessed at the time of
eliminated this value. Modern plastics long as the demand exceeds the apprehension. It is often true
are, of course, plastic. They are, in available supply. moreover that judges, prosecutors
fact, the chief (undercutting) and those imposing administrative
competitor of tortoise shell. Today's And therein lie the seeds of the fines do not utilize the full range of
demand for and perceptions of the most important challenge for CITES. penalties that are authorized.

December 2 0 0 2 53
A recent, non-systematic demand for wildlife products impact, however, in many cases,
evaluation of CITES violations in the continues to raise the value of illegal such increase is not likely to occur.
EU found that the incidence of wildlife and its products, so that Like the resurgent demand for rare
capture of repeat offenders smugglers, both individuals and species products, this reluctance
carrying commercial quantities of enterprises, can afford a level of appears to be a function of public
specimens is increasing. In some technology that is often unavailable opinion. Even in countries whose
cases, smugglers were found in to law enforcers. Although customs judiciary is very independent,
possession of hundreds of live or and other officials are sometimes higher penalties will rarely be
preserved amphibians or birds. provided with additional funding assessed where the majority of the
When these cases went to court, and equipment for this reason, local, otherwise law-abiding
penalties did not come close to the those benefits are rarely meted out citizenry does not feel that the
maximum authorized amount, nor, to the officials and institutions crime "deserves" it. And, where
in most cases, to the value of the combating wildlife crime. decisions impose higher penalties
specimens that were confiscated at than public opinion would endorse,
the time of the arrest. it is entirely likely that either the
Looking for Answers judges or the laws will change.
It is clear, even from available Clearly, then, one important effort
informal studies that the In some countries, the must focus on a long-standing and
perception that species-related inefficiency of enforcement has elusive problem. It must give
crimes are not "important" and do been addressed by increasing the priority to developing more
not merit high penalties (coupled training and powers of effective means of impacting public
with the fear that the judges' or apprehending officers, in some opinion, both to affect demand, and
administrators' communities and cases giving them the ability and to support the imposition of
constituencies will believe so) often authority to use deadly force, if appropriate penalty levels,
stays the hand of punishment. As necessary. Such measures may particularly in importing countries.
a result, few wildlife trade offenders answer only a few of the primary
are imprisoned and the financial concerns of CITES enforcement of In this connection, however, it
penalties imposed are usually less the 21st Century. should be noted that the specific
than the value of the specimens impact of enforcement is not based
found in the offender's possession In the long run, the solutions entirely on the size of penalties.
when he was arrested. Such for CITES's new challenges will not Studies have shown that a greater
practices cannot be expected to be so simple. Merely tightening the certainty of apprehension is often a
serve as a disincentive to continue controls on species movement will much stronger deterrent to
an ongoing enterprise of illegal not be enough. So long as the violators than heavy penalties.
wildlife trade. By comparison to the demand is present, the market Hence, active and rigorous
treatment accorded drug or art values will continue to increase, controls, along with administrative
smugglers in many countries, this providing both the incentive and the fines (or even "warnings") can be an
"slap on the wrist" is almost financial means to continue evading unexpectedly effective deterrent,
laughable. legal controls. particularly in the case of minor or
incidental violators. Unfortunately,
Beyond these incentives are Increasing penalties could where the illegal trade is a part of an
the practicalities. The heightened ultimately have some positive ongoing business, the

54 Tropical Coasts
t
www.pemsea.org
"businessmen" involved will typically
factor the "costs" of occasional

i
apprehension, fines and confiscations
into their "costs of doing business".
Hence, the net of apprehension must
be extremely tight, if it is to have a
significant deterrent effect.

s
Ultimately, however, more than
these changes in the control of
imports will be needed. Both edges of
the CITES sword must be sharpened.
On the export side, Convention
processes are already giving
increased attention to the sustainable i
use of Appendix II species as a
national resource. Once legal markets
develop at rational levels, the Get the latest news and information
spiralling inflation caused by on marine and coastal environmental
management in the East Asian Seas
V

unfulfilled demand may reach a


"steady state," which can begin to region online @ www.pemsea.org
remove the incentive for criminal
trading, at least to a level that it can be The countries included in the region are: Brunei
Darussalam, Cambodia, China, DPR Korea,
properly policed. On the import side,
Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, Philippines, RO Korea,
this alteration in demand levels may Singapore, Thailand and Vietnam.
be at least as important as the
Functional information is discussed in the section
strength of controls in ultimately
on the various programme components of PEMSEA:
controlling the harm caused by • integrated coastal management;
international trade, which is the true • managing subregional sea areas and pollution
objective of CITES.
hot spots;
• capacity building;
• environmental management and investments;
These efforts complement and • scientific research;
are complemented by other • integrated information management systems;
• civil society;
Convention's processes that
• coastal and marine policy; and
recognize the impact of one species' • regional mechanism.
listing on the conservation status of
Now with more links, the PEMSEA website presents
other species and habitats. Together
a wider array of references and databases
they will help create a rational world particularly regarding the practice of two
market for wildlife products - and give environmental management approaches -
CITES its proper position as the
integrated coastal management, and risk
assessment and risk management.
pre-eminent "sustainable use
convention". Also, lists of relevant and timely publications and
trainings are featured. Plus a lot more.

December
December 22 00 00 22 Visit the PEMSEA website. Now. 55 55
continued from page 31

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Griffiths, D.J. and M. Streamer. 1988. Contribution Mingoa-Licuanan, S.S., E.D. Gomez and D.T. Dumale. Sims, N.A. and N.T. Howard. 1988. Indigenous
of zooxanthellae to their giant clam host. In 2000. Giant clam culture manual: Gabay sa pag- tridacnid clams and the introduction of Tridacna
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Newman, W.A. and E.D. Gomez. On the status of giant
Groombridge, B., editor. 1994. 1994 IUCN Red List clams, relics of Tethys (Mollusca: Bivalvia: Sirenko, B.I. and O.A. Scarlato. 1991. Tridacna
of Threatened Animals. IUCN, Gland, Tridacnidae). Ninth International Coral Reef rosewateri: a new species from the Indian Ocean.
Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. vi + 286 p. Symposium, 23-29 October 2002, Bali, Indonesia. La Conchiglia/Shell: Int. Shell Mag. 261: 1-6.
(In press).
Heslinga, G., T. Watson and T. Isamu. 1990. Giant Stanton, J. 1994. Evaluation of international trade
clam farming. Pacific Fisheries Development NOAA-NMFS (National Marine Fisheries Service). 2001. statistics and the demand for substitutes as
Foundation (NMFS/NOAA), Honolulu, Hawaii. Giant clams. NOAA Fisheries - Office of Protected indicators of the market for giant clam meat. In
179 p. Resources. Avail from: http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/ Economics of commercial giant clam
prot_res/PR/giantclams.html mariculture. ACIAR Monogr. No. 25. Australian
Juinio, M.A.R., L.A.B. Menez, C.L. Villanoy and E.D. Centre for International Agricultural Research,
Gomez. 1989. Status of giant clam resources in Norton, J.H., M.A. Shepherd, M.R. Abdon-Naguit and S. Brisbane, Australia.
the Philippines. J. Molluscan Stud. 55: 431-440. Lindsay. 1993. Mortalities in the giant clam
Hippopus hippopus associated with rickettsiales- TalayThai.com. 2001. Survey of distribution of giant
Klumpp, D.W., B.L. Bayne and A.J.S. Hawkins. 1992. like organisms. J. Invertebr. Pathol. 62(2): 207- clams in Mu Ko Surin Marine National Park Area.
Nutrition of the giant clam Tridacna gigas (L.). 209. Avail from: http://www.talaythai.com/English/
I. Contribution of filter feeding and unesco/un02.php3
photosynthates to respiration and growth. J. Reichelt, R. and D. Williams. 2001. Returns on investing
Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 155: 105-122. in the Great Barrier Reef: short and long run Tan, A.S.H. and Z.B.Yasin. 1998. The conservation of
benefits. Avail from: http://www.crca.asn.au/ giant clams in Malaysia. International
Lee, B. 1988. Giant clam farming: is there a bright activities/2001/ conference/williams.htm Workshop on the Rehabilitation of Degraded
future? Aust. Fish. 47(7): 27-31. Coastal Systems, 19-24 January 1998, Phuket
Rodriguez, S.R., F.P. Ojeda and N.C. Inestrosa. 1993. Marine Biological Center, Thailand. Avail from:
Lochen, K., editor.1997. TRAFFIC Bull. Seizures Settlement of marine invertebrates. Mar. Ecol. Prog. http://www.ncl.ac.uk/tcmweb/rehab/
Prosecut. 17(1): 46 p. Ser. 97: 193-207. abstrac2.htm

Lucas, J.S. 1988. Giant clams: description, distribution Rosewater, J. 1965. The Family Tridacnidae in the Indo- Tisdell, C. and C.-H. Chen. 1992. Notes on the use of
and life history. In Giant clams in Asia and the Pacific. Indo-Pac. Mollusc. 1(6): 347-396. giant clam meat for food in Taiwan. Res. Rep
Pacific. ACIAR Monogr. No. 9: 21-33. Australian Pap Econ. Giant Clam Maricult. No. 36, 24 p.
Centre for International Agricultural Research, Rosewater, J. 1982. A new species of Hippopus (Bivalvia: University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia.
Canberra, Australia. Tridacnidae). Nautilus 96: 3-6.
Usher, G. 1984. Coral reef invertebrates in Indonesia:
Lucas, J.S. 1994. Biology, exploitation, and Salamanca, A.M. and M.G. Pajaro. 1996. The utilization their exploitation and conservation needs. IUCN/
mariculture of giant clams (Tridacnidae). Rev. of seashells in the Philippines. TRAFFIC Bull. 16(2): WWF Proj. Rep. 1688, Bogor IV, 100 p.
Fish. Sci. 2: 181-223. 61-72.
Zann, L.P. and A.M. Ayling. 1988. Status of giant
Lucas, J.S., E. Ledua and R.D. Braley. 1991. Tridacna Schneider, J.A. and D.O. Foighil. 1999. Phylogeny of giant clams in Vanuatu. In Giant clams in Asia and
tevoroa: Lucas, Ledua and Braley: a recently clams (Cardiidae: Tridacnidae) based on partial the Pacific. ACIAR Monogr. No. 9: 60-63.
described species of giant clam (Bivalvia; mitochondrial 16S rDNA gene sequences. Mol. Phylog. Australian Centre for International Agricultural
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105(3): 92-103.

56
32 Tropical Coasts
E D I T O R I A L

Sustainable... continued from page 2

regional and international agreements and conventions set the stage for
intergovernmental efforts, the authors recommend education to raise public
awareness, coupled with local grass-root level projects and ultimately,
strict enforcement of international agreements/conventions and legislation
to help conserve the existing population of marine turtles in the region.

A recent initiative, which complements Chan and Shepherd’s article


on marine turtle conservation is presented by Trono and Cantos through
the ecoregion conservation approach, showcasing the Sulu-Sulawesi Marine
Ecoregion (SSME). The SSME not only harbors five of the world’s seven
species of marine turtles, but also encompasses important habitats of
green and hawksbill turtles, which cut across national borders spanning the
Philippines, Malaysia and Indonesia. A tri-national marine turtle
conservation program is being formulated, which aims at strengthening
and increasing the effectiveness of conservation efforts at the national and
regional scales. The article describes the important steps in developing the
program with the involvement of different stakeholders from the three
countries. One of the highlights of the initiative will be the establishment
of the world’s first tri-national marine turtle protected area, through the
expansion of the Turtle Islands Heritage Protected Area, to include
Indonesia, the Philippines and Malaysia. This initiative is envisioned to
bring about not only effective conservation of the largest green and hawksbill
turtle rookery in the region, but also to foster stronger regional cooperation.

Any discussion on endangered species trade is not complete without


touching on CITES, the Convention responsible for addressing unregulated
international trade of wild fauna and flora. In spite of a number of
difficulties in implementation and enforcement, CITES has made significant
progress in controlling illegal or destructive wildlife trade since coming
into force in 1975. Young deduces that the time has come for CITES to
evolve in harmony with the changing nature of wildlife trade and conform
to the requirements of sustainable development. For CITES to achieve this
level, new developments in implementation and enforcement are required.
Outside the Convention, addressing the “demand for the rare” was identified
as one of its most important challenges. Hence, efforts focusing on developing
effective means to impact public opinion were suggested. Within the
Convention, solutions were presented to address emerging issues concerning
the export and import sides of the trade.

The importance of species preservation in attaining sustainable


development clearly indicates that endangered species should be given the
full protection they deserve while, at the same time allowing rational
trade to occur. The articles presented in this issue provide insights into
where protection of species are most needed and identify measures and
solutions in support of sustainable use of these resources. Collectively, the
solutions proposed are complementary, if not similar and they all point to
a way forward. On-the-ground initiatives that put into action some of the
solutions presented are shaping up, albeit slowly, and generating good
results. As the consequences of extinction are lasting, it is imperative to
save what is remaining, to sustain the goods and services that the oceans
and coasts have been providing the people through the generations.

December 2002 357


21 - 24 January Claims Recovery and Contingency Planning
(Manila, Philippines)

3 - 7 March Study Tour (Xiamen, PR China)

8 - 11 April Claims Recovery and Contingency Planning


(Bangkok, Thailand)

14 - 17 April Claims Recovery and Contingency Planning


(PR China)

PEMSEA’s training initiatives 5 - 9 May Port Safety and Environmental Management


System (Port Klang, Malaysia)

provide unique learning 12 - 16 May Port Safety and Environmental Management


System (Bangkok, Thailand)

experiences through: Note: The above schedules may be subject to change.

Involvement of multisectoral stakeholders


in coastal and marine environmental
protection and management

ALUMNI N E T W O R K
Field studies integrated into training
courses, complementing theory with
actual practice

Site-specific application of acquired


new skills ensuring enhanced capability
and confidence Get involved... stay involved.
Concrete plans for follow-on actions,
encouraging participants to The Alumni Network offers:
make a difference New and up-to-date information on PEMSEA activities

Information on opportunities for professional upgrading and


Effective environmental management degree programs available on fields relevant to coastal and
marine environmental management
requires trained and skilled people…
Be one of them! A chance to be a member of the PEMSEA roster of trainers

Information on PEMSEA related training activities within the region


To join, visit the PEMSEA website
and complete the registration form.

www.pemsea.org
For further information, please contact:

The Regional Programme Director


GEF/UNDP/IMO Partnerships in Environmental Management
for the Seas of East Asia (PEMSEA)

Mailing Address: P.O. Box 2502, Quezon City 1165, Philippines


Tel.: (632) 920 2211 to 14 Fax: (632) 926 9712
Website: http://www.pemsea.org
E-mail: info@pemsea.org

58 Tropical Coasts
capacity building
Training on Claims Recovery
and Contingency Planning

The course is designed to enhance the


participants' skills in contingency planning,
claims procedures and damages/costs
accounting. Relevant information and
experiences of countries in the East Asian region
Featured Training Course for This Issue

are incorporated into the training modules and


workshop exercises, in addition to international
references/guidelines.

Topics covered

• Overview of international instruments relating to damage claims from ship pollution


• Basics of Admissible Claims (preventive measures, property damage and economic
loss, fisheries, environmental damage)
• Claims formulation, assessment and settlement
• International instruments related to contingency planning
• Essential Elements of an Effective Contingency Plan
• The Contingency Planning Process
• Effective organizational structures for response to environmental emergencies
• Integrating claims procedures into contingency plans

Who Should Participate?


The course is designed for representatives from national response agencies,
relevant legal agencies/organizations, shipping industry, petroleum industry,
environmental NGO's, fisheries, marine salvage, port authorities, local
communities and other relevant organizations.

Entry Requirements
• Must be directly involved in the formulation and coordination of damage
claims from ship pollution and in the development/updating of contingency
plans
• English language proficiency

December 2002 59
E
P E M S E A Sustainable

NEWS
Development
UNDP Considers
M

PEMSEA Strategy
PEMSEA’s as Development
M

Program of Actions PR CHINA


Vehicle
A

Meet WSSD’s BEIJING, PR CHINA — UNDP has a unique

Recommendations perspective on PEMSEA’s Sustainable Development


R

Strategy for the Seas of East Asia (SDS-SEA). This


was made apparent during an International
Waters meeting organized by UNDP on 18 October
G

JOHANNESBURG, SOUTH AFRICA — At the world in Beijing.


summit in Johannesburg, PEMSEA Regional
Programme Director, Dr. Chua Thia-Eng partici- In a remark that confirmed the growing recognition of the
pated in the ocean coordinating group meetings to SDS-SEA, Mr. Frank Pinto, Executive Coordinator for the
O

share in a collective effort to promote the ocean UNDP/BDP/Environmentally Sustainable Development


agenda in the WSSD plan of implementation. He Group/GEF stated that UNDP was considering using the SDS-
also discussed PEMSEA’s views and experiences SEA as a framework for Capacity 2015. Capacity 2015 is a
R

with other colleagues from other parts of the UNDP effort aimed at developing the capacities of countries
world on integrated coastal management and large to meet sustainable development goals under Agenda 21 and
marine ecosystems at workshops and seminars. the Millennium Development Goals at the local level.
P

Most of PEMSEA’s past and current activities are in line with The SDS-SEA is seen as an instrument that cuts across all
WSSD’s declaration and plan of implementation, such as sectors, not just the environment sector. It has evolved to
forging multi stakeholder partnerships, applying integrated provide a platform for:
management approach, mobilizing private sector resources to
augment public sector’s efforts in environmental manage- · harmonizing relationships between the economy and
ment and implementing strategies, policy and action programs the environment as related to the Seas of East Asia;
to improve sanitation, strengthen natural resource base, · forging operational linkages across national and
promote good governance at local levels, and increase public regional programs addressing issues such as poverty
awareness on environment and sustainable development. alleviation, sustainable livelihood, reduction of
vulnerability to natural hazards, economic growth and
PEMSEA submitted three Type II projects at the Summit. They maintaining the health of human beings, ecosystems
include a project on public and private sector partnership-an and the natural resource base; and
attempt to mobilize private sector investment through · promoting intersectoral, interagency, intergovernmen-
developing an enabling environment to facilitate direct tal and interproject partnerships for overcoming
investment from national or international financing. Another constraints to sustainable development of the region.
project focused on strengthening local government partner-
ships in implementing coastal strategies and action programs PEMSEA Regional Programme Director, Dr. Chua Thia-Eng
related to integrated coastal management. The third project attended the meeting, which was a side event of the Second
emphasized building regional partnerships for the implemen- GEF General Assembly, held from 16-18 October.
tation of a regional sustainable development strategy for the
seas of East Asia as well as national coastal/ ocean policy and A copy of the SDS-SEA is available at the PEMSEA website.
sustainable development strategies within the framework of Comments and suggestions are welcome. http://
the regional strategy. www.pemsea.org/envirostrategy/

60 Tropical Coasts
E
P E M S E A
Coastal and Ocean
Governance
Coastal and Ocean
Governance Leadership Seminar
Experts
M

Highlights Need for


Meeting Coastal and Ocean
M

Gains P R C H I N A Management
Momentum
A

M A L A Y S I A

XIAMEN, PR CHINA — Leaders and scholars in ocean


KUALA LUMPUR, MALAYSIA — Twenty and coastal governance met on 21 September in Xiamen
R

officials and experts have committed to meet to brainstorm on how sustainable use of the coasts and
on the 18-20 November, to review the status oceans in the East Asian region can be best achieved.
of national and regional policy in the East The Seminar on Leadership in Ocean and Coastal
Asian Seas and discuss related regional
G

Governance was attended by over 80 participants that


scenarios for the future. The Experts’ Meeting included current and former secretaries/ministers, as
on Strategies for Better Coastal and Ocean well as representatives from government agencies, the
Governance, co-organized by PEMSEA and the private sector, financial institutions, the academe,
O

Maritime Institute of Malaysia (MIMA) will be international organizations and NGOs. The seminar was
held in Kuala Lumpur. The participant experts organized by PEMSEA and the State Oceanic
will be coming from government agencies and Administration of PR China and hosted by the Xiamen
non-government institutions involved in
R

Municipal Government.
coastal and ocean policy studies, formulation
and implementation in countries of the East Keynote presentations during the seminar were delivered by:
Asia Seas. Indonesia Minister of Marine Affairs and Fisheries, Dr. Rokhmin
P

Dahuri; PR China State Oceanic Administration Administrator, Mr.


The Experts’ Meeting will have three specific goals: a) Wang Shuguang; Xiamen Mayor, Mr. Zhang Chagping; Ship and
the development of guidelines for national coastal and Ocean Foundation Executive Director, Dr. Hiroshi Terashima; World
marine policy development, based on experiences of Bank Senior Coastal Management Specialist, Dr. Marea Hatziolos;
countries in the region and around the world; b) the GEF Senior Adviser on International Waters, Dr. Alfred Duda; and
development of a Consultation Document to pave the PEMSEA Regional Programme Director, Dr. Chua Thia-Eng. The
way to a Declaration of Principles on the Seas of East presentations covered such topics as ocean and coastal governance,
Asia; and c) the further revision of the draft Sustainable integrated coastal management (ICM), financing and policy reforms.
Development Strategy for the Seas of East Asia. The
Declaration of Principles will determine the commitment Highlights of the ensuing discussions focused on the need to
and form of regional collaborative arrangements for the institutionalize coastal management programs at all levels to avoid
Seas of East Asia, while the Sustainable Development the negative effects of changes in leadership and administrations.
Strategy is envisioned to become the common framework Ecotourism was also highlighted during discussions, recognizing that
of action for the East Asian Seas, which will implement ecotourism is among the fast-growing industries in the region. If
the WSSD adopted documents and other international coastal and marine degradation continues, the needed earnings from
programmes of action. this industry would be negatively affected. The seminar participants
stressed that integrated planning and management is critical for
The Experts’ Meeting is the first of a series of sustainable ecotourism.
consultations that will be made at national and regional
levels leading to the Ministerial Forum for the Seas of Regarding policy reform at the local, national and international
East Asia and International Conference on Coastal and levels, the seminar suggested that actions are required to develop
Ocean Governance: Towards a New Era of Regional and adopt a regional mechanism to enhance the collective efforts of
Collaboration and Partnerships, slated for 8-12
December 2003. Continued on page 62

December 2001 61
E
PP E E M M S S E E A A

NEWS
M

opportunities”. Coastal strategy development and


environmental risk assessment were identified as key tools
Diplomats Discuss to assist local governments in delineating priority
M

environmental concerns, while building environmental

Investment Opportunities awareness and consensus for action among communities


and other stakeholder groups.
A

MANILA, PHILIPPINES — The role of public- Four key questions are asked of local stakeholders when
private partnerships (PPP) as a mechanism selecting projects for PPP, namely:
for developing self-sustaining environmental
R

facilities and services was the topic of 1. Does the project address an urgent
discussion at a recent briefing of several environmental concern?
embassy personnel organized by the UNDP 2. Is there an opportunity for private sector
Manila Office on 16 August. Representatives
G

investment in the project?


from the embassies of Australia, Brunei 3. Have the project risks and proposed risk-sharing
Darussalam, Indonesia, Japan, Finland, New arrangements been delineated?
Zealand and the United States were in 4. Will the project make a profit?
O

attendance, as well as those from the Asian


Development Bank, World Bank and Currently, PEMSEA project sites in Bali (Indonesia), Bataan
Philippine Business for the Environment. and Manila Bay (Philippines), Danang (Vietnam), Klang
R

(Malaysia), and Xiamen and Bohai Sea (PR China) are in


The main focus of the briefing was PEMSEA’s initiatives the process of completing studies to answer these questions.
in the East Asian Seas region, and the development of
local government capacities in coastal and ocean Representatives confirmed their willingness to work with
P

governance. The benefits of creating a policy and PEMSEA in promoting the partnership opportunities with
investment climate for private sector participation in investment groups and operating companies within their
environmental projects through the ICM process were respective country and regional networks.
explained, as well as the procedures for identifying and
selecting appropriate investment opportunities. UNDP Resident Representative Mr. Terence Jones presided
over the briefing, with Dr. Chua Thia-Eng, Regional
A number of questions were raised by country Programme Director, and Mr. Adrian Ross, Senior
representatives concerning the ways and means of Programme Officer, making presentations on behalf of
developing and promoting potential “investment PEMSEA.

Leadership Seminar from page 59


international conventions, demonstrated progress and
success in implementing ICM, and increased efforts in
countries to restore, protect and sustain the shared coastal meeting international and national targets for sustainable
and marine ecosystems in the region. The establishment of a development were listed as some of the areas requiring
system of marine protected areas, the formulation and commitment by the region’s leaders.
adoption of national coastal and marine policies and
supporting legal frameworks, and other institutional Two aspects were identified as a prerequisite to the
arrangements for countries in the region were identified as sustainability of environmental management and
important steps forward. development programs, namely recognition of the real
economic value of natural resources; and the
Most importantly, the need for leaders with political will, enhancement of the investment climate to attract private
long-term vision and a focus on implementation was sector investments and to mobilize public sector
stressed. Such issues as ratification and enforcement of investments in the environment.

62 Tropical Coasts
Ministerial Forum and International Conference on the Sustainable
Development of the Seas of East Asia:
Towards a New Era of Regional Collaboration and Partnerships

8-12 December 2003

The International Conference The Ministerial Forum

The Conference is designed to catalyze regional and international A Ministerial Forum attended by concerned ministers and senior
efforts and collaboration in minimizing environmental deterioration, officials of PEMSEA participating nations will receive summaries of
improving sustainability in the use of natural resources, providing a the thematic reports, conclusions and recommendations of the
cleaner coastal and marine environment and protecting the remaining technical and plenary sessions of the conference, review the final
ocean heritage. The Conference will gather concerned stakeholders draft of the Sustainable Development Strategy for the Seas of East
from the coastal nations of East Asia, including policymakers, resource Asia and consider a draft Declaration or Statement of Principles for
and economic managers, scientists, members of the business adoption. The forum shall consider innovative and sustainable
community, media and other members of civil society, to discuss the regional collaborative arrangements and financing mechanisms
environmental management challenges faced by the East Asian for strengthening and sustaining regional coastal and ocean
seas and to foster stronger partnerships and commitments. governance as obligated under Agenda 21 of UNCED and in
response to the recommendations of the WSSD and other related
The principal themes of the Conference will be: instruments.

1. Best practices, experiences and lessons learned in the testing Side Event:
and application of integrated environmental and natural Environmental Investment
resource management of coastal and ocean-related Round Table
ecosystems;
The Investors Round Table is a gathering of industry, business
2. Critical challenges in managing shared waters - overcoming people, policymakers, consultants, financial institutions and donor
governance, financing, scientific, communication and capacity agencies. Representatives from local governments will introduce
barriers; and high quality environmental investment opportunities and government
commitments to risk reduction measures with the objective of
3. Regional collaboration and partnership - developing effective establishing long-term partnership arrangements with the private
and sustainable regional and subregional mechanisms for sector.
environmental and natural resource governance; building
intergovernmental, interagency and intersectoral partnership The Round Table involves an intensive program consisting of
at regional, national and subnational levels. themed sessions and workshop forums focusing on the Public-
Private Partnership process and the emerging market opportunities.
The conference will consist of plenary and thematic sessions over Project proposals will center on environmental technology, facilities
a 5-day period. Discussions and recommendations from each and services required in seven PEMSEA-supported project sites.
technical session will be summarized and reported to the plenary
sessions for general deliberation; and conclusions arising from the This event promises to be an interactive platform for building more
plenary sessions will be reported to the Ministerial Forum for review effective environmental management systems and the sustainable
and adoption. delivery of public goods and services in the East Asian Seas
Region.

All these events are being organized by


GEF/UNDP/IMO Regional Programme
on Partnerships in Environmental Management
for the Seas of East Asia (PEMSEA)
and hosted by
the Government of Malaysia
For more information, e-mail PEMSEA at
info@pemsea.org and visit www.pemsea.org

December 2002 63
MARINE ECOREGIONS IN EAST ASIA

DPR KOREA
LEGEND:
Banda-Flores Sea
Nansei Shoto Rep. of KOREA
Yellow JAPAN
Sea
Sulu-Sulawesi Seas
Yellow Sea

East China
Sea
C H I N A
The Global 200
TAIWAN
The World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) in collaboration with regional
HONG KONG experts developed the identification of important biological
ecoregions collectively known as the Global 200. It is a science-
based global ranking of the world’s most significant habitats, and
VIETNAM provides a blueprint for biodiversity conservation.
LAOS Displayed in the map are the Global 200 marine ecoregions located
within the boundaries of the East Asian Seas: Yellow Sea, Nansei
Shoto, Sulu-Sulawesi Seas and Banda-Flores Sea.

Pacific
PHILIPPINES Ocean
THAILAND
CAMBODIA
Philippine Sea
South
China
Sea
Sulu Sea

BRUNEI
DARUSSALAM
Sulawesi
M A L A Y S I A Sea
SINGAPORE

I N D O N E S I A

Indonesian Seas

Source:
http://www.panda.org

Yellow Sea Nansei Shoto Sulu-Sulawesi Seas Banda-Flores Sea


Features: Features: Features: Features:
A regional center of endemism for fish and A subtropical ecosystem with unusual endemism for This ecoregion holds one of the most diverse marine The Banda-Flores ecoregion supports numerous
invertebrates, the semi-enclosed Yellow Sea is one its habitat type, the Nansei Shoto island chain communities on earth with globally high fish and coral endemic species of coral, fish and invertebrates, as well
of the largest shallow areas of continental shelf in contains diverse coral reefs that support many diversity. The Sulu-Sulawesi holds over 450 species of as populations of marine turtles, dugongs, giant clams
the world. It provides the major overwintering ground endemic fish species as well as populations of scleractinian corals with fish diversity reaching its highest and seabirds.
for numerous species of fish and invertebrates. marine birds and mammals. worldwide level in this region.
Selected Species:
Selected Species: Selected Species: Selected Species: • Carpet Shark (Eucrossorhinus dasypogon)
• Dugong (Dugong dugon) • Loggerhead Turtle (Caretta caretta) • Napoleon Wrasse (Cheilinus undulatus) • Blainville’s Beaked Whale (Mesaplodon densirostris)
• Dall’s Porpoise (Phocoenoides dalli) • Dugong (Dugong dugon) • Green Turtle (Chelonia mydas) • Hawksbill Turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata)
• Gray Whale (Eschrichtius robustus) • Japanese Parrotfish (Calotamus japonicus) • Bottlenose Dolphin (Tursiops truncatus) • Leatherback Turtle (Dermochelys coriacea)
• Pacific Herring (Clupea pallasii) General Threats: • Water Monitor (Varanus salvator)
General Threats:
General Threats: • Overexploitation of Resources General Threats: • Destructive Fishing Practices
• Sedimentation • Sedimentation • Destructive Fishing Practices • Overexploitation of Resources
• Industrial Pollution • Overexploitation of Resources • Sedimentation
• Domestic Sewage • Sedimentation • Oil Spills
• Domestic Sewage

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