Running Head: DEVELOPMENTALISM AS IT RELATES TO TRAINING THE CHILDS VOICE 1

Developmentalism as It Relates to Training the Childs Voice

Brianna Shepardson
Ithaca College
DEVELOPMENTALISM AS IT RELATES TO TRAINING THE CHILDS VOICE 2

Since birth, the humans primary form of learning happens in the form of imitation.

Humans imitate the sounds they hear and the actions they observe. They learn their first language

by imitating the words they hear over and over, and a babys first steps are a result of observing

parents, siblings and peers. Likewise, most people learn to sing by listening to their parents sing

to them, or by listening to voices heard on the radio. Very rarely do children learn to sing by

listening to the voices of people their own age, and so the childs voice becomes an imitation of

the adult voice. In some ways, this is okay. Children learn to match pitch, keep a steady beat,

hear harmony, and simply appreciate music through listening to music made by adults.
The issue of developmentally appropriate singing arises around the age of eight, when

children stop internalizing music on their own and begin learning music through formal training.

If a child is not given any musical training, they may alter their voices in an unhealthy manner to

achieve a certain popular sound. If a child experiences formal training by a teacher who does

not understand the developmental properties of the childs voice, they may attempt to make their

voice sound more mature than it actually is, resulting in permanent vocal damage. Too often, I sit

down to enjoy a childrens concert and am met with the strained or contorted voices of young

people who have not been taught how to embrace their voices at the appropriate developmental

stage. The only way to avoid this occurrence is to educate music teachers about how to provide

appropriate musical instruction to children at each developmental stage.

This paper explores Jean Piagets theory of developmentalism specifically in regards to

teaching children to sing. It begins with a brief background of Jean Piaget and his theory of

cognitive development followed by an outline of the stages of development and how they relate

to learning music. It will focus on the pre-operational and concrete operational stages and how to

best teach singing according to the specific physical and mental capacities of students in these

stages. The goal of this paper is to inform music teachers of appropriate expectations for children
DEVELOPMENTALISM AS IT RELATES TO TRAINING THE CHILDS VOICE 3

singers depending on their developmental stage. Some examples for appropriate activities are

given to demonstrate teaching to each stage.

One of the leading figures of the theory of developmentalism, Jean Piaget (1896-1980),

viewed learning as a process related to the growth of the human mind and body. Piaget began his

work at a young age studying the evolution of shellfish. When he had children, he continued his

work by examining their development from birth forward. Through these observations, he

shaped his theory of cognitive development. Similar to John Dewey, Piaget believed that

children come into the world with very limited knowledge, and are shaped according to their

environments. As they develop, children learn to identify symbols, understand relationships

between people and objects, and finally to think in terms of abstract ideas and theories (Phillips

& Soltis, 2009, p.41-2).

Sensorimotor Stage
From birth to around the age of two, children learn based on their five senses. They

absorb information by touching, tasting, smelling, seeing and hearing the world around them.

This period, called the sensorimotor stage, results in an incredible amount of learning.

Information is quickly processed and children are learning how to interact with their

environments every day. If an infant can experience something through one of the five senses,

(s)he can begin to make connections between his or her movements and changes to the

surrounding objects, sounds, and people (Clark & Eilen, 43-44).

In terms of musical development, children in the sensorimotor stage begin to react to

changes in tempo and dynamics through facial expressions or movements. They start explore

their voices through cooing sounds and may start to imitate the pitches they hear around them.

Just like an infant is learning how words can be used to communicate, they may have the same

response to music. Even in this early stage of development, children are learning how music can

communicate expression (Gembris, p 139). Eventually, they move their bodies with the music
DEVELOPMENTALISM AS IT RELATES TO TRAINING THE CHILDS VOICE 4

they hear through rocking and can imitate some song segments or short melodic sequences

(Hodges & Sebald, p. 258-66).

Pre-operational Stage
The pre-operational developmental stage happens around the age of two and continues

until approximately age seven. This stage is essential for developing an internal understanding of

music. Children begin to connect words to objects. They can understand how symbols relate to

real-world objects and situations. In a study on kindergarten and first grade students, Mugge

maintains that children in the pre-operational observe differences in sounds and sight, but they do

not label these differences as good or bad until they are taught otherwise. It is quite possible for

children to begin to label differences as bad based on their observations unless parents and

teachers make an effort to teach children that differences can be a good thing. This is an

especially important concept to understand when teaching children to sing. If children learn to

value differences, they will be more apt to understand that their voice will sound different than

the voice of their teacher or the student standing next to them, and that is not a bad thing

(Mugge, 404).
Musically, children in the pre-operational developmental stage are able to learn songs

with multiple verses through repetition and imitation. It is during this stage that an internal beat

begins to develop, and if nurtured, children can sing full songs with a steady beat and without

modulating in the middle of a melody (Hodges & Sebald, p. 258-66). It is often the case that the

focus at this age is the development of language, but it is crucial that parents and teachers not

forget about the development of the singing voice. While formal music training at this point may

not be beneficial, providing opportunities for children to explore their musical abilities during

this time is essential to developing strong musicians. For example, teachers and parents may

provide opportunities for children to increase their musical aptitude by singing to them, playing

music for them, and singing with them. Until age eight, children will acquire musical skill simply
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by listening to and participating in musical activities. By the time they reach the concrete

developmental stage, children will maintain their musical ability unless they are formally trained

(Gembris, p. 140).
When singing with a child in the pre-operational stage, it is important that the voice

remain relaxed at a low dynamic level. Children should be encouraged to use their upper voices

as much as possible to avoid becoming stuck in their low range. In his book, Teaching Kids to

Sing, Phillips outlines an example of an activity to encourage young children to exercise their

upper voices. He recommends starting with a short rhyme, such as Jack Be Nimble in the

lower voice, and gradually moving to the upper voice for one phrase such as, jack jumps over

the candle stick. Once the child feels comfortable doing this, the teacher may move on to longer

phrases in the high voice such as baby bears quote, whos been eating my porridge? in the

story of Goldilocks and the Three Bears. Finally, teachers can encourage students to sing small

phrases in their upper voices (p. 84).

In terms of repertoire, it is important to choose songs with repeated patterns, both

musically and textually. Songs should include simple melodies with an emphases on descending

intervals (Goetze, Cooper & Brown, p. 25). Preschool and early elementary aged children have

been found to be most successful singing on a minor third, or sol to mi, which can be found in

many traditional childrens songs. Teachers can use these songs most effectively by adding

instruments and movements (Phillips 84). Not only does this provide students with another tool

for remembering lyrics, it also makes performing the music more fun and engaging.
Concrete Operational Stage
When students reach second grade, near the age of eight, they transition to the concrete

operational developmental stage. During this period, children begin to understand that objects

may be manipulated and still maintain the same properties. Piaget calls this conservationism. An

example given by Hodges and Sebald involves the use of clay. If two ounces of clay were
DEVELOPMENTALISM AS IT RELATES TO TRAINING THE CHILDS VOICE 6

presented both in the shape of a cylinder and a sphere, a person who has not developed a clear

sense of conservation would think that the cylinder was made of more clay, because it looks

longer. A person who understands conservationism would recognize that both shapes contain the

same amount of clay (Hodges and Sebald, p. 265).

During the concrete operational stage, children continue to develop their understanding of

language. They are able to communicate their thoughts in a linear manner, and can successfully

hold a conversation about a single subject. For example, a student in kindergarten may respond

to a teacher who asks if there are any questions about the explained activity with, I got a new

puppy yesterday! Since they have not yet entered the concrete operational stage, they may be

unable to understand that their statement did not answer the teachers question. They heard a

question, and responded with their first thought, whether not it was connected to the initial

question. Once they reach second grade, these same students will be able to answer questions

logically, as long as they have personally experienced an answer. In this same example, a second

grade student would be able to ask a question related to the explained activity as long as the

teacher has provided a concrete demonstration of the expected procedure.

Children in the concrete operational stage can make logical observations and connections

limited to objects they can experience with their five senses. Abstract ideas and hypothetical

situations are difficult for children during this period. For example, a teacher may explain exactly

how to play a xylophone at the beginning of the year by discussing what a xylophone looks like,

how to hold the mallets and how to strike the keys. However, if a student has never seen a

xylophone or mallets, this becomes an abstract concept. They will not understand the process

being explained, and will not be able to internalize the concept of playing a xylophone until they

are given the opportunity to see and touch one.

It is at this age that formal vocal music training becomes imperative. Without appropriate

vocal training, children at this stage may form habits that may become detrimental to their vocal
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ability later in life (Phillips 86). Teachers of music should use Piagets theory of cognitive

development along with knowledge of the physical development of children at this age to

provide developmentally appropriate musical instruction. Using Piagets concept of

conservationism, teachers can expect students from second grade on to have the ability to

conserve a melody despite changes in key center. A student may start a song in any key and

conserve the melodic contour of the piece. Similarly, a student in this stage should be able to

maintain a steady beat while performing long and short sounds. This can be seen in the reciting

of short rhythmic phrases as a class. By second grade, students should be able to recite rhythms

as a class with a collective tempo.

Language and logic skills at this stage allow students to understand the story told by the

lyrics in a song. With this understanding, teachers may begin to teach expression through music.

Students can start to connect the lyrics of a song with the emotional attributes of the melody,

harmony or dynamics. In terms of logic, students can now understand that their voice is

something they have the ability to control. Teachers may use concrete examples of student

experiences to explain proper singing technique. For example, a teacher may explain what the

voice feels like or sounds like when it is being used incorrectly, and then demonstrate or have the

students demonstrate those sounds or feelings. Because children in the concrete operational stage

are able to think logically about their personal experiences, they will start to understand how it

feels to sing correctly.

It is important that abstract examples are not yet used during this stage of development,

as the student may not be able to understand something he or she can not physically experience.

Teachers may discuss proper posture, breathing and certain feelings related to singing; however,

explaining the physiology related to singing may be more difficult because the students cannot

see exactly what is happening in their bodies. For this reason, it is best for the music teacher to
DEVELOPMENTALISM AS IT RELATES TO TRAINING THE CHILDS VOICE 8

focus on physical sensations, healthy sounds and visible movements to encourage proper singing

technique (Gembris 53).

Physically, the concrete operational stage is the perfect time to begin vocal training.

According to Phillips, a childs lungs have fully developed by the age of eight and they have the

ability to produce the upper voice in a healthy manner (p. 17). When working on proper vocal

production, children should sing in unison with other voices similar to their own. It is imperative

that children sing lightly from the top of their natural range and are encouraged to use their upper

voices until they reach middle C. Around fourth grade, students may start singing in harmony

effectively if they have received a high-quality vocal education prior. They will be able to sing

more expressively, with their healthy dynamic range spanning from piano to mezzo forte.

(Phillips 87-8).
One of the challenges music teachers face is keeping students engaged by including

popular songs in their curriculum while still encouraging healthy vocal production. Most popular

songs are sung with the chest voice used far above middle C, resulting in a strained sound that

may lead to vocal damage. Edwin suggests that it is possible to teach a child to mix their chest

voice with their upper voice to develop a healthy, belted quality to the sound. He maintains

that just like opera, belting can be harmful to the voice if it is not taught correctly. If children are

taught how to produce their upper voices first, they can then be taught how to mix that sound

into their chest voice to create a fuller, more belted sound (73-4). It is the music teachers

responsibility to encourage students to use their upper, middle and lower registers correctly in

order to create a healthy sound and prevent vocal damage. If a student demonstrates vocal fatigue

or complains about his or her voice hurting, the teacher should take immediate action to make

sure the childs voice does not become permanently damaged (Phillips 98).
When teaching songs to children in the concrete operational stage of development, it is

important to help them become aware of the different parts of their voices. One way to
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demonstrate this to children is through story telling. The teacher tells a story using his or her low,

middle and high registers and asks the students to repeat each line. The teacher may ask the

students to put their hands on their chests to experience the vibrations made in the low register.

With each register change, the teacher asks the students how their voice sounds. Later, the

teacher can refer back to the feelings described during this exercise to elicit the correct sound

during song rehearsals (Runfola & Rutkowski, p. 22).

Formal Operational Stage
For the purpose of this paper, less focus is placed on the formal operational stage than the

pre-operational and conditional operational stages. Elementary level music teachers work with

students in the latter two stages much more frequently, making the latter two stages more

relevant to the objective of this paper. However, it is still important for elementary teachers to

understand the formal operational stage for a few reasons. First of all, it has been determined that

children do not simply jump from stage to stage all at the same time. Instead, the growth is

gradual and varies from student to student. It is possible that an elementary student could enter

the formal operational stage before leaving the school. A teachers knowledge of the formal

operational stage makes it possible to provide meaningful differentiated instruction to these

students. It is also important for the elementary music teacher to know what comes next so they

can better prepare their students for the next stage in musical growth.
According to Piaget, students are cognitively able to understand abstract concepts after

the age of eleven. They are able to problem solve and plan for future events. Since Piaget, there

has been much research about whether cognitive growth stops at eleven or continues. It seems to

be clear from most of the research that the mind continues to develop through the teenage years

and into young adulthood. Some may also argue that the mind continues to develop as long as it

is being challenged (Roberge & Flexer, p. 478). For the purpose of this paper, the discussion will
DEVELOPMENTALISM AS IT RELATES TO TRAINING THE CHILDS VOICE 10

revolve around Piagets original theory that the formative operational stage continues through

adulthood.
In terms of vocal development, students in the formal operational stage become

increasingly able to sing challenging repertoire. Physically, the voice begins to change in both

males and females anywhere from the age of twelve to eighteen. It is important to note the

differences in voice changes for male and female singers and teach them accordingly. Female

singers experience a change in vocal physiology during puberty. The larynx and vocal folds grow

during this time, though not as drastically as in the male voice. Female voice change is noted by

a husky speaking voice and airy quality in the singing voice. It is important to encourage

females to continue singing through this stage through positive feedback and energizing

rehearsals. Males experience a similar change in the voice, though their change is much more

noticeable and should be handled carefully. The male larynx drops significantly and vocal folds

expand much more than in the female voice. Teachers can encourage boys to continue singing

during their voice change by having honest conversations with them and creating an environment

where they feel comfortable (Phillips, p. 114-132).

Students in the formal operational stage may demonstrate many different levels of

musical ability, as the stage begins at age eleven and continues through adulthood. For the

purpose of this paper, the focus will remain on the beginning of the formal operational stage.

Because both males and females are experiencing some extent of vocal development, music

teachers should continue to focus on producing a light, clear tone. The emphasis on upper voice

singing should remain, though the teacher may place more emphasis on learning to properly mix

the head and chest voice. This can be achieved through warm-ups starting in the upper register

and gradually mixing into the lower register. Students at this age will want to sing in their lower

register whenever possible, so it is important for the teacher to encourage them to exercise their
DEVELOPMENTALISM AS IT RELATES TO TRAINING THE CHILDS VOICE 11

head voices. Another important factor to consider is the text of the repertoire used with these

students is carefully chosen. Songs about love and those that may be considered too juvenile can

result in poor attitudes and lack of effort during rehearsal. Phillips suggests using songs with

nonsense syllables or traditional songs from various cultures to avoid any problem with the lyrics

(p. 113).
Conclusion
In conclusion, the stages of development as developed by Jean Piaget provide a basis for

understanding the cognitive development of students in the music classroom. Combined with the

physical development of the voice, this knowledge is imperative for teachers of music. In order

to foster a lifelong passion for music and singing, music teachers must understand how to build

the foundation for healthy, sustainable singing. Often, elementary teachers leave this technical

training to the secondary music teachers. By then, poor vocal habits may already have been

formed and even encouraged. It is our responsibility as educators of music to inform ourselves

about the development of our students, and to provide opportunities for them to develop healthy

singing habits as early as possible. With this foundation, our students may go on to share this

knowledge and love for music with their family, friends and peers. They will have the tools

necessary to continue making music for the rest of their lives.

DEVELOPMENTALISM AS IT RELATES TO TRAINING THE CHILDS VOICE 12

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