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Form 5

Physics
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The study of matter

Chapter 4:
1 End
Electronics
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Physics: Chapter 4
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Objectives:
(what you will learn)
< Back

Next > 1) uses of Cathode Ray Oscilloscope

2) understanding semiconductor diodes
3) understanding transistors
4) analysing logic gates

2 End
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Maltese-cross Tube
Thermionic emission = emission of electrons from
hot metal surface in vacuum

Cathode rays = electrons moving at high speeds

after acceleration through high potential difference
< Back
A Maltese-cross tube is used to show the first two
Next >
properties of cathode rays.

3 End
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Properties:
1. electrons moving at high
speeds in straight lines
2. cause fluorescent
material to emit light
3. deflected by magnetic field
4. deflected by electric field
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Maltese-cross Tube
Maltese Cross Crookes Tube
Invented in the 1880s by
William Crookes during his
investigations into the nature of
cathode rays.
< Back

Next >

It demonstrates that radiant matter

is blocked by metal objects.
The direction of
deflection of cathode
rays by magnetic field
4 End is found with Flemings
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Cathode Ray Tube
The oscilloscope is capable of following changes
that occur within billionths of a second.
It is widely used throughout industry and in
laboratories to test and adjust electronic equipment,
and to follow rapid oscillations in electric voltages.
< Back
Special converters
Next >
attached to
oscilloscope can
convert mechanical
vibrations, sound
waves, and other
forms of oscillatory
motion into electrical
impulses that can be
5 End observed on the
CashPlants The Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) face of CRT.
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Cathode Ray Tube

< Back

Next >

6 End
CashPlants The Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)
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Cathode Ray Oscilloscope

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The Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (C.R.O.) is divided into 3 parts:

Electron gun
Deflection system
Fluorescent screen

< Back

Next >

7 End
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Cathode Ray Oscilloscope

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Electron gun:
The cathode emits electrons when heated
The grid controls the number of electrons reaching anodes control
with brightness knob
The anode focus electrons into fine beam control with focus knob
The potential difference between anode and cathode accelerates
electrons to high velocity
< Back Deflection system:
Y-plates: electric field deflects electrons vertically
Next > X-plates: electric field deflects electrons horizontally
Fluorescent screen:
When fast electrons hit fluorescent screen, their kinetic energy is
converted into light a spot of light is seen on the screen
doctronics The walls of C.R.O. after anode is coated with graphite and
grounded to keep out external electric field
Kinetic energy of electrons emerging from anode = eV
mv2 = eV
8 End
Velocity, v = 2eV where
CashPlants m e = charge of electron, m = mass of electron
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Cathode Ray Oscilloscope

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Uses of C.R.O.
1. Measure potential difference
Switch off time-base
Connect voltage to be measured to Y-input
d.c. voltage: if x = deflection of light spot, voltage = xn volts
a.c. voltage: 2 x (peak voltage, V0) = ln
< Back V0 1 ln
r.m.s. voltage, Vrms = = volts
2 2 2
Next >

x
l

Given:
9 End
Y-sensitivity = n V per division
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Cathode Ray Oscilloscope

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2. Measure short time interval

Switch on time-base; one horizontal division = time interval, T
Pulse A represents sound detected by microphone
Pulse B represents the echo
Say, time interval between A and B is 3 divisions = 3T
If d = distance of wall from microphone
Distance travelled 2d
< Back Speed of sound, v = =
Time taken 3T
Next > wall
d microphone A B

d
3 divisions
3. Display waveform
Connect input voltage to Y-input
Switch on time-base
10 End Adjust frequency to a steady trace formed on screen
CashPlants The trace or waveform is the graph of voltage V against time t
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Semiconductor diodes
Semiconductors have resistance between that of metals and
insulators; e.g. carbons, germanium, silicon
Pure semiconductor:
negative charge carriers = positive charge carriers
or free electrons = holes
Doped semiconductor (with added impurity):
< Back n-type: free electrons > holes
(impurity of valency 5; arsenic or phosphorus)
Next > p-type: holes > free electrons
(impurity of valency 3, indium or gallium)

Semiconductor diode

p-n junction band

p n
+ + +
11 End
CashPlants structure symbol actual diode
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Semiconductor diodes
Ideal diode
Allows current through when connected in forward bias
Stops current when connected in reverse bias (infinite resistance)

< Back

Next > + current + no current

+ +

Forward bias Reverse bias

12 End
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Semiconductor diodes
A diode is used as a rectifier
to convert a.c. to d.c.

VD

< Back a.c.

V VR
R
Next >

Half-wave rectification

Current only flows through the diode during the positive half
cycle (as shown by +V).

13 End The voltage across the load, VR is direct voltage and the
current is d.c.
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Semiconductor diodes

A capacitor, C is
connected across load, R
to smoothen voltage, VR.

< Back

Next > VD

a.c. C
V VR
R

smoothing capacitor

14 End
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Semiconductor diodes
2 diodes are used in a simple full-wave rectification.

< Back

Next >

4 diodes are used in a bridge full-wave rectification.

15 End
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Transistors
Transistor is an electronic C C
device containing at least 3
layers of semiconductor and B B
electrical contacts, used in a
circuit as amplifier, detector,
or switch. E E
< Back n-p-n transistor p-n-p transistor

Next > B: base C: collector E: emitter

16 End Some samples of the

CashPlants actual transistors Structure of an n-p-n transistor
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Transistors
Transistor as a current amplifier
The base current Ib controls the collector current Ic
Ic is many times larger than Ib.
When Ib = 0, Ic = 0
< Back

Next > When Ib changed, it is amplified by the transistor,

producing larger change in Ic.

Ic
mA
C
B
A
Ib E
17 End
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Transistors
Transistor as a switch
The transistor can be used as a switch to switch on a lamp, L.
The light-dependent resistor (LDR) has resistance of 2 k in bright
light and 20 k in the dark.
During the day, resistance R1 is much less than resistance R2. So the
< Back potential difference across LDR is much smaller than across R2.

Next > The base current Ib is small, the collector current Ic is small, and the
relay is not activated. The lamp L is off.
The reverse happens when in the dark. R1 increases to maximum,
potential difference across LDR increases, and Ib increases.

The transistor amplifies the increase

resulting in large Ic, thus activating
relay and lamp L is switched on.
Other devices may be used in place
18 End of LDR for other functions.
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Logic Gates
Logic gates = switching circuits used in computers
and electronic devices
A logic gate has one or more inputs but only one
output.
< Back Its action is summarized by an equation in Boolean
Next > algebra, or with a truth table.

NOT logic gate

It is also called the inverting buffer.

Truth table

A X Boolean equation

19 End Input Output

X=A

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Logic Gates
AND and NAND logic gates
A
AND X=AB
B

A
NAND X=AB Making a NAND gate out of
< Back B
transistors and resistors
Next >
Input Output
A B AND NAND
0 0 00=0 0=1
0 0 01=0 0=1
1 0 10=0 0=1
20 End
1 1 11=1 1=0
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Logic Gates
OR and NOR logic gates
A
OR X=A+B
B

A
NOR X=A+B
< Back B
Next >
Input Output
A B OR NOR
0 0 00=0 0=1
0 1 01=1 1=0
1 0 10=1 1=0
21 End
1 1 11=1 1=0
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Summary
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What you have learned:

1. Uses of Cathode Ray Oscilloscope
< Back
2. Semiconductor diodes
3. Transistors
4. Logic gates

22 End Thank You

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