Topic 6 Time 95
6.1 Pedagogical Content Knowledge 97
6.1.1 History of Time 97
6.1.2 Time Zones 98
6.1.3 Telling the Time Correctly 99
6.1.4 24-hour System 101
6.2 Major Mathematical Skills for Time 103
6.3 Teaching and Learning Activities 104
6.3.1 Time in the 24-hour System 104
6.3.2 Converting Time in Fractions and Decimals 107
6.3.3 Year, Decade, Century and Millennium 109
6.3.4 Basic Operations Involving Time 111
6.3.5 Duration of an Event 113
6.3.6 Problem Solving Involving Time 115
Summary 117
Key Terms 117
References 118
Topic 7 Length, Mass and Volume of Liquids 119
7.1 Pedagogical Content Knowledge 121
7.1.1 Historical Note on Measurement 122
7.1.2 The Basic Principles of Measurement 123
7.1.3 The Meanings of Length, Mass and Volume of Liquids 124
7.1.4 Units of Length, Mass and Volume of Liquids 126
7.2 Major Mathematical Skills for Measurement in
Year 5 and Year 6 127
7.3 Teaching And Learning Activities 129
7.3.1 Length 129
7.3.2 Basic Operations on Length 131
7.3.3 Mass 133
7.3.4 Problem Solving Involving Mass 135
7.3.5 Volume of Liquids 137
7.3.6 Problem Solving Involving Volume of Liquids 139
Summary 141
Key Terms 142
References 142
Topic 8 Shape and Space 143
8.1 Pedagogical Content Knowledge 144
8.1.1 Geometric Formulas 144
8.1.2 Perimeter and Area 145
8.1.3 Volume 147
vi X TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
Welcome to the first topic of Teaching of Elementary Mathematics Part IV. What
is your expectation of this topic? Well, this topic has been designed to assist you
in teaching whole numbers to primary school pupils in Years Five and Six.
ACTIVITY 1.1
(b) Children should be allowed ample time and opportunity to create and use
their own algorithms. The following shows a childs procedure for
subtracting (Cochran, Barson, & Davis, 1970):
64
- 28
- 4
+40
36
TOPIC 1 WHOLE NUMBERS 3
What is the child doing? His thinking could be as follows: 4 minus 8 is -4,
60 minus 20 is 40. -4 plus 40 is 36!
This childs method might not make sense to all or most children, however,
it did make sense to that child, which makes it a powerful and effective
method for him at that moment.
When children compute mentally, they will develop their own strategies
and, in the process, develop good number sense. Good number sense helps
pupils use strategies effectively. Teachers should explain to the children how
to do mental computation. You should also encourage children to share and
explain how they did a problem in their heads. Children often can learn new
strategies by hearing their classmates explanations.
(b) Estimation
You should know that estimation involves finding an approximate answer.
Estimation may also employ mental computation, but the end result is only
an approximate answer. Teachers should ensure that children are aware of
the difference between Mental Computation and Estimation.
SELF-CHECK 1.1
The major mathematical skills to be mastered by your pupil when studying the
topic of whole numbers are as follows:
(a) Name and write numbers up to 1,000,000.
(b) Determine the place value of the digits in any whole number up to
1,000,000.
(c) Compare value of numbers up to 1,000,000.
(d) Round off numbers to the nearest tens, hundreds, thousands, ten thousands
and hundred thousands.
(e) Add any two to four numbers to 1,000,000.
(f) Subtract one number from a bigger number less than 1,000,000.
(g) Subtract successively from a bigger number less than 1,000,000.
6 TOPIC 1 WHOLE NUMBERS
ACTIVITY 1.2
Learning Outcome:
To practise the algorithms of addition.
Materials:
Clean writing papers; and
Task Sheet as below
Procedures:
1. Divide the class into groups of four.
2. Give each pair some clean writing paper and a Task Sheet.
TOPIC 1 WHOLE NUMBERS 7
8 6 7
4 5 3
1 0 9
6. The winner for this round is the pupil with the highest sum and is
awarded 5 points.
7. Pupils in the group repeat steps (5) and (6) when the teacher gives
the instruction for the next addition.
8. The teacher summarises the lesson on addition.
8 TOPIC 1 WHOLE NUMBERS
In subsequent sections, some examples are provided for pupils to practise the
algorithms of addition, subtraction multiplication and division. The next section
discusses subtraction using the calculator and estimation of the product of two
numbers. Let us look at Activity 1.3 first.
ACTIVITY 1.3
Learning Outcome:
To practise the algorithms of addition.
To increase the understanding of place value.
Materials:
10 cards numbered 0 through 9
Task Sheet as below
Procedures:
1. Divide the class into groups of four.
2. Give each pair some clean writing paper and a Task Sheet.
3. Each pupil in the group takes turns to draw a card and announces
the number on it. All players in the group write this number in one
of the addend boxes on the Task Sheet. Once a number has been
written on the Task Sheet, it cannot be moved or changed.
4. Replace the card and shuffle the cards.
5. Repeat steps (3) and (4) until all addend boxes are filled.
6. Pupils will compute their respective sum.
7. The winner is the pupil with the greatest sum and is awarded 5
points.
8. Repeat steps (3) through (7) until the teacher stops the game.
TOPIC 1 WHOLE NUMBERS 9
ACTIVITY 1.4
Learning Outcomes:
To practise subtraction using the calculator.
To practise the algorithms of subtraction.
To increase the understanding of place value.
Materials:
Calculator
Clean writing papers
Procedures:
1. Pupils play this game in pairs.
2. Give each pair a calculator and some clean writing paper.
3. Throw a dice to decide who should start first.
4. Pupil A chooses three different single-digit numbers. For example:
1, 2, and 4.
5. Enter the selected digits into the calculator in order to create the
largest number possible.
6. Enter -
7. Next, enter the same three selected digits to create the smallest
number possible followed by the = sign.
421
- 124
297
10 TOPIC 1 WHOLE NUMBERS
8. Repeat steps (5) through (7) with the digits 2, 7 and 9 (derived from
the first subtraction) as shown below.
ACTIVITY 1
421 972 963
- 124 - 279 - 369
297 693 594
954
- 459
495
9. Pupil B will have to write out all the algorithms of the subtractions
and Pupil A will check it.
10. If Pupil B had carried out all the subtractions correctly, the answer
will eventually yield the magic number 495!
11. Pupil B repeats steps (4) through (8).
12. The game continues until the teacher instructs the the pupils to stop.
13. The teacher summarises the lesson on subtraction.
TOPIC 1 WHOLE NUMBERS 11
ACTIVITY 1.5
Learning Outcomes:
To estimate the product of two numbers.
To practise the algorithms of multiplication.
Materials:
Calculator
Task Sheet as given
Procedures:
1. Divide the class into groups of four.
2. Give each group some clean writing paper, a calculator and a Task
Sheet.
3. Working in their group pupils will discuss the best strategy to fill
in the missing numbers in the boxes.
4. Pupils will compute the algorithm of multiplication and fill in the
blank boxes.
5. The winner is the group who obtained the correct answer in the
shortest time.
6. Members of the winning group will explain to the class their
strategy and also the algorithm of multiplication.
7. Teacher summarises the lesson on multiplication.
12 TOPIC 1 WHOLE NUMBERS
TASK SHEET
ACTIVITY 1
1. Use only the numbers 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9 to make
The largest possible product
8 6
X 2
1 9 2
+ 5 9
TOPIC 1 WHOLE NUMBERS 13
ACTIVITY 1.6
Learning Outcome:
Using calculators to develop number sense involving division.
Materials:
Task Sheet
Four calculators
Procedures:
1. Divide the class into groups of four.
2. Provide each group some clean writing papers, a Task Sheet and
four calculators.
3. Teacher explains the rules and starts the game.
4. Pupils will compete against members of their own group.
5. Pupils will use the calculator to determine a reasonable dividend
and divisor.
6. The winner is the one in the group with the dividend and divisor
that results in a quotient closest to the target number.
TASK SHEET
Target Numbers
ACTIVITY 1.7
Learning Outcomes:
To recognise patterns in whole number operations.
To practise estimation and computation of whole numbers.
Materials:
Calculator
Procedures:
1. Divide the class into groups of four.
2. Ask each member of the group to choose a two-digit number.
3. Using the calculator ask them to multiply their numbers by 99.
4. Pupils in their group record and compare their results.
5. Ask them if they can see a pattern or relationship in their answers.
6. In their groups pupils will write a statement describing their
pattern.
7. Ask pupils to predict the results of multiplying 5 other numbers by
99.
8. Repeat steps (2) through (7) but this time multiply the numbers by
999.
9. Ask pupils to compare results obtained from multiplication by 99
and 999 and write statements describing the pattern
- The same as the one for two-digit numbers x 99.
- Different from the two-digit numbers x 999.
16 TOPIC 1 WHOLE NUMBERS
ACTIVITY 1.8
Learning Outcome:
To practise estimation and computation of whole numbers.
Materials:
Calculator
Task Sheet
Procedures:
1. Divide the class into groups of four.
2. Give each group some clean writing paper, a calculator and a Task
Sheet.
3. In their groups, ask pupils to discuss the best strategy to fill in the
missing numbers.
4. Pupils will compute the algorithm of division and fill in the blank
boxes.
5. The winner is the group that arrives at the correct answer in the
shortest time.
6. Members of the winning group will explain to the class their
strategy and also the algorithm of division.
7. Teacher summarises the lesson on division.
TOPIC 1 WHOLE NUMBERS 17
TASK SHEET
5R2
8)6
07
8) 28
18 TOPIC 1 WHOLE NUMBERS
To plan basic teaching and learning activities for whole numbers, as well as
the addition, subtraction, multiplication and division of whole numbers in the
range of 1,000,000.
Hatfield, M. M., Edwards, N. T., & Bitter, G. G. (1993). Mathematics methods for
the elementary and middle school. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Rucker, W. E., & Dilley, C.A. (1981). Heath mathematics. Washington, DC:
Heath and Company.
TOPIC 1 WHOLE NUMBERS 19
2
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Use vocabulary related to fractions correctly as required by the Year 5
and Year 6 KBSR Mathematics Syllabus;
2. List the major mathematical skills and basic pedagogical content
knowledge related to fractions;
3. Use the vocabulary related to addition, subtraction, multiplication and
division of fractions correctly;
4. List the major mathematical skills and basic pedagogical content
knowledge related to addition, subtraction, multiplication and division
of fractions; and
5. Plan basic teaching and learning activities for addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division of fractions.
INTRODUCTION
Hello, and welcome to the topic on fractions. The basis of mathematics is the study of
fractions, yet it is among the most difficult topics for school-going children. They often
get confused when learning the concept of fractions as many of them have difficulty
recognising when two fractions are equal, putting fractions in order by size, and
understanding that the symbol for a fraction represents a single number. Pupils also
rarely have the opportunity to understand fractions before they are asked to perform
operations on them such as addition or subtraction (Cramer, Behr, Post, & Lesh, 1997).
For that reason, we should provide opportunities for children to learn and understand
fractions meaningfully. We could use physical materials and other representations to
help children develop their understanding of the concept of fractions. The three
commonly used representations are area models (e.g., fraction circles, paper folding,
geo-boards), linear models (e.g., fraction strips, Cuisenaire rods, number lines), and
TOPIC 2 FRACTIONS 21
discrete models (e.g., counters, sets). We introduced these representations to our pupils
in Year 3 and Year 4. It would be useful to show them again these representations to
reaffirm their understanding about fractions.
In order to start teaching fractions in Year 5 and Year 6, it is important for us to have an
overview of the mathematical skills pupils need in order to understand the concept of
improper fractions and mixed numbers. It is also important to acquire the mathematical
skills involved in adding, subtracting, multiplying and dividing fractions.
At the beginning of this topic, we will learn about the pedagogical content
knowledge of fractions such as the meanings of proper fractions, improper
fractions and mixed numbers. In the second part of this topic, we will look at the
major mathematical skills for fractions in Year 5 and Year 6. Before we finish this
topic we will learn how to plan and implement basic teaching and learning
activities for addition, subtraction, multiplication and division of fractions.
ACTIVITY 2.1
Can you think of five reasons why fractions exist in our life? List down
the reasons before comparing them with the person next to you.
1 1 3 5 7 13 123
For example : , , , , , , ,....
4 2 4 7 15 24 245
1 1 3
4 2 4
4 5 9 15 33 523
For example : , , , , , ,....
4 4 7 15 24 245
TOPIC 2 FRACTIONS 23
4 5
4 4
3 2 2 13 133
For example: 1 , 3 , 5 , 22 , 122 ,....
4 7 15 24 245
1 3
1 1
2 4
Pupils should have ample opportunity to identify and represent the different types
of fractions as well as to name and write them down in symbols and words.
1 2 3 4 5
Since,
2 4 6 8 10
1 2 3 4 5
Therefore, , , , and are equivalent fractions.
2 4 6 8 10
Note that to find an equivalent fraction, we multiply or divide both the numerator
and the denominator by the same number. For example:
1 1 3 3
2 23 6
1 3
Therefore, and are equivalent fractions.
2 6
5 55 1
15 15 5 3
5 1
Therefore, and are equivalent fractions.
15 3
1 2 3 6
2 4 6 12
Equivalent Fractions
TOPIC 2 FRACTIONS 25
A fraction with its numerator and denominator without any common factors
1 2 3 5 7
(except 1) is said to be in its simplest form. For example: , , , ,
4 3 4 7 15
9 2 2 4 5 7
and . Conversely, , , , , and are not in their simplest form
25 4 6 10 15 28
because their numerators and denominators have common factors. The process of
changing a fraction to its simplest form is called simplifying a fraction.
Simplifying should be thought of as a process of renaming and not cancellation.
4 2 1
In the example below, and are renamed or simplified to .
8 4 2
4 42 2 22 1
8 82 4 42 2
1 2 4
is the simplified form of and .
2 4 8
As a teacher you need to tell your pupils that before they can master the skill of
simplifying fractions, they must first understand the concept of proper fractions,
improper fractions, mixed numbers and equivalent fractions.
SELF-CHECK 2.1
ACTIVITY 2.3
2.3 TEACHING AND LEARNING ACTIVITIES
Now let us look at several activities that could help pupils not only to understand
improper fractions and mixed numbers, but also to acquire the mathematical skills
involved in adding, subtracting, multiplying and dividing fractions.
ACTIVITY 2.2
Learning Outcomes:
To write the improper fractions shown by the shaded parts.
To write the improper fractions in words.
To compare the value of the two improper fractions.
Materials:
Task Cards
Answer Sheets
Procedure:
1. Divide the class into groups of six pupils and give each pupil an
Answer Sheet.
2. Ask pupils to write their name on the Answer Sheet.
3. Six Task Cards are shuffled and put face down in a stack at the centre.
4. Each player begins by drawing a card from the stack.
5. The player writes all the answers to the questions in the card drawn on
the Answer Sheet.
6. After a period of time (to be determined by the teacher), each pupil in
the group exchanges the card with the pupil on their left in clockwise
direction.
7. Pupils are asked to repeat steps (5 and 6) until all the pupils in the
group have answered questions in all the cards.
8. The winner is the pupil that has the most number of correct answers.
9. Teacher summarises the lesson by recalling the basic facts of improper
fractions.
28 TOPIC 2 FRACTIONS
2. Write in words.
5
=
4
7 9
4 4
ACTIVITY 2.3
1. Work with a friend in class to prepare five more Task Cards.
2. There should be three questions in each card.
3. Make sure your cards are based on the learning outcomes of Activity
2.2.
TOPIC 2 FRACTIONS 29
ACTIVITY 2.4
Learning Outcomes:
To write the mixed numbers shown by the shaded parts
To convert improper fractions to mixed numbers
To convert mixed numbers to improper fractions
Materials:
30 different Flash Cards
Clean writing paper
Procedure:
1. Divide the class into groups of three pupils and give each group a
clean writing sheet.
2. Instruct the pupils to write their names on the clean paper.
3. Flash Cards are shuffled and put face down in a stack at the centre.
4. Player A begins by drawing a card from the stack. He shows the
card to Player B.
5. Player B then reads out the answers within the stipulated time
(decided by the teacher).
6. Player C writes the points obtained by Player B below his name.
Each correct answer is awarded one point (a maximum of 3 points
for each Flash Card).
7. Players repeat steps (4 and 5) until 10 cards have been drawn by
Player A.
8. Players now change roles. Player B draws the cards, Player C reads
out answers and Player A keeps the score.
9. Repeat steps (3 through 6) until all the players have had the
opportunity to read the 10 Flash Cards shown to them.
10. The winner in the group is the student that has the most number of
points.
11. Teacher summarises the lesson on the basic facts of mixed
numbers.
30 TOPIC 2 FRACTIONS
Flash Card 1
3
3 =
7
ACTIVITY 2.5
ACTIVITY 2.6
Learning Outcomes:
To add two mixed numbers
To add three mixed numbers
To solve problems involving addition of mixed numbers.
Materials:
Task Sheets
Clean writing papers
Colour pencils
Procedure:
1. Divide the class into groups of four to six pupils. Provide each
group with a different colour pencil and a clean writing sheet.
2. The teacher sets up five stations in the classroom. A Task Sheet is
placed at each station.
3. Instruct the pupils to work together to solve the questions in the
Task Sheet at each station.
4. Each group will spend 10 minutes at each station.
5. At the end of 10 minutes, the groups will have to move on to the
next station in the clockwise direction.
6. At the end of 50 minutes, the teacher collects the answer papers.
7. The group with the highest score (highest number of correct
answers) is the winner.
8. The teacher summarises the lesson on how to add mixed numbers
with the same denominators and different denominators.
32 TOPIC 2 FRACTIONS
STATION 1
1. Add the following two mixed numbers. Express your answers in the
simplest form.
3 3
(a) 2 3
4 4
3 2
(b) 1 4
5 3
2. Add the following three mixed numbers. Express your answers in the
simplest form.
3 2 1
(a) 1 2 2
5 5 5
1 2 3
(b) 2 1 3
2 3 4
3 2
3. Encik Ahmad sold 3 kg of prawns to Mr. Chong and 2 kg of
7 5
prawns to Mr. Samuel. Find the total mass of prawns sold by Encik
Ahmad.
The total mass of prawns sold is kg.
ACTIVITY 2.7
Work with two of your friends to prepare another four Task Sheets for
the other stations. There should be three questions in each sheet. Make
sure your sheets are based on the learning outcomes of Activity 2.6.
TOPIC 2 FRACTIONS 33
ACTIVITY 2.8
Learning Outcomes:
To subtract two mixed numbers
To subtract three mixed numbers
To solve problems involving subtraction of mixed numbers
Materials:
Activity Cards
Clean writing papers
Colour pencils
Procedure:
1. Divide the class into groups of four pupils. Provide each group
with a different colour pencil and a clean writing sheet
2. A set of 12 Activity Cards are shuffled and put face down in a
stack at the centre.
3. When the teacher signals, pupils will begin solving the questions in
the first Activity Card drawn.
4. Once they are done with the first Card, they may continue with the
next Activity Card.
5. At the end of 10 minutes, the groups will stop and hand their
answer paper to the teacher.
6. The group with the highest score is the winner.
7. The teacher summarises the lesson on how to subtract mixed
numbers with the same denominators and different denominators.
34 TOPIC 2 FRACTIONS
ACTIVITY 2.9
Prepare another 11 Activity Cards for the group. There should be three
questions in each card.
Make sure your cards are based on the learning outcomes of Activity
2.8.
TOPIC 2 FRACTIONS 35
ACTIVITY 2.10
Learning Outcomes:
To multiply proper fractions with whole numbers
To multiply mixed numbers with whole numbers
To solve problems involving multiplication of mixed numbers
Materials:
Exercise Sheets
Colour pencils
Procedure:
1. Divide the class into groups of two pupils. Give each group a
different colour pencil.
2. Give each group an Exercise Sheet with five questions.
3. The group that finishes fastest with all correct answers is the
winner.
4. The teacher summarises the lesson on how to multiply fractions
with whole numbers.
36 TOPIC 2 FRACTIONS
3
4. Muthu drinks 1 litres of water a day. How much water in litres,
4
will he drink in two weeks?
3
5. Shalwani spends 1 hours watching television in a day. How much time
4
does she spend watching television in three weeks?
Shalwani spends hours watching television in three weeks.
TOPIC 2 FRACTIONS 37
ACTIVITY 2.11
Learning Outcomes:
To divide fractions with whole numbers
To divide fractions with fractions
To solve problems involving division of fractions
Materials:
Division Worksheets
Clean writing paper
Colour pencils
Procedure:
1. Divide the class into 10 groups. Give each group a Division
Worksheet, clean writing paper and a colour pencil.
2. Instruct the groups to answer all the questions in the Divison
Worksheet.
3. The groups write their answers on the clean writing paper.
4. After a period of time (to be determined by the teacher), the
teacher instructs the groups to exchange the Division Worksheets.
5. Repeat steps 2 to 4.
6. Once all the 10 Division Worksheets have been answered, teacher
collects the papers and corrects the answers.
7. The group with the highest score is the winner.
8. The teacher summarises the lesson on how to divide fractions with
fractions and with whole numbers.
38 TOPIC 2 FRACTIONS
WORKSHEET 1
1
4. The total length of 7 similar ropes is 10 m. Find the length of one
2
rope.
ACTIVITY 2.12
Prepare another nine Division Worksheets for the group. There should
be four questions in each worksheet.
Make sure your worksheets are based on the learning outcomes of
Activity 2.11.
TOPIC 2 FRACTIONS 39
The three commonly used representations for fractions are area models (e.g.,
fraction circles, paper folding, geo-boards), linear models (e.g., fraction strips,
Cuisenaire rods, number lines), and discrete models (e.g., counters, sets).
The three interpretations for fractions are (i) fractions as parts of a unit whole,
(ii) fractions as parts of a collection of objects, and (iii) fractions as division of
whole numbers.
Pupils should also be able to solve daily life problems involving basic
operations on fractions.
40 TOPIC 2 FRACTIONS
Story problems are set in real-life situations. Children are able to determine
the reasonableness of their answers when story problems are based on familiar
contexts.
Addition Numerator
Denominator Quarter
Division Share
Fraction Subtraction
Half Whole
Multiplication
Nur Alia bt. Abd. Rahman, Nandhini (2008). Siri intensif: Mathematics KBSR
year 5. Kuala Lumpur: Penerbitan Fargoes.
Nur Alia bt. Abd. Rahman & Nandhini (2008). Siri intensif: Mathematics KBSR
year 6. Kuala Lumpur: Penerbitan Fargoes.
Sunny Yee & Lau P.H. (2007). A problem solving approach : Mathematics year
3. Subang Jaya: Andaman Publication.
Topic Decimals
3
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Use the vocabulary related to decimals correctly as required by the
Year 5 and Year 6 KBSR Mathematics Syllabus;
2. Relate major mathematical skills and basic pedagogical content
knowledge related to decimals;
3. Use the vocabulary related to addition, subtraction, multiplication and
division of decimals correctly;
4. Use major mathematical skills and basic pedagogical content
knowledge related to addition, subtraction, multiplication and division
of decimals; and
5. Plan basic teaching and learning activities for the addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division of decimals.
INTRODUCTION
Do you know the meaning of the word decimal? It means "based on 10" (from
Latin decima: a tenth part). We sometimes say "decimal" when we mean anything
to do with our numbering system, but a "decimal number" usually means there is a
decimal point. The word decimal is used so loosely that most uses of it are really
wrong. Properly speaking, since the "deci-" in the word means "ten", any number
written in a base-ten system (that is, with each digit worth ten times as much as the
one next to it) can be called a "decimal number". When we write "123", the 3 is
worth 3 ones, the 2 is worth 2 tens, and the 1 is worth a ten of tens, or a hundred.
That is decimal.
A decimal fraction is a special form of fraction where the denominator is in the base-
ten, or a power of ten. A decimal fraction, also called a decimal, is a number with a
decimal point in it, like 1.23. The decimal point separates the whole number from the
42 TOPIC 3 DECIMALS
fractional part of a number. Generally speaking, any number with a decimal point in it
would be commonly called a decimal, not just a number less than 1.
Hopefully the explanation did not confuse you. What about young children? If
children are taught the wrong concepts of decimals then working with decimals is
going to be a dreadful experience for them. For that reason, we must provide
opportunities for our children to learn and understand decimals meaningfully.
We can use physical materials and other representations to help our children
develop their understanding of the concept of decimals. Since decimal numbers
are closely related to fractions, the three commonly used representations for
fractions, namely the area models (e.g., fraction circles, paper folding, geo-
boards), linear models (e.g., fraction strips, Cuisenaire rods, number lines), and
discrete models (e.g., counters, sets) can be used again to teach the concept of
decimals. It would be useful to show pupils these representations to reaffirm their
understanding about decimals.
At the beginning of this topic, we will explore the pedagogical content knowledge
of decimals such as the basic interpretation of decimals, and then ways to
represent and read decimals. In the second part of this topic, we will look at the
major mathematical skills for decimals in Years 5 and 6. Before we end this topic,
we will learn how to plan and implement basic teaching and learning activities for
addition, subtraction, multiplication and division of decimals.
ACTIVITY 3.1
Write your answers for these two questions and compare them with
the person sitting next to you.
1. What are decimals?
2. Why is it necessary for us to learn about decimals?
a few features of this number system but the system, in its entirety, was compiled
in India, where it attained coherence and completion. By the 9th century, this
complete number system had existed in India but several of its ideas were
transmitted to China and the Islamic world before that time.
In English, decimal means tenth, decimate means reduce by a tenth, and denary
means the unit of ten. The symbols for the digits in common use around the globe
today are called Arabic numerals by Europeans and Indian numerals by Arabs,
the two groups' terms both referring to the culture from which they learned the
system.
Decimal notation is the writing of numbers in the base 10 numeral system, which
uses various symbols (called digits) for no more than ten distinct values (0, 1, 2, 3,
4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9) to represent any numbers, no matter how large. These digits are
often used with a decimal separator (decimal point) which indicates the start of a
fractional part.
The decimal system is a positional numeral system; it has positions for units, tens,
hundreds, etc. The position of each digit conveys the multiplier (a power of ten) to
be used with that digit - each position has a value ten times that of the position to
its right.
leading zeros added if needed), at the position from the right corresponding to the
power of ten of the denominator. Examples:
8 83 83 8
0. 8 0.83 0.083 0.0008
10 100 1000 10000
In English-speaking and many Asian countries, a period (.) is used as the decimal
separator; in many other languages, a comma (,) is used (e.g. in France and
Germany)
The part from the decimal separator (decimal point) to the right is the fractional
part; if considered as a separate number, a zero is often written in front (example:
0.23). Trailing zeros after the decimal point are not necessary, although in
science, engineering and statistics they can be retained to indicate a required
precision or to show a level of confidence in the accuracy of the number. Whereas
0.080 and 0.08 are numerically equal, in engineering 0.080 suggests a
measurement with an error of up to 1 part in one thousand (0.001), while 0.08
suggests a measurement with an error of up to 1 part in one hundred.
The integer part or integral part of a decimal fraction is the part to the left of the
decimal separator (decimal point). Decimal fractions can be expressed as fractions
by converting the digits after the decimal separator to fractions in the base ten or
power of ten. Example:
3 4 30 4 34 34
2.34 2 2 2 2
10 100 100 100 100 100
5 23 8
1 1.5 2 2.23 3 3.008
10 100 1000
TOPIC 3 DECIMALS 45
In the base-10 place value, it is clear that the digit in every place value is 10 times
more than the digit which is to the right of it. In other words, the digit in every
1
place value is of the digit which is to the left of it.
10
By exploring the pattern that exists in the place value system, you should extend
the procedure to identify the place value to the right of units. All the place values
to the right of units represent decimal parts (parts of the number which is less than
one). To show the separation between the decimal part and the whole number
part, a decimal point (decimal separator) is placed after the place value of units.
From the extended place value system above, you can see that there is a symmetry
between the place values. The centre of symmetry is the place value of units. With
46 TOPIC 3 DECIMALS
the help of this extended place value system, pupils would be able to explain
every place value and appreciate the meaning of decimal fractions.
Apart from that, it would be easier to read decimal fractions if pupils could write
the decimal fractions according to the extended place value system. The digits
before the decimal point will be read according to the place value, whereas the
digits after the decimal point will be read as the digits themselves.
For example:
6.5 is read as six point five
12.34 is read as twelve point three, four
45.005 is read as forty five point zero, zero, five
235.237 is read as two hundred and thirty five point two, three,
seven
For the decimal fraction, 235.237, the first digit after the decimal point, 2, is the
tenths digit, the second digit, 3 is the hundredths digit, and the third digit, 7 is the
thousandths digit.
SELF-CHECK 3.1
(e) Add any two to four decimal numbers up to three decimal places involving:
(i) decimal numbers and decimal number
(ii) whole numbers and decimal numbers
(h) Subtract successively any two decimal numbers up to three decimal places.
(p) Add and subtract three to four decimal numbers of up to 3 decimal places
involving:
(i) decimal numbers only
(ii) whole numbers and decimal numbers
ACTIVITY 3.2
Learning Outcomes:
To write the decimal that represents the shaded parts
To write the decimal numbers in words
To write the place value of the underlined digits
To compare the value of the two decimal numbers
Materials:
Task Cards
Answer Sheets
Procedure:
1. Divide the class into groups of six pupils. Each student is given an
Answer Sheet.
2. Ask pupils to write their names on the Answer Sheet.
3. Shuffle Six Task Cards and place them face down in the centre.
4. Each player begins by drawing a card from the stack.
5. The player writes all the answers to the questions in the Task Card
drawn on the Answer Sheet.
6. After a period of time (to be determined by the teacher), the pupils
(in their groups) exchange the cards with the pupil on their left in
clockwise direction.
7. Pupils repeat steps (5 and 6) until all the members of the group
have answered the questions in all the cards.
8. The winner is the pupil that has the most number of correct
answers.
9. The teacher summarises the lesson on the basic facts of decimal
numbers.
50 TOPIC 3 DECIMALS
Card A
1. Write the shaded part in decimals.
2. Write in words.
1.408 =
8.354 =
ACTIVITY 3.3
ACTIVITY 3.4
Learning Outcomes:
To convert fractions to decimal numbers
To convert decimal numbers to fractions
To round off decimal numbers to the nearest tenth
To round off decimal numbers to the nearest hundredth
Materials:
30 different Flash Cards
Clean writing paper
Procedure:
1. Divide the class into groups of three pupils and give each group a
clean writing sheet.
2. Ask pupils to shuffle the Flash Cards and place them face down in
a stack at the centre.
3. Player A begins by drawing a card from the stack. He shows the
card to Player B.
4. Player B then reads out the answers within the stipulated time
(decided by the teacher).
5. Player C writes the points obtained by Player B below his name.
Each correct answer is awarded one point (a maximum of 4 points
for each Flash Card).
52 TOPIC 3 DECIMALS
7. Steps 4 and 5 are repeated until 10 cards have been drawn by Player A.
8. Players now change roles. Player B draws the cards, Player C reads out
answers and Player A keeps the score.
9. Steps (3 through 6) are repeated until all the players have the
opportunity to read 10 Flash Cards shown to them.
10. The winner in the group is the pupil that has the highest score.
11. The teacher summarises the lesson on the basic facts of decimal
numbers.
Flash Card 1
1. Convert this decimal number to a fraction.
0.083 =
ACTIVITY 3.5
ACTIVITY 3.6
Learning Outcomes:
To add two to four decimal numbers up to three decimal places
To add two to four decimal numbers involving whole numbers and
decimal numbers
To solve problems involving the addition of decimal numbers
Materials:
Task Sheets
Clean writing paper
Colour pencils
Procedure:
1. Divide the class into groups of four to six pupils. Give each group
a different colour pencil and a clean writing sheet.
2. The teacher sets up five stations in the classroom. A Task Sheet is
placed at each station.
3. The teacher instructs pupils to solve the questions in the Task
Sheet at each station.
4. Each group will spend 10 minutes at each station.
5. At the end of 10 minutes, the groups will have to move on to the
next station in a clockwise direction.
6. At the end of 50 minutes, teacher will collect the answer papers.
7. The group with the highest score (highest number of correct
answers) is the winner.
8. Teacher summarises the lesson on how to add decimal numbers up
to three decimal places.
54 TOPIC 3 DECIMALS
STATION 1
ACTIVITY 3.7
Work with two of your friends to prepare another four Task Sheets for
the other stations. There should be three questions in each sheet.
Make sure your sheets are based on the learning outcomes of Activity
3.6.
TOPIC 3 DECIMALS 55
ACTIVITY 3.8
Learning Outcomes:
To subtract two decimal numbers up to three decimal places
To subtract successively any two decimal numbers up to three
decimal places
To solve problems involving subtraction of decimal numbers
Materials:
Activity Cards
Clean writing paper
Colour pencils
Procedure:
1. Divide the class into groups of four pupils. Give each group a
different colour pencil and a clean writing sheet.
4. Once they have answered the questions on the first Card, they may
continue with the next Activity Card.
5. At the end of 10 minutes, the groups will stop and hand their
answer papers to the teacher.
ACTIVITY 3.9
ACTIVITY 2.4
TOPIC 3 DECIMALS 57
ACTIVITY 3.10
Learning Outcomes:
To multiply decimal numbers with one-digit whole numbers
To multiply decimal numbers with two-digit whole numbers
To solve problems involving multiplication of decimal numbers
Materials:
Exercise Sheets
Colour pencils
Procedure:
1. Divide the class into pairs (two pupils in each group).
2. Give each group a different colour pencil.
3. Provide each group with an Exercise Sheet containing five
questions each.
4. The group that finishes fastest with all correct answers will be the
winner.
5. The teacher summarises the lesson on how to multiply whole
numbers with decimal numbers.
ACTIVITY 3.10
58 TOPIC 3 DECIMALS
(a) 6.42 7 =
(b) 3.456 15 =
(a) 2.34 10 =
3. Mr. Lee bought 6 pieces of iron rods. The length of each iron rod is
4.56m. Find the total length of the iron rods.
4. A box of grapes weighs 7.2 kg. A box of oranges weighs 3 times the
mass of the box of grapes. What is the mass of the box of oranges?
5. A packet of green apples weighs 3.402 kg. What is the total weight of
100 packets of green apples?
ACTIVITY 3.11
Learning Outcomes:
To divide decimal numbers with 10, 100, 1000
To divide decimal numbers with one-digit numbers
To divide decimal numbers with two-digit whole numbers
To solve problems involving the division of decimal numbers
Materials:
Division Worksheets
Clean writing paper
Colour pencils
Procedure:
1. Divide the class into 10 groups. Give each group a Division
Worksheet, clean writing paper and a colour pencil.
2. Teacher instructs the groups to answer all the questions in the
Divison Worksheet.
3. The group answers on the clean writing paper provided.
4. After a period of time (to be determined by the teacher), the
teacher instructs the groups to exchange the Division Worksheets.
5. Repeat Steps 2 to 4.
6. Once all the 10 Division Worksheets have been answered, the
teacher collects the answer papers and corrects the answers.
7. The group with the highest score is the winner.
8. The teacher summarises the lesson on how to divide decimal
numbers with whole numbers.
60 TOPIC 3 DECIMALS
WORKSHEET 1
(a) 44.272 8 =
(b) 18.324 12 =
3. Puan Rohana pours 3.26 litres of syrup equally into 5 bottles. What
is the volume of syrup in each bottle?
4. Mrs. Rama put 31.85 kg of prawns equally into 7 boxes. What is the
mass of prawns in each box?
ACTIVITY 3.12
Prepare another nine Division Worksheets for the groups. There should
be four questions in each worksheet.
Make sure your worksheets are based on the learning outcomes of
Activity 3.11.
ACTIVITY 3.12
TOPIC 3 DECIMALS 61
The three commonly used representations for fractions namely the area
models (e.g., fraction circles, paper folding, geo-boards), linear models (e.g.,
fraction strips, Cuisenaire rods, number lines), and discrete models (e.g.,
counters, sets) can be also used to explain the concept of decimals.
The decimal (base-ten or sometimes denary) numeral system has ten as its
base.
The integer part or integral part of a decimal fraction is the part to the left of
the decimal separator (decimal point).
All the place values to the of right of units represent decimal parts (parts of
the number which are less than one).
The separation between the decimal part and the whole number part is shown
by a decimal point placed after the place value of units.
The digits before the decimal point will be read according to the place value,
whereas the digits after the decimal point will be read as the digits themselves.
The decimal place (d.p.) for decimal fractions is counted by adding the
number of digits after the decimal point.
62 TOPIC 3 DECIMALS
Nur Alia bt. Abd. Rahman & Nandhini (2008). Siri intensif: Mathematics KBSR
year 5. Kuala Lumpur: Penerbitan Fargoes.
Nur Alia bt. Abd. Rahman & Nandhini (2008). Siri intensif : Mathematics KBSR
year 6. Kuala Lumpur. Penerbitan Fargoes.
Peter Clarke et al. (2002). Maths spotlight activity sheets 1. Oxford: Heinemann
Educational Publishers.
Sunny Yee & Lau P.H. (2007). A problem solving approach: Mathematics year 3.
Subang Jaya: Andaman Publication.
Topic Money
4
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Demonstrate to your pupils how to use the vocabulary related to
money correctly for the topic of Money in the KBSR Mathematics
Syllabus;
2. Illustrate the major mathematical skills and basic pedagogical content
knowledge related to the addition and subtraction of money up to the
value of RM 10,000,000;
3. Illustrate the major mathematical skills and basic pedagogical content
knowledge related to the multiplication and division of money up to
the value of RM 10,000,000;
4. Plan basic teaching and learning activities for the topic of Money up to
a value of RM 10,000,000; and
5. Plan basic teaching and learning activities to help pupils solve daily
problems related to money.
INTRODUCTION
The lifelong benefits of teaching children good money habits make it well worth
the effort. Children who are not taught these lessons face the consequences for a
lifetime. Some parents do not teach children about money because they think they
should not talk about money with children, do not have the time, or think they do
not have enough money.
ACTIVITY 4.1
Most people have strong feelings and opinions about money, based
on childhood experiences and the values and beliefs of their families.
Do you agree with the above statement? Discuss the truth of this
statement with your coursemates.
64 TOPIC 4 MONEY
ACTIVITY 4.2
Children should be introduced to the origin of money; the barter system, the use
of objects to represent money and the use of coins and notes in various
denominations. Children learn mainly through observation and example;
participation in discussions and group decision making; direct teaching through
planned experiences; and by making their own decisions. Through observation,
children learn a great deal more than teachers realise. Teachers can add to this
TOPIC 4 MONEY 65
Let us learn about teaching money concepts in the next section. Enjoy!
I was browsing through the chapter on questions, for instance, those which revolve
Money in the Mathematics Year One around saving money and using it wisely?
textbook that my children are using in Questions pitched from this angle would
school when it suddenly struck me that we help to inculcate good values and teach our
may not be teaching our children the right children to be money-savvy at the same
values about money. time.
Almost all the problem-solving questions I think the present focus imparts
in the textbook focus on buying things and unhealthy values about money to our
totalling up the amount spent. children from Year One.
Why cant the writers ask better Something is not quite right here.
H.C. FOO
What do you think about the truth as expressed by H.C. FOO? Do you think there
is a need to educate children on the concepts of earning, saving, borrowing and
sharing, besides spending?
These financial concepts of earning, spending, saving, borrowing, and sharing are
generic money concepts. Earning refers to how children receive money. Spending
refers to the way children decide to use their money. Saving refers to money that
the children set aside for some future use. Borrowing means that money can be
obtained for use in the present but must be paid back in the future with an
additional cost. Sharing means both the idea of sharing what we have with those
who are less fortunate and obligations such as paying taxes which are required of
66 TOPIC 4 MONEY
Earning teaches:
(a) Financial independence
(b) Work standards and habits
(c) How to evaluate job alternatives
(d) Relationship of money, time, skills and energy
Spending teaches:
(a) Difference and balance between wants and needs
(b) Opportunities for comparing alternatives
(c) Making decisions and taking responsibility for them
(d) Keeping records
Borrowing teaches:
(a) Cost of borrowing
(b) Borrowed money needs to be paid back
(c) When it is appropriate to borrow
(d) Consequences of buying now and paying later
(e) Structure of borrowing
(f) The idea of credit limits
Sharing teaches:
(a) Good feelings for giver and receiver
(b) Helps other people
(c) Doesn't always require public recognition
(d) Obligations to give money to certain organisations, i.e. taxes to the
government
(e) Giving of yourself rather than giving money or gifts
TOPIC 4 MONEY 67
Saving teaches:
(a) How to get what you want or need by saving for it
(b) Planning and delayed gratification
(c) Interrelationship of spending and earning
(d) Different purposes of planned and regular saving
Now, let us look at some mathematical skills, beginning with how to model
decimals using coins.
For example, children do not readily relate RM75.25 to RM75 and 25 hundredths
of a Ringgit or 10sen to one-tenth of a Ringgit. If money is used as a model for
decimals, children need to think of 10 sen and 1 sen as fractional parts of a
Ringgit.
SELF-CHECK 4.1
(a) Read and write the value of money in ringgit and sen up to RM10 million.
(c) Subtract money in ringgit and sen within the range of RM10 million.
(d) Multiply money in ringgit and sen with a whole number, fraction or decimal
with products within RM 10 million.
(e) Divide money in ringgit and sen with the dividend up to RM10 million.
(g) Solve problems in real context involving money in ringgit and sen up to RM
10 million.
ACTIVITY 4.3
Learning Outcome:
To practise the basic operations on money.
Materials:
A deck of cards comprising sets of question cards and answers.
Example:
RM 1 642 000 RM 167 234 X 23 =
- RM 871 420
Procedures:
1. Prepare cards comprising sets of question cards and answers.
2. Place the answer cards (grey cards) in a circle on the floor.
3. Instruct the children to march around the circle of answer cards on
the floor, chanting this rhyme:
Basic operations, round we go,
Not too fast and not too slow.
We wont run and we wont hop,
We are almost there, its time to stop.
4. When the rhyme finishes, the teacher will hold up a question card
(white card) and ask them to work out the answer to the question.
5. The child who is standing by the card with the answer to the
question, picks up the answer card and shows it to the rest of the
children.
6. Instruct the children to check his or her answer. Is she or he
correct?
7. Repeat the procedure several times or until all the answer cards
have been picked up.
8. The child with the most answer cards wins and is awarded a prize.
70 TOPIC 4 MONEY
ACTIVITY 4.4
Learning Outcome:
To practise the basic operations on money
Materials:
Four lists of questions on mixed operations with money. Some of the
questions may be repeated on each list.
Answers to the questions.
Example:
List 1
List 2
1. RM345,225 + RM2,550 X 24 =
2. RM564,000 40 + RM484,120 =
3. RM528,500 RM225,000 20 =
4. RM56,780 X 12 + RM450,228 =
5. RM840,280 20 RM9,027 =
6. RM2,667,345 RM18,246 X 32 =
Procedures:
1. Prepare four lists of questions on mixed operations with money.
Some of the questions may repeated on each list.
2. Prepare 24 cards, each containing an answer for each of the 24
questions. Tape these cards to the walls around the classroom.
3. Divide the children into four teams.
4. Give one list to each team. (You might want to provide a copy of
the list for every member of the team).
5. Ask the children to calculate the answers to the questions on their
list.
6. Ask the team members to search for the answer cards taped on the
walls of the classroom.
7. The first team to correctly calculate the answers to all the questions
in their list and collect all the answer cards wins and will be
awarded a prize.
72 TOPIC 4 MONEY
ACTIVITY 4.5
Learning Outcome:
To practice the basic operations on money.
Materials:
A deck of cards comprising sets of question cards and answers.
Example:
RM328,100 25
+ RM532,590 =
RM545,714
Procedures:
1. Prepare cards comprising sets of question cards and answer cards.
The questions on mixed operations should involve money in
ringgit and sen up to ten million Ringgit.
2. Hand a card to each child. Some of the children will get question
cards and some will get answer cards.
3. Get the children holding the card with the question to calculate its
answer.
4. Ask the children to find their partner holding the card showing the
answer to the question.
5. If there is an odd number of children in the class, you should take a
card and participate so that everyone has a partner.
6. Have the partners stand together so that everyone can see the
others card. Ask the children to check everyones calculation.
Are the partners matched correctly?
7. Hand out a Task Sheet containing ten questions on mixed
operations with money up to ten million Ringgit and have the
children work out the answers to reinforce their understanding of
mixed operations with money.
TOPIC 4 MONEY 73
ACTIVITY 4.6
Learning Outcomes:
To practise the basic operations on money.
To solve daily problems involving money.
Materials:
Sets of cards
Procedures:
1. Instruct the children to form groups of three.
2. Make three sets of the Game Cards and cut out the cards.
3. Give each group a set of the cards.
4. Shuffle the cards and spread them out face down on the table.
5. Ask the children to take turns to choose two cards and place them
face up on the table.
6. If the cards show a word problem and its matching calculation,
give the child time to solve the problem. If the pupil can give the
correct answer, the child keeps both the cards.
7. If the cards that the child chose do not show a word problem and
its matching calculation or the child offers an incorrect answer to
the problem, the cards are replaced in their original position on the
table.
8. When all the cards have been chosen, the children will count how
many cards they have. The winner is the child with the most
number of cards.
ACTIVITY 1
74 TOPIC 4 MONEY
GAME CARDS
ACTIVITY 4.7
Learning Outcome:
To solve daily problems involving money.
Materials:
Sets of catalogues
Clean writing paper
Procedures:
1. Instruct pupils to form groups of four.
2. Give each pupil in the group a different catalogue.
3. Tell each group that its the newspapers 10th Anniversary. In
conjuction with their anniversary celebration, they are carrying out
some charity work.
4. The publisher of the newspaper has generously donated
RM250,000 to the school. The money will be used to further equip
the school resoure centre.
5. Each person in the group is to study the catalogue provided to him
or her.
6. The person is to write the name and cost of one or two items that
he or she feels would be of use to the school resource centre.
7. Using the round robin format of the cooperative learning
technique, members of the group will discuss each item chosen
and why it was chosen. One member of the group serves as a
recorder.
8. The group will have to come out with a final list of items to be
purchased. The group may need to make adjustments to keep the
total cost below RM250,000.
9. Prepare a bulletin-board to display the list of items presented by
the groups. Displays help pupils to recap what they have learned
and it is also a means of seeing the practical applications of
mathematics.
76 TOPIC 4 MONEY
Teaching children about money is more than preparing them for employment
or teaching them to save some of the money they earn. It includes helping
them understand the positive and negative aspects of money.
Teachers and children should talk about their feelings, values, attitudes and
beliefs about money.
When teaching children about money, teachers need to make an effort to think
from the children's point of view, not the adults point of view.
As you teach children about money they can learn about responsibility; family
values and attitudes; decision-making; comparison-shopping; setting goals and
priorities; and managing money outside the home.
The financial concepts of earning, spending, saving, borrowing, and sharing
are generic money concepts.
Some benefits of providing intentional learning experiences related to these
financial concepts are childrens mastery of practical skills and knowledge, as
well as a perspective about money based upon values and beliefs.
Recording amounts in Ringgit and sen does involve decimal fractions, but care
must be taken on how children see the connection between the sen and the
fractional part of a decimal number.
It is important to give children contextual examples on the use of money.
Coin Note
Money Value
TOPIC 4 MONEY 77
Hatfield, M. H., Edwards, N. T., & Bitter, G. G. (1993). Mathematics methods for
the elementary and middle school. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
INTRODUCTION
Basically, percentages are used in many everyday situations. Children probably
already know a bit about percentages. They are exposed to percentages when they
go shopping with their parents. Shops use percentages in sales. Banks use them
for loan rates. Schools use percentages in their forecast of examination results.
Unfortunately, they are also often incorrectly used. For example, a store advertises
prices reduced by 100%, rather than 50%; an interest rate of .03%, rather than 3%;
and a school reports the number of straight As pupils increased by 200%, which
is correct, but a little misleading, since the number of pupils that scored straight
As went up from 1 to 3!
ACTIVITY 5.1
Teachers should note that various fraction and decimal skills are prerequisite
skills for learning percentages. For example, to solve a percentage problem, the
pupil must be able to convert a percentage into a fraction or a decimal as shown
below:
For example,
26 45
= 26%, and 45% = = 0.45
100 100
ACTIVITY 5.2
Figure 5.1: The various sales discount signs that we often see in shopping centres.
[Source: http://www.bbc.co.uk]
80 TOPIC 5 PERCENTAGES
First of all, let us look at the meaning of the term percent. The term percent
means parts per hundred. It expresses a relationship between some number and
100. The symbol % indicates a denominator of 100. For example, 25% is an
expression of the ratio between the number 25 and 100 and means 25 parts of 100,
or 25 out of 100.
When an item is sold for RM 100, the cost is the base to which the discount is
applied. A 20% off the cost price is the rate of discount, and RM 20 is the amount
of discount, or percentage. The table below illustrates some ways percent is used
and it helps to clarify the confusion about the term per cent and percentage.
As a teacher, you must make it clear that per cent indicates the rate (of discount,
and taxes), whereas percentage indicates the amount, or quantity (of discount
and taxes). Note that the base and percentage always represent numbers that refer
to the same units, and per cent is the rate by which percentage compares with the
base. However in the Year 5 and Year 6 textbooks, percentage is represented with
the symbol % and is called percent.
Another point of confusion arises when a given rate is applied to different bases.
Consider the result when a RM 50 book is increased by 20%. An increase of 20%
raises the price of the book to RM 60. After a year, the price of the book is
reduced by 20%. Will the price of the book be the same as it was a year ago? In
both cases, the percent is the same; an increase of 20% and a year later a reduction
of 20%. Try calculating it and check if the price of the book a year later is the
same as the price before the 20% increment?.
TOPIC 5 PERCENTAGES 81
The content readiness children need before they are introduced to per cent is an
understanding of both common and decimal fractions. The pedagogical readiness
required is an understanding of the teaching aids they will use.
During introductory and developmental activities each whole unit or set should be
one that is easily subdivided into 100 parts. It is easier for children to understand
the meaning of per cent when they deal with portions of the 100 parts of a unit. As
an example, teachers are encouraged to use the 10-by-10 grid to represent per
cent as shown in Figure 5.2:
Source: http://www.bbc.co.uk
Other than the 10-by-10 grid, teachers can also use the Cuisenaire materials.
82 TOPIC 5 PERCENTAGES
Example
7
7% = = 0.07
100
Children find that to change a decimal to percent, one needs only to multiply
by 100, which means moving the decimal point two places to the right.
For example, 0.33 = 33% and 1.2 = 120%.
Children who have mastered the meaning of percent as parts per hundred
should not have much problem expressing fractions as percent.
29
For example, = 29%.
100
4 80
For example, = = 80%.
5 100
TOPIC 5 PERCENTAGES 83
As a teacher you can tell the pupils that a basic method is to find an
equivalent fraction having a denominator of 100. Another method is to write
the fraction in decimal and then multiply this number by 100.
4
For example, = 0.8 = 80%.
5
SELF-CHECK 5.1
1. Explain the meaning of percent and percentage.
2. Using a suitable teaching aid, explain how you can introduce the
topic on Percentages.
The major mathematical skills to be mastered by pupils when studying the topic
of percentage are as follows:
Example
26 45
= 26% and 45% =
100 100
Example
4 80
= = 80%.
5 100
Convert percentage to decimal number and fraction in its simplest form.
5
= 0.05 =
100
84 TOPIC 5 PERCENTAGES
1 3 150
1 = = = 150%.
2 2 100
ACTIVITY 5.3
Learning Outcome:
To name and write the notion of per cent.
To state fraction of hundredths in percentage
Materials:
Clean writing papers
10 x 10 Grid.
TOPIC 5 PERCENTAGES 85
Procedures:
1. Display a 10 x 10 grid. Ask the children to verify that there are 100
equal squares on the grid.
2. Shade one square and ask a pupil to name the shaded square. .
[one hundredth].
3. Ask for a volunteer to come to the board to write a numeral to name
1
the shaded square. [ Accept either or 0.01 ].
100
1
4. Tell the children that can also be named 1 per cent.
100
5. Explain to the children that percent means per hundred, or out of
hundred.
6. Explain to the children that the symbol % expresses a denominator
of 100. As such, the name of 1 of the small square can be written as
1% and read as one per cent.
7. Ask fo a volunteer to count the number of shaded squares in the
diagram above.
8. Ask the volunteer to come to the board to write a numeral to name
40
shaded squares.1[
ACTIVITY ].
100
9. Ask the volunteer to express the shaded squares in per cent. [ 40%].
10. Give out the Task Sheet and instruct the children to complete it.
86 TOPIC 5 PERCENTAGES
TASK SHEET
1. Study ACTIVITY
the 10-by-10
1 grid below and fill in the blanks.
Now 20 parts have been coloured green. 20 out of the 100 is _____,
so ____ % of the square is green.
There are ____ parts not shaded. ____ out of 100 is ____%, so
_____ of the square is not shaded.
What happens if you add up the percentages for the blue, green and
unshaded parts?
ACTIVITY 5.4
Learning Outcomes:
To convert proper fractions with denominators of 2, 4, 5, 10, 20, 25
and 50 to percent.
To convert mixed numbers to percentage
Materials:
Clean writing papers
Task Sheet as below
Procedures:
1. Display 10 magnetic chips, 4 green and 6 blue on a magnetic
board.
TASK SHEET
3 1 3 3
5 2 4 25
7 2 1 7
1 3 5 6
10 5 4 20
90 TOPIC 5 PERCENTAGES
ACTIVITY 5.5
Learning Outcomes:
To convert percentage to decimal number and vice versa
To convert decimal numbers of values more than 1 to percentages
Materials:
Clean writing paper
Task Sheet as below
Procedures:
1. Display a 10 x 1 grid on the board.
TASK SHEET
ACTIVITY 1
ACTIVITY 5.6
Learning Outcome:
To practise the fraction and decimal equivalent of per cent.
Materials:
A deck of cards comprising 13 numbers in 4 equivalent forms.
Example:
50% 0.5
Procedures:
1. Two, three or four players can play this game. The objective of the
game is to lay all your cards down.
2. Begin by dealing seven cards to each player. The remainder of the
pack is placed face down on the table.
3. Next, the top card from the deck is placed face up near the pack to
begin the discard pile.
4. The first player may either draw the top card from the face down
pile or pick up the top card on the discard pile. The player must
then discard a card, and the turn goes to the next player.
5. When one player has accumulated three cards of equivalent value,
these are laid face up on the table.
6. The player who has the fourth equivalent value for the set may lay
that card face up on the table in front of himself or herself. The
player next to the one who laid down the three equivalent cards
continues the play.
7. When the pack is gone, the discard pile is turned over and becomes
the pack.
TOPIC 5 PERCENTAGES 93
8. The first player to lay all his or her cards down wins that hand. Each
player receives 5 points for every card laid down and loses 5 points
for every card still held.
9. The game is over when one player has 100 points or the teacher
gives the instruction to stop playing the game.
Percentage Fraction
10%
20%
25%
50%
75%
The term per cent means parts per hundred. It expresses a relationship
between some number and 100.
Percent indicates the rate (of discount and taxes), whereas percentage
indicates the amount or quantity (of discount and taxes).
94 TOPIC 5 PERCENTAGES
To change a decimal to percent, one needs only to multiply by 100, which means
moving the decimal point two places to the right. To express a percent as a
decimal, the opposite rule applies.
Another method is to write the fraction in decimal and then multiply this
number by 100.
Percent Percentage
Hatfield, M. H., Edwards, N. T., & Bitter, G. G. (1993). Mathematics methods for
the elementary and middle School. Needham Heights, MA.: Allyn & Bacon.
INTRODUCTION
Throughout history, people have sought out various ways to measure time.
Timekeeping has been an important part of all cultures throughout the centuries.
How did people first tell time? People first told time by looking at the sun as
it crossed the sky. When the sun was directly overhead in the sky, it was the
middle of the day, or noon. When the sun was close to the horizon, it was either
early morning (sunrise) or late evening (sunset).
The history of clocks is very interesting, and there have been many elaborate
types of clocks developed over the centuries. The word clock was first used in the
14th century (about 700 years ago). It comes from the Latin word for bell
"clocca".
96 TOPIC 6 TIME
The oldest type of clock was a sundial, also called a sun clock. Sundials used the
sun to tell the time. The shadow of the sun pointed to a number on a circular disk
that showed you the time. In the picture below, the shadow created by the sun
points to 9, so it is nine o'clock. Since sundials depend on the sun, they can only
be used to tell the time during the day.
A water clock was made of two containers of water, one higher than the other.
Water travelled from the higher container to the lower container through a tube
connecting the containers. The containers had marks showing the water level, and
the marks told the time. Water clocks worked better than sundials because they
told the time at night as well as during the day. They were also more accurate than
sundials.
The first practical clock was driven by a pendulum. The pendulum swings left and
right, and as it swings, it turns a wheel with teeth. The turning wheel turns the
hour and minute hands on the clock. One problem with pendulum clocks is that
they stopped running after a while and had to be restarted.
Quartz crystal clocks were then invented. Quartz is a type of crystal that looks like
glass. When you apply voltage, or electricity, and pressure, the quartz crystal
vibrates or oscillates at a very constant frequency or rate. The vibration moves the
clock's hands very precisely.
TOPIC 6 TIME 97
ACTIVITY 6.1
Search the Internet for information about how man started to tell time.
State two reasons for time to be taught as one of the important topics
in the Years 5 and 6 KBSR Mathematics syllabus.
The Egyptians and Babylonians decided to divide the day from sunrise to sunset
into 12 parts that are called hours. They also divided the night, the time from
sunset to sunrise, into 12 hours. This system of measuring time was not very
accurate because the length of an hour changed depending on the time of year.
Somebody finally figured out that by dividing the whole day into 24 hours of
equal length (12 hours of the day plus 12 hours of the night), the time could be
measured more accurately.
The hour is divided into 60 minutes, and each minute is divided into 60 seconds.
The idea of dividing the hour and minutes into 60 parts comes from the Sumerian
sexagesimal system, which is based on the number 60. This system was developed
about 4,000 years ago.
As we know, a clock only shows 12 hours at a time, and the hour hand must go
around the clock twice to measure 24 hours, or a complete day. To tell the first 12
hours of the day (from midnight to noon) apart from the second 12 hours of the
day (from noon to midnight), we use these terms:
ACTIVITY 6.2
Find out why day and night are divided into 12 parts.
One way to write one o'clock is 1.00. Another way to write it is 1:00. The symbol
: is called a colon. It separates the hours from the minutes. The number on the left
side of the colon tells the hour and the number on the right side tells the minutes.
To tell the time, we look at the hour hand first and then the minute hand.
In the picture above, the hour hand is pointing to the number 1, and the minute
hand is pointing to the number 15 (look at the outside of the clock), so it is one-
fifteen, or 1:15. Notice that the hour hand is not pointing exactly at the 1, but has
moved a little closer to the 2. As the minute hand moves all the way around the
clock, the hour hand moves from one hour to the next.
You can divide an hour, which is 60 minutes long, into four parts. The parts are
divided by the 0, 15, 30, and 45 minute marks as shown in the picture below. Each
of the four parts is called a quarter. In the table below, you will learn ways to say
the time using the word "quarter".
100 TOPIC 6 TIME
O'clock
half past
When the number of minutes is greater than 30, instead of saying the number of
minutes after the hour, you can say the number of minutes before the next hour, or
the number of minutes to the next hour. The following table shows different ways
to say the time, including using the word "quarter" and the word "to".
2:15 Two-fifteen
Quarter past two
5:30 Five-thirty
Half past five
8:45 Eight-forty-five
Quarter to nine
3:50 Three-fifty
Ten to four
7:11 Seven-eleven
Eleven minutes past seven
11:48 Eleven-forty-eight
Twelve minutes to twelve
ACTIVITY 6.3
Look through the last few years of the Arithmetic Teacher or other
journals of teaching Mathematics in Primary Schools. Read an article
on the teaching and learning of time that is relevant to the Year 5 and
Year 6 KBSR Mathematics Syllabus. Discuss your article with your
coursemates and tutor.
For example:
The time-line below can be used to show the relationship between the 12-hour
system and the 24-hour system. It is similar to the number line used in the number
system except that in the time-line we have 60 divisions to represent the minutes
in an hour.
12-hour System
0000 0100 0200 0300 0400 0500 0600 0700 0800 0900 1000 1100 1200
24-hour System
102 TOPIC 6 TIME
12-hour System
1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400
24-hour System
SELF-CHECK 6.1
1. Explain the difference between the 12-hour system and the 24-
hour system.
2. Using a suitable teaching aid, explain how you would convert
2145 into the 12-hour system.
TOPIC 6 TIME 103
The major mathematical skills related to time to be mastered by Year 5 and Year
6 pupils are as follows:
(d) Operations
(i) Add and subtract time involving hours, minutes and seconds;
(ii) Multiply and divide time involving hours, minutes and seconds; and
(iii) Solve real problems involving addition, subtraction, multiplication and
division of time.
104 TOPIC 6 TIME
ACTIVITY 6.4
Learning Outcomes:
To write the time in words
To write the time in numerals
To convert the time from the 24-hour system to the 12-hour system
and vice versa
Materials:
Task Cards
Answer Sheets
TOPIC 6 TIME 105
Procedure:
1. Divide the class into groups of five pupils and give each
pupil an Answer Sheet.
2. Instruct pupils to write their name on the Answer Sheet.
3. Shuffle five Task Cards and place them face down in a stack
at the centre.
4. Each player begins by drawing a card from the stack.
5. Ask the player to write all the answers to the questions in the
card drawn on the Answer Sheet.
6. After a period of time (to be determined by the teacher), the
pupils in the group exchange the card with the pupil on their
left in clockwise direction.
7. Pupils repeat steps (5 and 6) until all of them in the group
have answered the questions in all the cards.
8. The winner is the pupil that has the most number of correct
answers.
9. Teacher summarises the lesson on the vocabulary related to
time.
Card D Card E
1.________________ 1.________________
2.________________ 2.________________
3.________________ 3.________________
106 TOPIC 6 TIME
Card A
0932 hrs =
3. Convert the time from the 24-hour system to the 12-hour system.
1352 hrs =
4. Convert the time from the 12-hour system to the 24-hour system
7. 30 a.m. =
ACTIVITY 6.5
Work with your friend in class to prepare four more Task Cards.
There should be four questions in each card.
Make sure your cards are based on the learning outcomes of Activity
6.4.
TOPIC 6 TIME 107
ACTIVITY 6.6
Learning Outcomes:
To convert time in fractions and decimals of a minute to seconds
To convert time in fractions and decimals of an hour to minutes and
to seconds
To convert time in fractions and decimals of a day to hours, minutes
and seconds
Materials:
30 different Flash Cards
Clean writing paper
Procedure:
1. Divide the class into groups of three pupils and give each group a
clean writing sheet.
2. Shuffle the Flash Cards and place them face down in a stack at the
centre.
3. Instruct Player A to begin by drawing a card from the stack and
showing the card to Player B.
4. Instruct Player B to read the answers to the questions in the card
within the stipulated time (decided by the teacher).
5. Instruct Player C to write the points below Player Bs name. Each
correct answer is awarded one point (a maximum of 4 points for
each Flash Card).
6. Players repeat steps (4 and 5) until 10 cards are drawn by Player
A.
7. Steps (3 through 6) are repeated until all the players have the
opportunity to read the 10 Flash Cards shown to them.
8. The winner in the group is the pupil that has the most number of
points.
9. Teacher summarises the lesson on the basic facts about units of
time.
108 TOPIC 6 TIME
Flash Card 1
ACTIVITY 6.7
ACTIVITY 6.8
Learning Outcomes:
To convert units of time from century to years and vice versa
To convert units of time from century to decades and vice versa
To convert units of time from millennium to years and vice versa
To convert units of time from millennium to decades and vice versa
Materials:
Task Sheets
Clean writing papers
Colour pencils
Procedure:
1. Divide the class into groups of four to six pupils. Give each group
a different colour pencil and a clean writing paper.
2. The teacher sets up five stations in the classroom. A Task Sheet is
placed at each station.
3. The teacher instructs pupils to answer the questions in the Task
Sheet at each station.
4. Each group will spend 10 minutes at each station.
5. At the end of 10 minutes, the groups will move on to the next
station in the clockwise direction.
6. At the end of 50 minutes, the teacher collects the answer papers.
7. The group with the highest score (highest number of correct
answers) is the winner.
8. Teacher summarises the lesson on how to convert units of time
from century and millennium to years and decades and vice versa.
110 TOPIC 6 TIME
STATION 1
2
(b) centuries = years
5
ACTIVITY 6.9
Work with two of your friends to prepare four more Task Sheets for
the other stations. There should be four questions in each sheet. Make
sure your sheets are based on the learning outcomes of Activity 6.8.
TOPIC 6 TIME 111
ACTIVITY 6.10
Learning Outcomes:
To add time in hours, minutes and seconds
To subtract time in hours, minutes and seconds
To multiply time in hours, minutes and seconds
To divide time in hours, minutes and seconds
Materials:
Activity Cards
Clean writing papers
Colour pencils
Procedure:
1. Divide the class into groups of four pupils and give each group a
different colour pencil and a clean writing paper.
2. Instruct pupils to shuffle a set of 12 Activity Cards and place them
face down in a stack at the centre.
3. Teacher signals to the pupils to begin answering the questions in
the first Activity Card drawn.
4. Once they have completed the first Card, they continue with the
next Activity Card.
5. At the end of 10 minutes, the groups will stop and hand their
answer paper to the teacher.
6. The group with the highest score is the winner.
7. Teacher summarises the lesson on how to add, subtract, multiply
and divide time in hours, minutes and seconds.
112 TOPIC 6 TIME
ACTIVITY 6.11
Work in pairs to prepare eleven more Activity Cards for the group.
There should be four questions in each card. Make sure your cards are
based on the learning outcomes of Activity 6.10.
TOPIC 6 TIME 113
ACTIVITY 6.12
Learning Outcomes:
To calculate the duration of an event involving hours, minutes and
seconds
To calculate the duration of an event involving days and hours
To determine the start or end time of an event from a given duration
of time
To calculate the duration of an event in months, years and dates
Materials:
Exercise Sheets
Colour pencils
Procedure:
1. Divide the class into pairs (two pupils in each group).
2. Give each group a different colour pencil.
3. Give each group an Exercise Sheet with four questions each.
4. The group that finishes first with all correct answers will be the
winner.
5. Teacher summarises the lesson on how to find the duration of an
event.
ACTIVITY 1
114 TOPIC 6 TIME
From To Duration
(a) 1335 hrs 1945 hrs
(b) From 0730 hrs, 20 June 2013 till 1740 hrs, 21 June 2014
= _________ day ______hours ______ minutes
TOPIC 6 TIME 115
ACTIVITY 6.13
Learning Outcomes:
To solve problems involving duration of time in fractions and/or
decimals of hours, minutes and seconds
To solve problems involving computations of duration of time
Materials:
Time worksheets
Clean writing papers
Colour pencils
Procedure:
1. Divide the class into ten groups and give each group a Time
Worksheet, clean writing paper and a colour pencil.
2. The teacher instructs the groups to answer all the questions in the
Time Worksheet.
3. The group answers on the clean writing paper provided.
4. After a period of time (to be determined by the teacher), the
teacher instructs the groups to exchange the Time Worksheets.
5. Repeat Steps 2 to 4.
6. Once all the 10 Time Worksheets have been answered, the teacher
collects the answer papers and corrects the answer papers.
7. The group with the highest score is the winner.
8. Teacher summarises the lesson on how to solve problems
involving duration of time.
116 TOPIC 6 TIME
TIME WORKSHEET 1
1 1
2. Mrs. Chong spent day to bake a cake and day to sew a
8 4
dress. How long did she take to complete the work altogether?
ACTIVITY 6.14
Prepare nine more Time Worksheets for the group. There should be
four questions in each worksheet. Make sure your worksheets are
based on the learning outcomes of Activity 6.13
TOPIC 6 TIME 117
The first method people used to tell the time was by looking at the sun as it
crossed the sky. The oldest type of clock was a sundial, also called a sun
clock. Water clocks worked better than sundials because they told the time at
night as well as during the day.
The first practical clock was driven by a pendulum. One problem with
pendulum clocks was that they stopped running after a while and had to be
restarted. Quartz crystal clocks were invented in 1920.
In Year 5 and Year 6, pupils need to know how to read and write time using
the 24-hour system; convert time in fractions and decimals to hours, minutes
and seconds; add, subtract, multiply and divide time; calculate the duration of
an event; and finally solve problems involving duration of time.
Pedagogical Content Knowledge for this topic is divided into history of time,
time zones, saying time correctly and the 24-hour system. This knowledge
would equip us with some added information for the teaching and learning of
time.
Nur Alia bt. Abd. Rahman & Nandhini. (2008). Mathematics KBSR Year 5, siri
intensif. Kuala Lumpur: Penerbitan Fargoes.
Nur Alia bt. Abd. Rahman & Nandhini. (2008). Mathematics KBSR Year 6, Siri
Intensif. Kuala Lumpur. Penerbitan Fargoes.
Reys, R. E., Suydam, M. N., & Lindquist, M. M. (1989). Helping children learn
mathematics. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Sunny Yee & Ng, K. H. (2007). A problem solving approach : Mathematics year
2. Subang Jaya: Andaman Publication.
Topic Length, Mass
7 and Volume
of Liquids
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Use the vocabulary related to length, mass and volume of liquids
correctly as required by the Year 5 and Year 6 KBSR Mathematics
Syllabus;
2. Relate the major mathematical skills and basic pedagogical content
knowledge related to the length, mass and volume of liquids;
3. Use the vocabulary related to addition, subtraction, multiplication and
division involving length, mass and volume of liquids correctly;
4. Illustrate the major mathematical skills and basic pedagogical content
knowledge related to addition, subtraction, multiplication and division
of length, mass and volume of liquids; and
5. Plan basic teaching and learning activities for addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division involving length, mass and volume of
liquids.
INTRODUCTION
Welcome to a new topic on Length, Mass and Volume of Liquids. I am sure you
will agree with me that measurement problems, such as arithmetic problems, are
encountered in many different situations in our daily lives. One of the reasons to
include measurement in KBSR mathematics is to enable children to work with its
many practical applications in real life situations. It is important for children to
have opportunities to learn more about measurement. Knowing how children tend
to think about measurement helps teachers to guide children's discovery of the
principles of measurement.
120 TOPIC 7 LENGTH, MASS AND VOLUME OF LIQUIDS
One of the earliest measuring tools invented by man was used to weigh things.
Primitive societies needed fundamental measures for daily jobs (for example,
constructing homes of an appropriate size and shape, fashioning clothes, or
bartering food or raw materials). As man evolved, measurement units became
more and more complex. For more sophisticated jobs, it was necessary not only to
weigh and measure complex things - it was also necessary to do it accurately time
after time and in different places.
The need for a single worldwide coordinated measurement system was recognized
over 300 years ago. Measures for mass were to be derived from the unit of length.
The metric unit of mass, called the gram was defined as the mass of one cubic
centimetre of water. The name Le Systeme International dUnits (International
System of Units), with the international abbreviation SI, was adopted for this
modernised metric system.
Children can use unconventional items like paper clips to measure lengths, seeds
to measure mass and glass containers to measure volume of liquids. However,
they need to understand that identical standard units must be used when
uniformity in measuring is required. In Year 5 and Year 6, our pupils would have
to learn the relationship between centimetres, metres and kilometres, the
relationship between kilograms and grams, as well as to estimate the volume of
liquids in litres. It is important that our pupils master these concepts and
relationships in order to extend their skills to cover addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division of units of length, mass and volume of liquids.
In the first part of this topic, we will learn about the pedagogical content
knowledge of measurement such as the historical notes, the vocabulary, the basic
principles, units, and relationship between units of measurement. In the second
part of the topic, we will look at the major mathematical skills of measurements
for Year 5 and Year 6. Before we conclude this topic, we will learn how to plan
and carry out innovative activities to teach the topic of measurement of length,
mass and volume of liquids.
ACTIVITY 7.1
Think of five reasons why measurement plays an important role in
our lives. List the reasons before you compare them with your
partner.
TOPIC 7 LENGTH, MASS AND VOLUME OF LIQUIDS 121
ACTIVITY 7.2
Ancient measurement of length was based on the human body (refer to Figure
7.2). There were many different measurement systems developed in early times,
most of them only being used in a small locality. One which gained a certain
universal nature was that of the Egyptian cubit developed around 3000 BC. Based
on the human body, it was taken to be the length of an arm from the elbow to the
extended fingertips. A traditional tale tells the story of Henry I (1100-1135) who
decreed that the yardstick should be "the distance from the tip of the King's nose
to the end of his outstretched thumb".
(a) Comparison principle This principle deals with comparing and ordering
of objects by a specific attribute. It involves using suitable vocabulary to
describe and compare:
(i) Length such as short, shorter, tall, taller, long, longer, high, higher,
deep, deeper, wide, wider, width, depth, height, etc.
(ii) Mass such as heavy, heavier, light, lighter, etc.
(iii) Volume of liquids such as big volume, bigger volume, small volume,
smaller volume
124 TOPIC 7 LENGTH, MASS AND VOLUME OF LIQUIDS
(c) Conservation principle This principle states that the length, mass or the
volume of an object does not change even when the position or the
orientation of the object is changed.
(d) Measuring principle This principle refers to the fact that measurement
involves stating how many of a given unit match the attribute (e.g. length,
mass or volume) of an object. For example, when measuring the mass of a
rod, stating the number of kilograms that can be used to weigh it.
One other point to note is that there are some conceptual differences between
counting and measuring. For instance, when counting the number of pupils in the
classroom, the result must be a whole number, i.e. the quantity is discrete.
However, when measuring the height of pupils, the result can take on values other
than whole numbers, for example, 129.3 cm, etc. Such quantities are called
continuous quantities. The number line model can be used to help your pupils to
visualise the continuous number scales used in measuring length, mass and
volume.
(a) Length
Now, let us take a look at the formal definition of length. The length of an
object refers to the number of standard units (e.g. centimetres) which can be
laid in a straight line along or beside the object.
In other words, length is the distance between any two points (locations)
measured along a straight line. Two lengths can be compared directly by putting
them side by side, with one end of each length aligned. In fact, lengths can be
measured indirectly by comparing each length with a third length and that third
length is a measuring instrument such as a ruler or scale.
(b) Mass
Do you know how to introduce mass to primary school pupils? For primary
school pupils, the concept of mass can be described as the general
heaviness of an object. Mass is one of the least common forms of
measurement used for comparing objects in everyday situations. In fact, it
has been found that the concept of mass is quite difficult for children to
grasp because mass cannot be seen but has to be held and felt. In other
words, the mass of two objects cannot be compared by just seeing them
together. Moreover, the mass of an object may not be proportional to its
size. A big piece of cotton wool may be lighter than a small piece of metal.
Therefore, it is important for us to establish in the minds of children that a
smaller sized object may not necessarily be lighter than a bigger sized
object and vice versa.
Scientifically, the terms weight and mass have different meanings. Mass is
the measure of the amount of matter in an object whereas weight is the
gravitational force (g) acting on that mass. For example, a boy of mass 20 kg
2
has a weight of 200 N (taking g = 10 ms ). However, these two terms are
used to mean the same thing. Nevertheless, it is normal to refer to the
weighing of an object as a process to find its mass.
Volume Volume
Container Rock
Figure 7.5: Two meanings of volume
The concept of volume is tricky. Two objects (like the container and the rock)
might occupy the same volume but might contain totally different amounts of
matter. Children often confuse the amount of matter, which we call mass, with the
space occupied, which we now know is volume. Thus children tell us that a
heavy object has more volume than a light object even though the latter may
actually occupy more space. Indeed, volume is so oversimplified in primary
schools that many Year 6 pupils think of volume as length width height, no
matter what the shape of the object. Others assume that volume is length cubed.
Misconceptions such as these are a result of a curriculum that emphasises
memorisation of formulas without giving attention to the conceptual foundations
of volume.
Units such as the yard, mile, inch, ounce, pound, pint and gallon are known
as Imperial units, whereas the metre, kilometre, gram, kilogram, litre and
cubic metre are known as Metric units. However, in the Malaysian school
curriculum, only metric units are taught.
SELF-CHECK 7.1
Next, we move on to the teaching and learning activities on length, mass and
volume of a liquids. Let us consider Activity 7.3 first.
TOPIC 7 LENGTH, MASS AND VOLUME OF LIQUIDS 129
7.3.1 Length
ACTIVITY 7.3
Learning Outcomes:
To convert metre to kilometre and vice versa; and
To convert units of length from fractions and decimals of
kilometres to metres and vice versa.
Materials:
Task Cards; and
Answer Sheets.
Procedure:
1. Divide the class into groups of six pupils and give each pupil an
Answer Sheet.
2. Ask pupils to write their name on the Answer Sheet.
3. Ask them to shuffle Six Task Cards and place them face down in
a stack at the centre.
4. Ask each player to begin by drawing a card from the stack.
5. Ask the players to write all the answers to the questions in the
card drawn on the Answer Sheet.
6. After a period of time (to be determined by the teacher), the
pupils in the group exchange the card with the pupil on their left
in clockwise direction.
7. Ask the pupils to repeat steps (5 and 6) until all the pupils in the
group have answered questions in all the cards.
8. The winner is the pupil that has the most number of correct
answers.
9. Teacher summarises the lesson on the basic facts of length.
130 TOPIC 7 LENGTH, MASS AND VOLUME OF LIQUIDS
Task Card A
ACTIVITY 7.4
ACTIVITY 7.5
Learning Outcomes:
To add units of length in metres and kilometres;
To subtract units of length in metres and kilometres;
To multiply units of length in metres and kilometres; and
To divide units of length in metres and kilometres.
Materials:
30 different Flash Cards; and
Clean writing papers.
Procedure:
1. Divide the class into groups of three pupils and give each group a
clean writing paper.
2. Ask the pupils to write their names on the clean paper given.
3. Shuffle the Flash Cards and place them face down in a stack at the
centre.
4. Asks Player A to begin by drawing a card from the stack. He shows
the card to Player B.
5. Asks Player B to do the calculations and read out the answers
within the stipulated time (decided by the teacher).
6. Asks Player C to write the points below Player Bs name. Each
correct answer is awarded one point (a maximum of 4 points for
each Flash Card).
7. Ask the Players to repeat steps (4 and 5) until 10 cards are drawn by
Player A.
8. Steps (3 through 6) are repeated until all the players have the
opportunity to read and complete the questions on all 10 Flash
Cards shown to them.
9. The winner in the group is the pupil that has the most number of
points.
10. Teacher summarises the lesson on the basic operations on length .
132 TOPIC 7 LENGTH, MASS AND VOLUME OF LIQUIDS
Flash Card 1
2.34 km 4 = _______ m
4 992 8 = _________ km
ACTIVITY 7.6
7.3.3 Mass
ACTIVITY 7.7
Learning Outcomes:
To convert units of mass from fractions and decimals of a kilogram
to grams and vice versa;
To add and subtract units of mass in grams and kilograms: and
To multiply and divide units of mass in grams and kilograms.
Materials:
Task Sheets;
Clean writing papers; and
Colour pencils.
Procedure:
1. Divide the class into groups of four to six pupils and give each
group a different colour pencil and a clean writing paper.
2. The teacher sets up five stations in the classroom and places a
Task Sheet at each station.
3. The teacher instructs pupils to solve the questions in the Task
Sheet at each station.
4. Each group will spend 10 minutes at each station.
5. At the end of 10 minutes, the groups will have to move on to the
next station in the clockwise direction.
6. At the end of 50 minutes, the teacher collects the answer papers.
7. The group with the highest score (highest number of correct
answers) is the winner.
8. Teacher summarises the lesson on the basic facts of mass and how
to do basic operations on mass.
ACTIVITY 1
134 TOPIC 7 LENGTH, MASS AND VOLUME OF LIQUIDS
STATION 1
ACTIVITY 7.8
Work with two of your friends to prepare another four Task Sheets
for the other stations. There should be four questions in each sheet.
Make sure your sheets are based on the learning outcomes of
Activity 7.7.
TOPIC 7 LENGTH, MASS AND VOLUME OF LIQUIDS 135
ACTIVITY 7.9
Learning Outcomes:
To solve problems involving conversion of units of mass in
fractions and decimals; and
To solve problems involving computation of mass.
Materials:
Activity Cards;
Clean writing papers; and
Colour pencils.
Procedure:
1. Divide the class into groups of four pupils and give each group a
different colour pencil and a clean writing paper.
4. Once they are done with the first Card, they may continue with
the next Activity Card.
5. Ask the groups to stop and hand their answer paper to the teacher
at the end of 10 minutes.
ACTIVITY 1
136 TOPIC 7 LENGTH, MASS AND VOLUME OF LIQUIDS
Activity Card 1
1
4. Box A weighs 5 kg. The mass of Box B is 2 times the mass
5
of Box A. Find the mass, in kg, of Box B.
ACTIVITY 7.10
Prepare 11 more Activity Cards for the group. There should be four
questions in each card.
Make sure your cards are based on the learning outcomes of Activity 7.9
TOPIC 7 LENGTH, MASS AND VOLUME OF LIQUIDS 137
ACTIVITY 7.11
Learning Outcomes:
To convert units of volume involving fractions and decimals of
litres to millilitres and vice versa;
To add and subtract units of volume in litres and millilitres; and
To multiply and divide units of volume in litres and millilitres.
Materials:
Exercise Sheets; and
Colour pencils.
Procedure:
1. Divide the class into groups of two pupils and give each group a
different colour pencil.
2. Give each group an Exercise Sheet with four questions.
3. Instruct them to answer the questions in the Exercise Sheet.
3. The group that finishes first with all correct answers is the winner.
4. Teacher summarises the lesson on the basic facts of volume of
liquids and how to do basic operations on volume of liquids.
138 TOPIC 7 LENGTH, MASS AND VOLUME OF LIQUIDS
Exercise Sheet A
ACTIVITY 7.12
Prepare 10 more Exercise Sheets for the group activity. There should
be four questions in each card.
Make sure your Exercise Sheets are based on the learning outcomes of
Activity 7.11.
TOPIC 7 LENGTH, MASS AND VOLUME OF LIQUIDS 139
ACTIVITY 7.13
Learning Outcomes:
To solve problems involving conversion of units of volume in
fractions and decimals; and
To solve problems involving computation of volume of liquids.
Materials:
Volume Worksheets;
Clean writing papers; and
Colour pencils.
Procedure:
1. Divide the class into ten groups and give each group a Volume
Worksheet, clean writing paper and a colour pencil.
2. The teacher instructs the groups to answer all the questions in the
Volume Worksheet.
3. The group answers on the clean writing paper provided.
4. After a period of time (to be determined by the teacher), the
teacher instructs the groups to exchange the Volume Worksheets.
5. Repeat steps 2 to 4.
6. Once all the 10 Volume Worksheets have been answered, teacher
collects the answer papers and corrects the answer papers.
7. The group with the highest score is the winner.
8. Teacher summarises the lesson on how to solve problems in real
contexts involving computation of units of volume of liquids.
140 TOPIC 7 LENGTH, MASS AND VOLUME OF LIQUIDS
VOLUME WORKSHEET 1
2. Mrs. Chong needs 25.35 litres of water to clean the floor every
day. How much water does she need in a week?
3. Miss Siew bought 4.25 litres of soy sauce. She used the soy
sauce to cook food in her restaurant and has 745 millilitres of soy
sauce left. Find the volume of soy sauce that she used.
ACTIVITY 7.14
Prepare nine more Volume Worksheets for the group. There should
be four questions in each worksheet.
Make sure your worksheets are based on the learning outcomes of
Activity 7.13.
TOPIC 7 LENGTH, MASS AND VOLUME OF LIQUIDS 141
The four basic principles underlying the measurement of length, mass and
volume of liquids are comparison principle, transitivity principle, conservation
principle and measuring principle.
Units such as the yard, mile, inch, ounce, pound, pint and gallon are known as
Imperial units, whereas the metre, kilometre, gram, kilogram, litre and cubic
metre are known as Metric units.
142 TOPIC 7 LENGTH, MASS AND VOLUME OF LIQUIDS
Addition Litre
Capacity Mass
Continuous quantities Metric units
Discrete quantities Multiplication
Division Subtraction
Imperial units Weight
Nur Alia Abd. Rahman & Nandhini (2008). Siri intensif : Mathematics KBSR year
5. Kuala Lumpur: Penerbitan Fargoes.
Nur Alia Abd. Rahman & Nandhini (2008). Siri Intensif: Mathematics KBSR year
6. Kuala Lumpur: Penerbitan Fargoes.
Ng, S.F. (2002). Mathematics in action workbook 2B (Part 1). Singapore: Pearson
Education Asia.
Sunny Yee & Ng, K. H. (2007). A problem solving approach: Mathematics Year
2. Subang Jaya: Andaman Publication.
Sunny Yee & Lau, P.H. (2007). A problem solving approach: Mathematics Year
3. Subang Jaya: Andaman Publication.
Topic Shape and
8 Space
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Explain the importance of developing the basics of measurements as
preskills to the learning of perimeter and area;
2. Show how to use the vocabulary related to perimeter, area and
volume of solids correctly;
3. List the major mathematical skills and basic pedagogical content
knowledge related to perimeter, area and volume of solids; and
4. Plan basic teaching and learning activities for perimeter, area and
volume of solids.
INTRODUCTION
Children typically enjoy learning the topics in geometry because they can relate
what they learn to what they explore in the real world. Learning about geometric
properties and shapes helps them to make sense of their environment as they
become more capable of describing their world. As a result, they find the subject
interesting and therefore, are motivated to learn it.
144 TOPIC 8 SHAPE AND SPACE
ACTIVITY 8.1
Geometry offers pupils an aspect of mathematical thinking that is
different from, but connected to, the world of numbers ... Some pupils
capabilities with geometric and spatial concepts exceed their numerical
skills. Building on these strengths foster enthusiasm for mathematics
and provides a context in which to develop number and other
mathematical concepts. (NCTM, 2000, p.97).
Thus, it is important for teachers to assess the thinking of the children in their
classes based on the van Hiele levels and use this information to plan instruction
on shape and space that is suitable and relevant to the childrens level of thinking.
ACTIVITY 8.2
Examine the chapter on Shape and Space in a textbook and
describe it in relation to the van Hiele levels.
One skill that needs to be developed in children learning about perimeter and area
is that of making the correct choice of formula when calculating perimeter and
area. Equally important is that children need to see how the formulas are derived.
This is to enable children to build understanding of the meaning of the perimeter
and area formulas.
TOPIC 8 SHAPE AND SPACE 145
(a) Perimeter
The perimeter of a shape is the distance all the way round its edges.
Perimeter is measured using the same unit as in the measurement of length
such as centimetres, feet or metres. The measurements needed to calculate
perimeter depends on the shape. For a rectangle you will need to know the
length and width of the shape. (It is usual to call the longest side the length
and the shortest the width or breadth.)
Example:
The diagram below represents a pen for Badrul's goats. How much netting
does he need to go round the plot? All measurements are in metres.
Tell the pupils that in a rectangle the opposite sides are equal, so to work out
the perimeter of Badruls pen, you just need to know the length and width.
Here the length is 5 m and the width is 4 m.
Method 1
Length = 5 m and width = 4 m
Perimeter = 5 + 4 + 5 + 4 = 18 m
Method 2
Because opposite sides are equal you can also work out the perimeter in this
way: double the length, double the width, then add the results together.
(5 x 2) + (4 x 2) = 10 + 8 = 18 m
Method 3
Add the length and width then double it.
5+4=9m
9 m x 2 = 18 m
146 TOPIC 8 SHAPE AND SPACE
All three methods will give you the same answer. From the above example we
can show children how the formula for the perimeter of a rectangle is derived.
(b) Area
The area of a shape is the amount of surface enclosed in a plane. We do not
actually measure area by measuring the length. In most cases, we measure
some combination of lengths and use them in a formula to calculate the area.
As such, the teaching and learning of area consist of two parts. The first part
consists of developing the concepts of area and unit of area. The second part
consists of the development of the area formulas.
When the following shapes are compared, children may have problems
deciding which has a bigger area because one shape is longer and the other
is wider. Hence, this forces the child to think beyond one dimension.
One way to check the comparison is to cut shape A into two parts and
rearrange them on top of shape B. Then it can be easily seen that B has a
bigger area than A.
The unit of measurement for areas is called square units. If you use metres to
make your measurement, the area will be measured in square metres (m). If
centimetres are used, the area will be in square centimetres (cm). Children
need to know that the symbol m2 is read square meter and not meter
square.
TOPIC 8 SHAPE AND SPACE 147
Example:
This square measures 1cm long and 1cm wide. It is 1 square centimetre (cm).
8.1.3 Volume
Volume is a measure of the amount of space inside a three-dimensional region, or
the amount of space occupied by a three-dimensional object. It is measured in
cubic units such as cubic centimetres (cm) or cubic metres (m). The Imperial
system uses units such as cubic feet (ft). One cubic centimetre (cm3) is the
measure of a cube having an edge with a length of 1 cm.
To introduce the concept of volume, you might hold up two solid rectangular
prisms and ask which is bigger. The discussion should lead to the question of
which occupies more space. Two empty shoe boxes, one of which fits within the
other, can be used for direct comparison of volume.
You can also show samples of objects made up of units of cubic centimetres (cm3)
and have the children count the number of unit cubes it contains to determine its
volume.
148 TOPIC 8 SHAPE AND SPACE
Each of the following diagrams represents a shape made from unit cubes.
SELF-CHECK 8.1
1. Why is the comparison of area more complex than comparison of
different length?
2. Explain how you would introduce the concept of volume and its
unit of measurement.
(m) Find the surface area of a 3-D composite shape of two or more cubes and
cuboids.
(n) Find the volume of a 3-D composite shape of two or more cubes and
cuboids.
(o) Solve problems in real contexts involving calculations of surface areas and
volumes of 3-D shapes
ACTIVITY 8.3
Learning Outcome:
To develop the concept of perimeter.
Materials:
Clean writing papers; and
A variety of large regular and irregular shapes taped on the floor of
the classroom.
Procedures:
1. Divide the class into groups of four.
2. Give each group some clean writing paper.
3. Tape a variety of large regular and irregular shapes on the floor
of the classroom.
TOPIC 8 SHAPE AND SPACE 151
4. Instruct the pupils in their team walk around the edge of each of the
shapes on the floor.
5. Ask pupils to keep a record of the number of steps they take as they walk
along each of the edges of the shape.
6. Have pupils post their walk around numbers for each of the shapes
using each of the sides as an addend, for example 6 + 6 + 6 steps for an
equilateral triangle.
7. Ask the pupils to look for patterns in the measurement of each side, for
example all of the sides of a square are of the same length and that a
rectangle has two long sides and two short sides.
8. Ask pupils to write a sentence using words instead of numbers for the
perimeter of each figure.
9. Teacher summarises the lesson and introduces the concept that perimeter
is the measure of the distance around a closed figure.
152 TOPIC 8 SHAPE AND SPACE
ACTIVITY 8.4
Learning Outcome:
To reinforce the concept of perimeter.
Materials:
Graph paper (cm square); and
Strings, ruler, pins.
Procedures:
1. Divide the class into groups of four.
2. Give each group some graph papers, strings, ruler and pins.
3. Cut a string 14 cm long and ask the children
How many different rectangles can you make with a perimeter of
14 cm?
4. Using the graph paper, string and pins, demonstrate to the class
how you can make a rectangle with a perimeter of 14 cm. Remind
the children to keep the sides (in cm) a whole number.
ACTIVITY 8.5
Learning Outcome:
To practise finding perimeters.
Materials:
Squares of sides 2 cm; and
Clean writing papers.
Procedures:
1. Dive the class into groups of four.
2. Give each group some squares and some clean writing paper.
3. Take four squares of sides 2 cm. Ask the children,
How many figures can you make by putting the squares side by
side?
Figure 1, Figure 2 and Figure 3 are some possible examples.
6. Repeat steps (3) through (5) for five, six and eight squares.
7. The teacher summarises the lesson on finding perimeter.
154 TOPIC 8 SHAPE AND SPACE
ACTIVITY 8.6
Learning Outcome:
To develop the concept of area of a rectangle.
Materials:
Clean writing papers; and
Rectangular cards.
Procedures:
1. Display a rectangle (15 cm by 6 cm).
2. Ask a pupil to come forward to measure the length and the width
of the rectangle. Label the rectangle.
6 cm
15 cm
15 cm
TOPIC 8 SHAPE AND SPACE 155
5. Discuss with the pupils that each of the square is 1 cm2. Since a total of
90 squares were used to cover the rectangle, the area of the rectangle is
90 cm2.
6. Point out to the pupils that the length is the same as the number of
squares in one row, and the width is the same as the number of rows of
squares.
7. So, instead of counting the number of squares, the area of the rectangle
can be found by multiplying the length and the width (or breath) of the
rectangle.
ACTIVITY 8.7
Learning Outcome:
To reinforce the concept of area.
Materials:
A deck of cards, some showing a rectangle with its sides labeled and
the others showing the product of the two sides.
Example:
32 cm
0.8 m
12 cm
1.6 m
2 2
Area = 12 x 32 cm Area = 1.6 x 0.8 m
Procedures:
1. Prepare cards, some showing a rectangle with its sides labeled and
others showing the product of the two sides.
2. Hand a card to each child.
3. Have the children holding the card with the rectangle calculate its
area.
4. Have the children find their partners holding the card showing the
calculation of its area.
5. If there is an odd number of children, you should take a card and
participate so that everyone has a partner.
6. Have the partners stand together so that everyone can see each
others card. Have the children check everyones calculation of the
area. Are the partners correctly paired?
7. Hand out a Task Sheet and have the children work out the area of
the rectangles.
TOPIC 8 SHAPE AND SPACE 157
ACTIVITY 8.8
Learning Outcome:
To introduce the concept of volume.
Materials:
A variety of boxes of different sizes and shapes.
Procedures:
1. Choose two boxes from the collection of boxes of different sizes and
shapes.
2. Ask the pupils which will hold the most.
3. Repeat this process with several pairs of boxes. If the pupils are
unable to decide which of the pair of boxes is bigger, set the pair of
boxes aside.
4. Pick out one of the pairs of boxes for which the pupils were unable
to identify the bigger box.
5. Conduct a brainstorming session, asking pupils to think of ways to
decide which box is bigger. Remind them that the bigger box is the
one that would hold more.
6. Write every suggestion on the chalkboard, regardless of how
reasonable or how practical it is. Then ask the pupils to decide which
methods are most reasonable.
7. Then, try some of the suggested methods to see if it works to
determine the bigger box.
158 TOPIC 8 SHAPE AND SPACE
ACTIVITY 8.9
Learning Outcome:
To introduce the formula for calculating the volume of a cuboid.
Materials:
Boxes of fixed volume; and
Unit cm3 cubes.
Procedures:
1. Divide the class into groups of four.
2. Give each group some unit cm3 cubes and a box (cuboid) of fixed
volume.
Example: A small box measuring 15 cm by 5 cm by 2 cm.
3. Have each group fill their cuboid with cubes to see how many unit
cm3 cubes are needed. The number of cubes needed to fill the
cuboid is the volume of the cuboid.
4. Conduct a brainstorming session, asking pupils to think of ways to
calculate the volume of a cuboid instead of counting the cubes
needed to fill the cuboid.
5. Write every suggestion on the chalkboard, regardless of how
reasonable or how practical it is. Then ask the pupils to decide
which method is the most reasonable.
6. Using the following example, the teacher leads the pupil to derive
the formula for calculating the volume of a cube and cuboid.
Example
Each of these two cuboids has the same volume, 8 cm, and the
same dimensions: length 4 cm, width 2 cm, height 1 cm.
The volume of the first can be found by counting the unit cubes.
The volume of the second is found using the rule:
Volume of a cuboid = length x width x height
TOPIC 8 SHAPE AND SPACE 159
The dimensions of a cube are all the same, so the rule for finding the
volume is:
Hand out a Task Sheet and have the pupils work out the volume of
cubes and cuboids.
SELF-CHECK 8.2
While formulae are necessary and useful tools for calculating perimeter and
area, they should not take the place of careful development of these attributes
and the activities and processes that lead to the development of the formulas.
The teaching and learning of area consist of two parts. The first part consists
of developing the concepts of area and unit of area. The second part consists
of the development of the area formulas.
To introduce the concept of volume, hold up two solid rectangular prisms and
ask which is bigger. The discussion should lead to the question of which
occupies more space.
160 TOPIC 8 SHAPE AND SPACE
Area Triangles
Perimeter Volume
Quadrilaterals
Hatfield, M. H., Edwards, N. T., & Bitter, G. G. (1993). Mathematics methods for
the elementary and middle school. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
INTRODUCTION
Data are all around us. Indeed, sometimes there is so much data that children can
become overwhelmed. Beside examining a set of data by looking at graphs and
tables, it is often convenient to describe a set of data by choosing a single number
that indicates where the data in the set are centred or concentrated.
The number most commonly used to characterise a set of data is the arithmetic
mean, frequently called the average.
ACTIVITY 9.1
Examine the following set of data for three teachers. All of them claim
that his or her class scored better than the other two classes.
Cikgu Ahmad: 40, 62, 85, 99, 99
Miss Lee: 20, 84, 85, 98, 98
Mr Sivanesan: 59, 59, 78, 89, 100
Are these teachers correct in their assertions? Discuss it.
162 TOPIC 9 AVERAGES
For example, you might spend between RM20 and RM90 a week on shopping
(refer to Figure 9.1). Finding the average amount you have spent per week will
help you plan your month's spending. The average weekly expenditure gives you
an idea of whether you are spending more or less than you plan to.
ACTIVITY 9.2
Calculating the mean temperature.
Choose your town and select a full five day weather
forecast. Use the data to calculate the mean
temperature.
Build a tower with seven cubes and another with five cubes (see Figure 9.2). They
can now discuss what they would have to do to make both towers the same height,
using only the cubes they have used to construct the towers. As a teacher, you
advise the pupils, to make both towers the same height, they have to find the total
number of interlocking cubes used in building both towers. Next, the pupils will
have to divide the total number of cubes by two. By doing the calculation, the
pupils will understand the concept of average and also the method of calculating
averages.
After several examples with two towers of interlocking cubes, pupils can then use
the same strategy in determining the average heights of three or four towers.
As an extension to the above activity, pupils can attempt to apply the process and
discuss a situation in which the cubes cannot be equally shared. Allow the pupils
to use their own language in their discussion, but the end result should be an
understanding that the average is simply one number that describes or
characterizes all the numbers in the data set.
Once the pupils understand the concept, provide them with more activities that
reinforces their understanding of averages.
When people talk about the average of something, like average price,
average wage or average height, they are usually talking about the mean
value.
The mean value of the weekly spending shown in the graph as indicated in
Figure 9.1 is RM46.
The calculation is as follows:
Mean spending = RM20 + RM40 + RM30 + RM90 + RM50
----------------------------------------------------
5
= RM230
---------
5
= RM46
Can you see that the value is located about the middle of the five different
amounts shown?
The average can be useful for comparing things. For example you can find
the average height for the pupils in your class. When you compare the
averages of two classes you are comparing the average height of the pupils
in the two classes.
Sometimes averages may give a false impression of the figures. In that case
the average is said to be distorted.
The average salary is RM42,200. But most of the staff earn a lot less than
this. Most employees earn less than the mean salary. For this reason we say
that the mean is distorted.
The mode is the name of another type of average. The mode is the most
common item in a set of data. It is the number or thing that appears most
often. Sometimes one or two values in a data set can distort the typical
value described by the average as in the example mentioned above. In this
case, the mode is the preferred measure of central tendency.
Example: The mode for the annual salary for the staff of the pharmaceutical
store is RM8,000. That is because two out of five of the employees earn
RM8,000 per annum.
The concept of the median can be easily modelled. In the example above,
arrange the salary in ascending order:
First put the numbers in order. This makes it easier to find the median.
166 TOPIC 9 AVERAGES
You can now see that RM9,000 is the middle number. It is half way along
the list. So the median of this set of data is RM9,000.
The median value is the middle one in the list. The median salary is
RM9,000. This is a good indication of the general level of the staff salaries.
SELF-CHECK 9.1
ACTIVITIY 9.3
Learning Outcome:
To describe the meaning of average.
Materials:
Interlocking blocks
Procedures:
1. In a place visible to all pupils, and using 15 interlocking blocks
arrange five stacks of blocks as illustrated below.
ACTIVITY 9.4
Learning Outcome:
To investigate the addition-division process for determining average.
Materials:
Task Sheet; and
Interlocking blocks.
Procedures:
1. Using 15 interlocking blocks arrange five stacks of blocks as
illustrated below (as in Activity 1).
3. Have another student do the same with the second and fourth stacks.
6. Instruct the children to discuss how to determine the average for the
blocks without shifting blocks from one stack to another.
7. Using the childrens thinking as the basis for discussion, guide the
children learn the addition-division process of determining the
average.
TASK SHEET
The average is calculated by adding up the item values and dividing it by the number of
items.
(a) 132, 246 and 174 (b) 1345, 1080, 1605 (c) 156, 145, 556, 3352 and
and 1830 4488
(d) 14.3, 9.68, and 8.7 (e) 20.36, 13.6, 22.44 (f) 23.4, 7.4, 46.1, 18.3 and
and 45.6 5.6
(a) 45 kg, 48 kg, 52 kg, (b) RM675, RM725, (c) 900 m, 950 m,
and 43 kg RM750, and 1050 m and
RM775 1200 m
(d) 13.5 m, 6.3 m, (e) 19.6 cm3 , 600 cm3 , (f) 86.6 , 43 , 51.3 ,
14 m and 84.1 m 198 cm3 and 61 and 44.6 .
129.8 cm3
TOPIC 9 AVERAGES 171
ACTIVITIY 9.5
Learning Outcome:
To practise calculating averages.
Materials:
A deck of cards comprising sets of numbers and answers; and
Example:
2315 6.82
Procedures:
1. Prepare cards, some with sets of numbers and some with the
average of the sets of numbers.
2. Hand a card to each child.
3. Ask the children who are holding the cards with the sets of
numbers to calculate the average.
4. Ask the children to find their partners who are holding the
calculated averages.
5. If there is an odd number of children, you should take a card and
participate so that everyone has a partner.
6. Have the partners stand together so that everyone can see each
others cards. Have the children check everyones calculation of
the average. Are the partners correctly paired?
7. Distribute the Task Sheets and have the children work out the
answer.
172 TOPIC 9 AVERAGES
ACTIVITY 9.5
TASK SHEET
(a) 79, 105, 211, (b) 100, 2000, (c) 7511, 1380,
234 and 81 250,139 and 4, 22, and 28
1331
ACTIVITIY 9.6
Learning Outcome:
To practise calculating averages.
Materials:
A deck of cards comprising sets of numbers and answers.
a Example:
Procedures:
1. Prepare cards, some with sets of numbers and some with the
average of the sets of numbers.
2. Place the answer cards (grey cards) in a circle on the floor.
3. Have the children march around the circle of answer cards on the
floor, chanting this rhyme:
Marching, marching, round we go,
Not too fast and not too slow.
We wont run and we wont hop,
Were almost there, its time to stop.
4. When the rhyme is finished, hold up a question card and ask the
children to find the average of the set of numbers shown on the
card.
5. The child who is standing by the answer card with the correct
calculated average, picks up the answer card and shows it to the
rest of the children.
6. Have the children check his or her answer. Is she or he correct?
7. Repeat the procedure several times or until all the answer cards
have been picked up.
174 TOPIC 9 AVERAGES
ACTIVITY 9.7
Learning Outcome:
To practise calculating averages.
Materials:
Four lists of questions on finding averages. Some of the questions
may be the same on each list.
Answers to the averages.
Example:
List 1
List 2
Procedures:
1. Prepare four lists of questions on finding averages. Some of the
questions may be the same on each list.
2. Prepare 24 cards, each showing the calculated average for each
question on each list. Tape these cards to the walls of the classroom.
3. Divide the children into four teams.
4. Give one of the lists to each of the team. (You might want to provide a
copy of the list for every member of the team).
5. Have the children calculate the averages for the numbers on their list.
6. Have the team members search for the answer cards taped on the walls
of the classroom.
7. The first team to correctly calculate the average and collect all the
answer cards wins.
Three types or measures of central tendency can be calculated. They are the
arithmetical average (mean), mode and median.
Distorted Median
Average Mode
Mean (Average)
176 TOPIC 9 AVERAGES
Hatfield, M. H., Edwards, N. T., & Bitter, G. G. (1993). Mathematics methods for
the elementary and middle school. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
INTRODUCTION
Most of the important decision making of modern society is based on statistics,
graphs and probability. In politics, advertising and economics, samples are
organised, survey questions developed, answers sought, results tabulated and
organised and predictions displayed with averages and graphs to show
distributions, relationships and trends of the data collected before decisions are
made. What will be the next flavour of cakes manufactured? Where will the land
for the next supermarket be bought? Data handling has become an important
aspect of life for many people today.
Graphs and statistics are indispensable to comprehending the raw data on which
decision making is based. A mass of data is incomprehensible. Averages supply a
framework with which to describe what happens. Graphs supply a visual way of
presenting the range of alternatives available and indicating where the density of
178 TOPIC 10 DATA HANDLING
interest lies. The forms of graph that are commonly used are bar graphs,
histograms, picture graphs, line graphs and pie charts.
Statistics within the primary school is predominantly the study of procedures for
collecting, recording, organising and interpreting data. Data handling is
introduced in primary schools in the belief that it is crucial for children to begin
study of the concepts and processes in statistics, graphs and probability as early as
possible. The difficulty lies in the lack of knowledge of what aspects of data
handling are suitable for primary children. Many primary school teachers have
little preparation for teaching data handling and little experience of it being taught
to them. By reading and applying what is written in this topic, it is expected that
teachers will be able to:
(a) Show pupils that statistics and graphs are part of mathematical activities in
their daily lives;
(b) Show pupils the connections between statistics and graphs to basic numbers
and space concepts; and
(c) Allow pupils to conduct simple statistical investigations and graphical
presentations.
ACTIVITY 10.1
Can you think of reasons why data handling exists in our lives? List
down the reasons before you could compare them with your partner.
Black Bears
Mean: 60.07 inches
Median: 62.50 inches
Range: 42 inches
2
Variance: 117.681
Standard deviation: 10.85 inches
Minimum: 36 inches
Maximum: 78 inches
Frequency First quartile: 51.63 inches
1 Third quartile: 67.38 inches
Count: 58 bears
Sum: 3438.1 inches
0
3 4 5 6 7 8
Length in Inches
ACTIVITY 10.2
Figure 10.1 above shows an example of how a histogram can be used to
visualize data on black bears. List down four other graphical
representations and show how they differ from one another.
(a) Range
In a list of data, range is the difference between the greatest and the least
value. Consider the following results (out of 20) in a mathematics test for
two groups of students (the BLUE and the RED):
The range for the BLUE group is 11 5 = 6, while the range for the RED
group is 16 5 = 11.
(b) Mean
Mean is the average of the scores. To calculate it, the scores are added and
the result is divided by the number of scores. In the example above, the
mean for the BLUE group is
6 + 8 + 10 + 10 + 5 + 6 + 11+ 8 + 11 + 6 + 7 = 88, 88 divided by 11 is 8.
(c) Mode
Mode is the most commonly occurring score. In the example above, the
mode for the BLUE group is 6, while the mode for the RED group is 9.
(d) Median
Median is the middle score when the scores are arranged in ascending order.
In the above example, there are 11 scores altogether, therefore the median is
the sixth score when the scores are arranged in ascending order.
BLUE: 5, 6, 6, 6, 7, 8, 8, 10, 10, 11, 11
RED: 5, 7, 7, 9, 9, 9, 9, 12, 13, 14, 16
Hence, the median for the BLUE group is 8 and the median for the RED
group is 9.
Note: If there is an even number of scores (say 10), then the median is
halfway between the half score and the next score (example: half way
between the 5th and the 6th score in ascending order). For example, for scores
5, 9, 3, 8, 6, 4, 6, 3
The five step format in using data to make decisions can be illustrated with the
example adapted from Thompson et al (1976).
(b) To help comprehend these results, the children tallied them into a frequency
table and graphed them onto bar graphs. They then calculated the mean,
median and range for each volunteer. The tables and the bar graphs are
shown below:
Distance of 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29
throw (m)
Shahar 1 1 1 1 1
Bala 1 2 2
Tony 1 1 1 1 1
182 TOPIC 10 DATA HANDLING
Next, the three statistical measures, mean, median an range are calculated and
tabulated in the table below.
TOPIC 10 DATA HANDLING 183
Based on the frequency table, bar graphs and the statistical measures
constructed, ask your students the following questions.
(d) What should be our criteria for selecting the best representative?
Who has the best typical throw?
How do we define typical?
Is consistency important?
Should we have measured more or less than five throws?
Should bad throws be excluded?
Is anything important lost in rounding to the nearest metre?
(e) Would it make it easier if we tallied the throws into sections, say 15-19, 20-
24, 25-29 etc.?
ACTIVITY 10.3
Write your answers for these two questions and compare them with your
partner next to you.
1. What are statistical measures?
2. Why is it necessary for children to know how to collect, record,
organise and interpret data?
organising the data under these categories. The techniques that may have to be
used in this process are combinatorial counting (to determine all the possible
outcomes) and tallying (to organise the data under the categories). Let us begin
this section by introducing to you the tables.
(a) Tables
(i) The simple table
An example of this simple table is the table of contents on a cereal packet.
It consists of words and figures in two columns (refer to Figure 10.3).
Vitamin C 25 mg
Iron 27 mg
Niacin 11 mg
Riboflavin 38 mg
(b) Charts
Charts are less regular in terms of rows and columns. They attempt to
display information more visually, to relate the display to what actually
occurs. As such, we have the road maps and bus routes of transport and the
time lines of history.
TOPIC 10 DATA HANDLING 185
Bus Route:
(a) Diagrams
These are visual ways to represent membership in different sets and subsets.
A Venn diagram and a Carroll diagram could be considered the most
favourable diagrams used to show the relationship between the members of
a given group of objects.
Red Scented
Flowers flowers
Not Scented Red and not scented Not red and not scented
flowers flowers
Graphs are not in the syllabus to give light relief to the numerical activities. Their
purpose is to improve communication and understanding, especially for children
of lower ability. However, we can all gain insight to complicated statistical
information if it is displayed in a graphical manner. Obviously, knowing how to
draw graphs and to draw inferences from them are valuable skills to acquire.
Bar graphs, picture graphs, line graphs, circle graphs and scatter graphs, can all be
used to visualise data. These various forms of graphs are commonly seen in real
life in magazines, newspapers, textbooks and advertisements. The objective in
using a graph is to visually present information in a form which enables it to be
assimilated at a glance as compared to a list of numbers.
Graphs are yet further examples of representing information in such a way that
patterns are evident or worthwhile seeking. If particular patterns emerge, time and
time again we can conclude that, indeed, some generalisation can be made about
the circumstances we are representing. Hypothesis can be formulated and tested
and a visual display made of the results. Concepts are more clearly understood as
a consequence and fundamental principals are consolidated.
Cats
Dogs
Fish
Birds
0 5 10 15 20 25
25
20
15
10
Class A
Class B
Class C
Class D
40oC
30oC
20oC
10oC
College Costs
Entertainment
Clothing
Miscellaneous
200 cm
150 cm
100 cm
50 cm
SELF-CHECK 10.1
The major mathematical skills to be mastered by pupils studying the topic of data
handling in Year 5 and Year 6 are as follows:
(a) Average
(i) Describe the meaning of average;
(ii) State the average of two, three, four or five quantities;
(iii) Calculate the average using a formula; and
(iv) Solve problems in real life situations.
(c) Pictograph
(i) Identify pictograph which represents one or more than one unit;
(ii) Extract information from a pictograph; and
(iii) Construct a pictograph.
10.3.1 Average
ACTIVITY 10.4
Learning Outcomes:
To state the average of two, three, four or five quantities
To calculate the average using a formula
Materials:
Task Cards
Answer Sheets
Procedure:
1. Divide the class into groups of five students and give each student
an Answer Sheet.
2. Ask the students to write their name on the Answer Sheet.
3. Shuffle the Five Task Cards and place them face down in a stack at
the centre.
4. Instruct each player to begin by drawing a card from the stack.
5. Instruct the player to write all the answers to the questions in the
card drawn on the Answer Sheet.
6. After a period of time (to be determined by the teacher), the pupils
in the group exchange cards with the pupil on their left in a
clockwise direction.
7. Pupils repeat steps (5 and 6) until everyone has answered the
questions in all the cards.
8. The pupil with the most number of correct answers, wins.
9. Teacher summarises the lesson on the meaning of average.
Card D Card E
1._____ 1._____
2._____ 2._____
3._____ 3._____
3. Find the average of 4.2 km, 5.1 km, 4900 m and 5 km.
Average = ___________ km
ACTIVITY 10.5
Work with your friend in class to prepare four other Task Cards.
There should be three questions in each card.
Make sure your cards are based on the learning outcomes of
Activity 10.4.
194 TOPIC 10 DATA HANDLING
ACTIVITY 10.6
Learning Outcomes:
To recognise frequency, mode, range, average, minimum and
maximum value from a bar graph; and
To find the frequency, mode, range, average, minimum and
maximum value from a given bar graph.
Materials:
30 different Flash Cards; and
Clean writing papers.
Procedure:
1. Divide the class into groups of three students and give each group a
clean writing paper.
2. Ask the students to write their names on the clean paper given.
3. Shuffle the Flash Cards and place them face down in a stack at the
centre.
4. Instruct Player A to begin by drawing a card from the stack. He
shows the card to Player B.
5. Instruct Player B to read the answers within the stipulated time
(decided by the teacher).
6. Instruct Player C to write the points below Player Bs name. Each
correct answer is awarded one point (a maximum of 6 points for
each Flash Card).
7. Players repeat steps (4 and 5) until all 10 cards have been drawn by
Player A.
8. Repeat steps (3 through 6) until all the players have the opportunity
to read all 10 Flash Cards shown to them.
9. The winner is the group of students that has the most number of
points.
10. Teacher summarises the lesson on how to find the frequency,
mode, range, average, minimum and maximum value from a given
bar graph.
TOPIC 10 DATA HANDLING 195
Flash Card 1
Mass of fish caught in kg
150
100
50
6. Find the range between the maximum and the minimum mass of fish
caught.
Answer: __________ kg
ACTIVITY 10.7
Work with three friends of yours in class to prepare twenty-nine other
Flash Cards. There should be six questions in each Flash Card. Make
sure your cards are based on the learning outcomes of Activity 10.6.
196 TOPIC 10 DATA HANDLING
ACTIVITY 10.8
Learning Outcomes:
To recognise frequency, mode, range, average, minimum and
maximum value from a pie chart; and
To find the frequency, mode, range, average, minimum and
maximum value from a given pie chart.
Materials:
Task Sheets;
Clean writing papers; and
Colour pencils.
Procedure:
1. Divide the class into groups of four to six students. Give each
group a different colour pencil and a clean writing paper.
2. The teacher sets up five stations in the classroom and places a Task
Sheet at each station.
3. The teacher instructs students to solve the questions in the Task
Sheet at each station.
4. Each group will spend 10 minutes at each station.
5. At the end of 10 minutes, the groups will have to move on to the
next station in the clockwise direction.
6. At the end of 50 minutes, the teacher collects the answer papers.
7. The group with the highest score (highest number of correct
answers) is the winner.
8. Teacher summarises the lesson on how to find the frequency,
mode, range, average, minimum and maximum value from a given
pie chart.
TOPIC 10 DATA HANDLING 197
STATION 1
The pie chart below shows the colours of 1,000 marbles owned by Gopal.
Black
5%
White
19% Red
25%
Blue Green
19%
ACTIVITY 10.9
Work with two of your friends to prepare four other Task Sheets for the
other stations. There should be four questions in each sheet.
Make sure your sheets are based on the learning outcomes of Activity
10.8.
198 TOPIC 10 DATA HANDLING
ACTIVITY 10.10
Learning Outcomes:
To solve problems involving average; and
To solve problems involving graphs.
Materials:
Activity Cards;
Clean writing papers; and
Colour pencils.
Procedure:
1. Divide the class into groups of four pupils and give each group a
different colour pencil and a clean writing paper.
2. Shuffle a set of 12 Activity Cards and place them face down in a
stack at the centre.
3. Teacher signals to the students to begin solving the questions in the
first Activity Card drawn.
4. Once they have completed the first Card, they may continue with
the next Activity Card.
5. At the end of 10 minutes, the groups will stop and hand their
answer papers to the teacher.
6. The group with the highest score is the winner.
7. Teacher summarises the lesson on how to solve problems in real
contexts involving averages and graphs.
ACTIVITY 10.10
ACTIVITY 1
TOPIC 10 DATA HANDLING 199
Activity Card 1
1. The total score of Ali, Babu and Chin in a mathematics test is 260. The
average score of Ali and Chin is 85. Find Babus score.
2. The average mass of four pupils is 22.9kg. Ali joins the group and the
average mass of the pupils is now 23.6 kg. What is Alis mass in kg?
150
100
50
ACTIVITY 10.11
Prepare 11 other Activity Cards for the group. There should be four
questions in each card.
Make sure your cards are based on the learning outcomes of Activity
10.10.
200 TOPIC 10 DATA HANDLING
Many primary school teachers have little preparation for teaching data
handling and little experience of it being taught to them.
In a list of data, range is the difference between the greatest and the least
value. Mean is the average of the scores. Mode is the most commonly
occurring score. Median is the middle score when the scores have been
arranged in an ascending order.
The appropriate methods of organising data that seem suitable for the primary
years are interpreting and constructing simple tables, charts and diagrams
that are commonly used in everyday life to display information.
Bar graphs, picture graphs, line graphs, circle graphs and scatter graphs,
can all be used to picture data. These various forms of graphs are commonly
seen in the real world in magazines, newspapers, textbooks and
advertisements.
TOPIC 10 DATA HANDLING 201
Chart Probability
Diagram Range
Graph Raw data
Mean Statistics
Median Table
Mode
Burrows, D., & Cooper, T. (1987). Statistics, graphs and probability in the primary
school (trial materials). Queensland, Australia: Carseldine Campus.
Nur Alia Abd. Rahman & Nandhini. (2008). Siri intensif: Mathematics KBSR year
5. Kuala Lumpur: Penerbitan Fargoes.
Nur Alia Abd Rahman & Nandhini. (2008). Siri intensif : Mathematics KBSR year
6. Kuala Lumpur: Penerbitan Fargoes.
Ng, S.F. (2002). Mathematics in action workbook 2B (Part 1). Singapore: Pearson
Education Asia.