Materials Science & Engineering A 571 (2013) 116122

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Materials Science & Engineering A

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/msea

Characterization of high-temperature deformation behavior of as-cast Ti60

titanium alloy using processing map
Wenwen Peng a, Weidong Zeng a,n, Qingjiang Wang b, Hanqing Yu a
a
State Key Laboratory of Solidication Processing, School of Materials, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xian 710072, China
b
Institute of Metal Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenyang 110016, China

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Isothermal compression testing of as-cast Ti60 titanium alloy is carried out at the deformation
Received 13 December 2012 temperature range of 9701120 1C with 50 1C intervals, strain rate range of 0.0110 s  1 and height
Received in revised form reduction of 75%. The hot deformation behavior of as-cast Ti60 titanium alloy is characterized based on
4 January 2013
the analysis of the stressstrain behavior, kinetics and the processing map. The constitutive equation of
Accepted 5 January 2013
as-cast Ti60 titanium alloy is established, which describes the ow stress as a function of the strain rate
Available online 11 January 2013
and deformation temperature. The apparent activation energies are calculated to be 574.8 kJ/mol in the
Keywords: a b two-phase eld and 194.0 kJ/mol in the b single-phase eld, respectively. Based on the dynamic
As-cast Ti60 titanium alloy material model and the Prasads instability criterion, the processing maps for the alloy are constructed
Constitutive relationship
at strains of 0.4 and 0.7. The maps exhibit a stable domain in the temperature range of 9701120 1C and
Processing map
strain rate range of 0.010.1 s  1 with two peaks in power dissipation of 70% and 70%, occurring at
Hot deformation behavior
970 1C/0.01 s  1 and 1120 1C/0.01 s  1, respectively. The high efciency values of power dissipation
indicate dynamic recrystallization in these elds, and dynamic recrystallization fraction increases with
increasing deformation temperature. Therefore, the optimal processing condition for cogging procedure
of as-cast Ti60 titanium alloy is 1120 1C/0.01 s  1. Moreover, the material also undergoes ow
instabilities domain occurring at strain rates higher than 1 s  1. This instability domain exhibits ow
localization and cracking which should be avoided during hot processing in order to obtain the
satisfactory properties.
& 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction added to improve its heat-resistant and widen the a b phase

Titanium alloys have been widely applied to the advanced
aero-engines, automotive and chemical industries due to their
excellent mechanical properties up to high temperatures, good
corrosion resistance, low density and high specic strength [1].
In recent years, it is attractive to develop high temperature
titanium alloys for using in aircraft engine as compressor discs
and blades under a long-term load at elevated temperatures up to
600 1C. At present, several kinds of high performance titanium
alloys that can meet such application are IMI685 [2], IMI834 [3]
and Ti-1100 alloy [4]. In the present work, Ti60 alloy is such a
high temperature titanium alloy developed by Institute of Metal
Research in China. It belongs to TiAlSnZrMoSi series tita-
nium alloy, which is similar to the IMI834 alloy. Compared with
IMI834 alloy, more Si element is added to the Ti60 titanium alloy
to improve the creep performance further at the servicing
temperature of 600 1C. A small amount of Ta and C elements are
n
Corresponding author. Tel.: 86 29 88494298.
E-mail address: zengwd@nwpu.edu.cn (W. Zeng).
eld, respectively [5]. Up to now, the increasing attention has
been received with respect to Ti60 titanium alloy by many
material scientists, and it has been researched as a candidate of
material for compressor disks with an emphasis on the relation-
ship between processing and microstructure [6]. In the previous
work, the research efforts were mainly focused on the properties,
microstructure and application of as-forged Ti60 titanium alloy.
Chen et al. [7] studied effect of hydrogen content on the
mechanical properties of Ti60 alloy at high temperature and
found that the high temperature yield strength of hydrogenated
specimens continuously decreased with increasing hydrogen
contents. Wei et al. [8] investigated the microstructure and
mechanical properties of high temperature titanium alloy at
600 1C and proposed that the alloy with bimodal structure
exhibited excellent mechanical property due to the precipitation
of a2 phase and silicides. Jia et al. [9] analyzed hot deformation
behavior of Ti60 titanium alloy with an equiaxed a b starting
microstructure in the temperature range of 9601110 1C and
strain rate range of 0.00110 s  1 and suggested that, in two-
phase eld, the ow softening was caused by break-up and
globularization of lamellar a as well as deformation heating

0921-5093/$ - see front matter & 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2013.01.008
 W. Peng et al. / Materials Science & Engineering A 571 (2013) 116122 117

during deformation. While in the single-phase eld, ow soft- temperatures with the rate of 5 1C/s and kept for 6 min before hot
ening was caused by dynamic recovery and recrystallization. compression so as to obtain a uniform deformation temperature.
In general, the quality of compressor discs and blades in The specimens were cooled in the air after hot compression to
aeroengine depends on the cogging and forging of ingot and avoid cracking. The true stressstrain curves were recorded
following heat treatment processing. Consequently, a higher automatically in the thermal compression process.
requirement is proposed for the cogging process of ingot. Further- To observe the microstructural evolution, the isothermally
more, the cogging quality of Ti60 titanium alloy essentially relies compressed specimens were sectioned parallel to the compres-
on its microstructure, which is highly associated with the hot sion axis from one side of the deformed specimens and the cut
working conditions of the titanium alloy [10,11]. Unfortunately, surface of the half specimen was prepared for metallographic
little work has been conducted concerning hot deformation examination using standard procedures. Metallographic speci-
behavior for as-cast Ti60 titanium alloy. Therefore, there is mens after grinding, polishing and corroding were observed with
interest in its as-cast samples, which is the primary coverage of Olympus/PMG3 optical microscope.
the present investigation.
The objective of this study is to characterize the high-
temperature deformation behavior of the as-cast specimens of 3. Results and discussion
Ti60 titanium alloy based on the experimental results in isother-
mal compression of Ti60 titanium alloy. The approach of proces- 3.1. Stressstrain behavior
sing map has been adopted to understand the mechanisms during
high-temperature deformation, and to optimize the hot forming The shape of stressstrain curves indicate some features that
process for cogging procedure of as-cast Ti60 titanium alloy. help in identifying the mechanism of hot deformation. Typical
ow stressstrain curves of as-cast Ti60 titanium alloy obtained
at various deformation temperatures (970 and 1120 1C) and
2. Materials and experimental procedures different strain rates (0.01, 0.1, 1 and 10 s  1) with height reduc-
tion of 75% are shown in Fig. 2a and b, which are representative of
The chemical composition of as-cast Ti60 titanium alloy
employed in the present work is Ti5.8Al4.0Sn3.5Zr0.4Mo
0.4Nb1.0Ta0.4Si0.06C (wt.%). The b phase transus tempera-
ture of the alloy (Tb) is approximately 1045 1C via a technique
involving heat treatment followed by optical metallography. The
testing specimens from the ingot with a diameter of 155 mm
were machined into cylinder with 10 mm in diameter and 15 mm
in height according to the standard method for hot compression
test. The initial as-cast microstructure of the samples consists of
large b grains with about grain size of 1.153.67 mm, lamellar
a colonies in coarse prior b grains, a grain boundary a layer of
411 mm thickness and a continuous prior b grains boundary of
38 mm thickness, as shown in Fig. 1.
In order to understand the hot deformation behavior, a series
of isothermal compression tests were conducted on a computer
controlled Gleeble 3500 thermal simulator in the deformation
temperature range from 970 to 1120 1C with 30 1C intervals,
strain rate range from 0.01 to 10 s  1 and the height reduction
of 75%. A special high temperature lubricant was coated on the
top and bottom surfaces of specimen, and tantalum chip of
0.1 mm was placed between die surface and specimen to prevent
cementation. Samples were heated to the corresponding testing

Fig. 2. Typical ow stressstrain curves of as-cast Ti60 titanium alloy deformed at

Fig. 1. Initial microstructure of as-cast Ti60 alloy. (a) 970 1C and (b) 1120 1C.
118 W. Peng et al. / Materials Science & Engineering A 571 (2013) 116122

the behavior below and above the phase transformation tem-

perature, respectively. As can be seen from Fig. 2, the ow stress
increases signicantly with the decreasing temperature and
increasing strain rate, indicating the sensitivity of ow stress to
the variations of deformation temperature and strain rate. For
deformation in the a b phase eld (970 1C, Fig. 2a), all the curves
exhibit ow softening behavior, and the softening tendency
presents more obvious at higher strain rate. Compared with that
of b phase eld, however, there is a signicant difference in the
ow softening behavior of the stressstrain curves observed for
deformation in the a b phase eld. For deformation in the b
phase eld (1120 1C, Fig. 2b), the curves are of steady-state type
in which the ow stress remains nearly constant with increasing
strain. Such steady-state curves indicate that the mechanisms of
softening are sufciently fast to balance the rate of work hard-
ening and mechanisms like dynamic recrystallization or dynamic
recovery are suggested [12]. In addition, at higher strain rates
( 40.1 s  1), the curves display signicant oscillation in both the
b phase eld and a b phase eld which indicates dynamic
recrystallization, unstable deformation, or cracking [13]. Similar
Fig. 3. Relationship between peak ow stress and strain rate in the a b two-
oscillatory behaviors have been addressed in other titanium
phase region and the b single-phase region.
alloys at higher strain rates [1315].
To investigate the intrinsic relationship of ow stress with
thermodynamic behavior, if only relying on the shapes of stress
strain curves, it is still difcult to determine the hot deformation
mechanisms because several similar ow behaviors may result in
different microstructural evolution mechanisms during hot defor-
mation. For instance, the steady-state ow curve may display
dynamic recovery or superplasticity. Similarly, ow softening
may indicate dynamic recrystallization, adiabatic heating or
lamellar globularization [16], and oscillation curve may reveal
cyclic dynamic recrystallization or localized ow [17]. Therefore,
the ow stress behavior needs to be further analyzed, and the
more precise hot deformation mechanism of as-cast Ti60 alloy
will be determined in the subsequent discussions.

3.2. Kinetic analysis

The constitutive relationship between ow stress, strain rate

and deformation temperature during hot deformation at a given
strain can be usually presented with an equation known as the
classical hyperbolic sine relation [18,19] as follows:
  Fig. 4. Relationship between peak ow stress and variations of different strain
e_ Asinhasn exp Q =RT 1 rates and temperatures in the a b two-phase region and b single-phase region.

where A is the material constant for the particular strain, n is the

tress exponent, Q is the apparent activation energy for hot
deformation (kJ/mol) and R is the universal gas constant(kJ/
(mol K)). From Eq. (1), the stress exponent (n), is dened by
 
@ln e_
n 2
@lnsinhas T
and the activation energy Q can be dened as
  " #
@ln e_ @lnsinhas
Q R  
@ln sinhas T @ 1=T
e_
In the present study, peak ow stress (s/MPa), strain rate (e_ /s  1)
and temperature (T/K) data are t to Eq. (1) using the non-linear
multivariate regression analysis. The tress exponent n is calcu-
lated from the inverse of the slope of the plot of ln s versus ln e_
(Fig. 3a and b). From Fig. 3, it is not difcult to observe that the
average value of n is calculated to be 5.65 and 4.65 in the a b
two-phase region and b single-phase region, respectively. By
linear regression t the relations of s  ln e_ and ln s  ln e_ , the
optimum values of a are determined to be 0.01 and 0.018.
The plot of ln[sinh(as)] versus 1/T is shown in Fig. 4. By analyzing
the experimental data in Fig. 4, the apparent activation energy of
Ti60 alloy is determined to be 574.8 and 194.0 kJ/mol for a b
phase and b phase eld, respectively. The big difference of the
activation energy results from the sensitivity of stress on different
strain rates and deformation temperatures. According to Eq. (3),
the higher sensitivity of ow stress on deformation temperature
and the lower sensitivity on strain rate, the higher activation
energy of deformation will be.
3 For deformation in the a b phase eld, the activation energy
of Ti60 titanium alloy is 574.8 kJ/mol, which is much higher than
that for self-diffusion in alpha titanium, i.e. 150 kJ/mol [20]. It is
well consistent with the ndings in other near alpha titanium
alloys [2,3]. The reason for higher activation energy of Ti60
titanium alloy in the a b phase eld is as follows. With the
decreasing of deformation temperatures, the volume fraction of
hard a phase increases and that of soft b phase decreases.
Consequently, the deformation resistance of the alloy increases,
with the result of high sensitivity of ow stress on deformation
temperature. From Fig. 2a, it can obviously be seen that the ow
softening behavior is observed at deformation temperature of
 W. Peng et al. / Materials Science & Engineering A 571 (2013) 116122
970 1C. Therefore, the higher activation energy is obtained accord-
ing to Eq. (3) in the a b phase eld.
For the deformation in b phase eld, it has been reported that
the activation energy was in the range 180220 kJ/mol, which is
close to the activation energy for self-diffusion in beta titanium,
i.e. 153 kJ/mol [21]. For Ti60 titanium alloy, the activation energy
is 194.0 kJ/mol in b phase eld, which is higher than that of self-
diffusion in b-Ti. This is reasonable because Ti60 titanium alloy
with crystal structure of bcc has high stacking fault energy in b
phase eld. It makes the initiation of a large number of slip
systems available, thus allowing the easy cross-slip and climb of
dislocations, especially in the high temperature domain [22]. It
can be seen from Fig. 2b that the ow stress curves presents
steady-state ow characteristic at deformation temperature of
1120 1C, which implies the lower sensitivity of ow stress on
elevated deformation temperature. The steady-state ow is
mainly achieved by the equilibrium between dislocation genera-
tion and recovery.
Based on the experimental results, the constitutive equations
that describe the ow stress as a function of the strain rate and
deformation temperature for as-cast Ti60 alloy can be written as
 
e_ e52:26 sinh0:01s4:12 Uexp 574,800=RT
for a b phase eld and
 
e_ e15:06 sinh0:018s3:37 Uexp 194,000=RT
for b phase eld.
The temperature compensated strain rate parameter or the
ZenerHolloman parameter is evaluated by Eq. (6) to check the
validity of Eqs. (4) and (5).
 
 
Q
Z e_ exp A sinh asn
RT
Fig. 5 shows the variation plot of ow stress with Zener
Hollomon parameter for as-cast Ti60. It can be seen from Fig. 5
that the correlation coefcient R9701030 1C and R10601120 1C for the
linear regression of ln Z and ln[sinh(as)] are 0.996 and 0.990,
respectively, indicating that this plot exhibits a good linear
correlation between ow stress and Z value. Thus, the established
constitutive equations of hyperbolic sine function are valid for
both a b phase and b phase eld.
Fig. 5. Relationship between peak ow stress and ZenerHollomon parameter.
119
3.3. Processing maps for as-cast Ti60 titanium alloy
Processing map is an explicit representation of the response of
the material in terms of microstructural mechanism to the
imposed process parameters. In present study, the approach of
processing map based on the principles of the dynamic material
model [23] is applied to understand the mechanisms during
processing and optimize hot deformation processing for as-cast
Ti60 alloy. In brief, the processing maps consist of a superimposi-
tion of power dissipation map and instability map, which can
illustrate the safe domain and unsafe domain during plastic
processing. Power dissipation occurs by both complementary
processing: a large part as heat through plastic deformation and
the other part through microstructural changes [2426]. The varia-
tion of a dimensionless parameter (Z) called the efciency of power
dissipation, is given by strain rate sensitivity parameter (m):
2m
Z 7
m 1
where m can be given by m(q (ln s)/ q (ln e_ ))T,e.
The variation of the efciency of power dissipation (Z) with
temperature and strain rate constitutes a power dissipation map.
4 The power dissipation map represents the manner in which the
power is dissipated by the material through microstructural
evolution [27,28]. The ow instability map is constructed by a
continuum instability criterion based on the extreme principles of
irreversible thermodynamic as applied to large plastic ow, the
5
instability criterion is derived by [23,29]
@lnm=m 1
xe_ m o 0 8
@ln e_
where xe_ is a dimensionless instability parameter.
Fig. 6 shows the processing maps of as-cast Ti60 alloy, which
are constructed in strain rate range from 0.01 to 10 s  1 and the
6 deformation temperature range from 970 to 1120 1C at strains of
0.4 and 0.7, respectively. The contour numbers indicate the
constant efciency of power dissipation expressed in percent,
and the shaded areas represent the instability region. It can be
seen from Fig. 6 that the efciency of power dissipation increases
with the decreasing of strain rate and the increasing of strain,
which is similar to the other titanium alloys reported by many
researchers [30,31]. Moreover, two domains of peak efciency are
observed at the strain of 0.7: one occurring at 970 1C/0.01 s  1
with a peak efciency of about 70%; the other occurring at
1120 1C/0.01 s  1 with a peak efciency of about 70%. In addition,
the instability region, which occurs in the region of strain rates
higher than about 1 s  1, increases with the increasing of strain.
Based on the analysis of developed processing map, it is necessary
to keep away from these instability domains and corresponding
processing parameters. To investigate the microscopic deforma-
tion mechanisms and verify the reliability of process parameters
predicted by processing map, the evidence of deformation in
these domains are identied and validated through microstruc-
ture observations in the following sections.
3.3.1. Stability domain
It can be seen from Fig. 6 that both peak efciencies of 70%
occur at the strain rate of 0.01 s  1 and the temperatures of 970
and 1120 1C, respectively. It implies that the workability of as-
cast Ti60 titanium alloy will be improved in the region of low
strain rates ( o0.1 s  1). It is widely recognized that high peak
power dissipation efciency is often associated with dynamic
recrystallization [32] or superplasticity [33]. According to the
previous reports, one of the pre-requisites for obtaining super-
plasticity in titanium alloy is the ne, two-phase microstructure
of equiaxed a and b grains [34]. As mentioned before, the grain
120 W. Peng et al. / Materials Science & Engineering A 571 (2013) 116122

Fig. 7. Plot of log (ow stress) vs. log (strain rate) at deformation temperatures of
970 and 1120 1C and strain of 0.6.

Fig. 6. Processing maps from hot compression data at various strains with height
reduction of 75%: (a) 0.4 and (b) 0.7. The numbers represent percent efciency of
power dissipation. Shaded domains represent the instability domains.

size of as-cast Ti60 titanium alloy is more than 1 mm, which is

much higher than the ne grain size of not more than 10 mm for
conventional superplasticity. Zhang et al. [35] investigated the
superplasticity of Ti40 alloy with large grains and proposed that
the mean size of grains was 100200 mm. Compared to the large
grain size of as-cast Ti60 titanium alloy in this work, however,
this grain size belongs to ne grain size category. Thus, the as-cast
Ti60 titanium alloy with large grains does not possess the factor
of ne grain for obtaining superplasticity. Another characteristic
feature of superplasticity is a typical sigmoidal relationship
between log stress and log strain rate [36]. Fig. 7 shows a plot
of log ow stress versus log strain rate at deformation tempera-
tures of 970 and 1120 1C and strain of 0.7. The sigmoidal nature of
the plot is not observed. Therefore, it is conclude the domains
observed at the strain rate of 0.01 s  1 and the temperatures of
970 and 1120 1C will not present superplastic deformation. They
might be interpreted as dynamic recrystallization.
To investigate the microscopic deformation mechanisms in
two domains of peak efciency, the microstructures of the speci- Fig. 8. Microstructures of the specimens deformed at strain rate of 0.01 s  1 and at
men deformed at 0.01 s  1 and deformation temperatures of 970 different deformation temperatures with height reduction of 75%: (a) 970 1C;
(b) 1120 1C.
and 1120 1C are characterized and analyzed, as shown in Fig. 8. It
can be obviously seen from Fig. 8 that the b grain boundaries are
observed to become serrated and a small amount of recrystallized to dynamic recrystallization. Sivakesavam and Prasad [37]
grains are formed along the elongated grain boundaries, which pointed out that the dynamic recrystallization may be considered
present typical dynamic recrystallization feature. Thus, the peak to compete between formation of interfaces (nucleation) and
power dissipation efciencies in processing maps are attributed migration of interfaces (growth), and the nucleation consists of
 W. Peng et al. / Materials Science & Engineering A 571 (2013) 116122
Fig. 9. The processes for nucleation and growth at 1120 1C/0.01 s  1.
Table 1
The recrystallized value under different deformation conditions.
Deformation conditions 970 1C/ 1120 1C/
0.01 s  1 0.01 s  1
Volume fraction of dynamic recystallization 12% 32%
Average size of dynamic recystallization 50 mm 74 mm
grain
the formation of a grain boundary due to the dislocation genera-
tion simultaneous recovery and rearrangement. In this work,
obvious processes for nucleation and growth are observed at
1120 1C/0.01 s  1, as shown in Fig. 9. From Fig. 9a, it can be seen
that the nucleation happens at trigeminal grain boundary. Due to
large recrystallization driving force, it is easy for new recrystal-
lized grains to grow, and then necklace-shaped grains occur in b
grain boundaries (Fig. 9b). Therefore, it is not difcult to see that
the microstructure revealed by Figs. 8 and 9 is dynamic recrys-
tallization with serrated grain boundaries, which is attributed to
substructure occurred at lower strain rates ( o0.1 s  1), as men-
tioned in Ref. [38]. Additionally, it is seen from Fig. 8 that the
volume fraction of dynamic recrystallized grains increases with
increasing temperature. Furthermore, the dynamic recrystallized
grains became larger with increasing temperature. Table 1 shows
the recrystallized value under different deformation conditions.
As can be seen in Table 1, compared with that at 970 1C, the
degree of dynamic recrystallization increases appreciably and the
121
volume fraction of dynamic recystallization is about 32% at
1120 1C. The average size of dynamic recystallization grain
increases from 50 mm at 970 1C to 74 mm at 1120 1C. Accompany-
ing with a large amount of dislocations, dynamic softening takes
place easily at high temperature, which decreases the ow stress
(Fig. 2b). In addition, at lower strain rate such as 0.01 s  1, there is
sufcient time for dynamic recrystallization. Generally, dynamic
recrystallization is a benecial process during hot deformation
since it can provide stable ow and ideal workability to the
material by simultaneously softening and making the microstruc-
ture reconstituted. Thus, the deformation temperature of 1120 1C
and strain rate of 0.01 s  1 are correspondent to an optimal
deformation condition of as-cast Ti60 titanium alloy. This is in a
good agreement with the results from processing maps. In fact,
the cogging temperature for ingot breakdown is generally above
the phase transus temperature and decreases with the increasing
number of cogging. It further indicates that the deformation
temperature of 1120 1C, which is higher than the phase transus
temperature of present alloy (1045 1C), is an optimal cogging
temperature for as-cast Ti60 titanium alloy. This is reasonable
because a phase is hard for its hcp structure with less slip systems
and poor plasticity, while b phase is soft for its bcc structure due
to its more slip systems and good plasticity. At relatively high
deformation temperatures, a high volume fraction of b phase is
present during deformation due to a-b phase transformation. It
results in a low deformation resistance of the alloy. When the
temperature is above the phase transus temperature, the alloy
with bcc structure will exhibit a good plasticity, which is
benecial for the cogging of as-cast Ti60 titanium alloy.
Based on what has been discussed above, it can be concluded that
the main hot deformation mechanism of as-cast Ti60 titanium alloy is
dynamic recrystallization, the microstructure after plastic deforma-
tion is constituted of at elongated b grains and recrystallization
grains of indentation on the grain boundary. These microstructures
also conrm that ow softening features of stressstrain curves
display the phenomena of dynamic recrystallization.
3.3.2. Instability domain
By analysis of the processing map, the instability domains mainly
occur in the region of strain rate above 1 s  1, and instability domains
expand with the increase of strain. It is necessary to point out that
ow instability mechanism is probably associated with bands of ow
localization or cracking. The microstructure manifestation of instabil-
ity regarding the present alloy is shown in Fig. 10 which corresponds
to specimen deformed at 970/10 s  1. The microstructure exhibits
bands of ow localization which have been associated with local
temperature rise at higher strain rates. This is because the fact that at
higher strain rates, adiabatic deformation heat generated during hot
working is conducted due to insufcient deforming time and low
thermal conductivity of material. Moreover, when the specimen was
deformed at the higher temperature of 1120 1C with strain rate of
1 s  1, a large amount of longitudinal cracking is observed on the
surface of the specimen, which is attributed to the secondary tensile
stresses caused by bulging of the cylindrical specimen during upset-
ting, as shown in Fig. 11. Therefore, ow instability is induced by the
bands of ow localization and cracking, which are undesirable in
obtaining consistent mechanical properties and thus should be
avoided during processing. However, serrate oscillation of stress
strain curves above 0.1 s  1 (Fig. 2) is possibly associated with ow
instability as reported in Ref. [39].
From the above results and discussion, it therefore can be
concluded that the maps (Fig. 6) exhibit two domains of peak
efciency, in which the rst domain is at 970 1C/0.01 s  1 with a
peak efciency of about 70%, which is associated with dynamic
recrystallization; another is at 1120 1C/0.01 s  1 with a peak
122 W. Peng et al. / Materials Science & Engineering A 571 (2013) 116122
Fig. 10. Bands of ow localization observed at 970 1C, 10 s  1 and 75% height
reduction.
Fig. 11. Longitudinal cracking occurring at 1120 1C/1 s  1 with the height reduc-
tion of 75%.
efciency of about 70%, which is the optimum condition for hot
working of as-cast Ti60 titanium alloy.
4. Conclusions
Hot compression of as-cast Ti60 titanium alloy has been con-
ducted at the deformation temperatures ranging from 970 to
1120 1C with an interval 30 1C, the strain rates ranging from 0.01
to 10 s  1 and the height reduction of 75%. The ow stress in the
isothermal compression of the alloy is signicantly affected by the
strain rate and deformation temperature. The ow stress decreases
with the increasing of deformation temperature and decreasing of
strain rate. On the basis of the experimental data, the constitutive
equations for as-cast Ti60 alloy are developed using hyperbolic sine
type equation in the a b two-phase region and b single-phase
region to describe the deformation temperature and strain rate
dependence of the ow stress, and the activation energy for
deformation are calculated to be 574.8 and 194.0 kJ/mol, respec-
tively. The processing maps in the isothermal compression are
constructed at the strains of 0.4 and 0.7, and the stability domain
and instability domain are obtained for as-cast Ti60 titanium alloy.
The stability domain occurs at low strain rate (r1 s  1) and the
deformation temperature range of 9701120 1C with two domains
of peak efciency: one occurring at 970 1C/0.01 s  1 with a peak
efciency of about 70% that is associated with dynamic recrystalli-
zation, the other occurring at 1120 1C/0.01 s  1 with a peak ef-
ciency of about 70%, which can be considered as the optimum
condition for hot working of this material. However, at strain rates
higher than 1 s  1, the material undergoes ow instability manifest-
ing as bands of ow localizations and cracking, which should be
avoided in hot processing of as-cast Ti60 alloy.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by the National Natural Science
Foundation of China with Grant no. 51075333.
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