Theory of Structures

Chapter 1
Loads on Structures
Dead loads
Dead loads are gravity loads of constant magnitudes and fixed positions that
act permanently on the structure. Such loads consist of the weights of the
structural system itself and of all other material and equipment permanently
attached to the structural system.

Examples of a dead load:

- Weight of frames
- Framing and bracing systems
- Floors
- Roofs
- Ceilings
- Walls
- Stairways
- Heating and air-conditioning systems
- Plumbing
- Electrical systems

Sample problem 1.1

The floor system of a building consists of a 15-cm-thick reinforced concrete
slab on four steel floor beams, which in turn are supported by two steel
girders, as shown in the figure. The cross-sectional areas of the floor beams
and the girders are 94.8 cm2 and 337.4 cm2, respectively. Determine the dead
loads acting on the beams CG and DH and the girder AD. c = 23.6 kN/m3, s
= 77 kN/m3.

Solution:

Given:
tconcrete slab = 15 cm
Asteel girders = 337.4 cm2
Asteel beams = 94.8 cm2
 Theory of Structures

Beam CG:
Concrete slab:
= ( )( )
kN 15
= (23.6 3 ) (3m) ( )m
m 100
= 10.62kN/m

Steel beam:
= ( )
kN 94.8
= (77 3 ) ( ) m2
m 1000
= 0.73kN/m

Total load:
= +
= 10.62 + 0.73
= 11.35

Live loads
Live loads are loads of varying magnitudes and/or positions caused by the
use of the structure. Sometimes, the term live loads is used to refer to all loads
on the structure that are not dead loads, including environmental loads, such
as snow loads or wind loads.

Impact loads
The dynamic effect of the load that causes this increases in stress in the
structure is referred to as impact. To account for the increase in stress due to
impact, the live loads expected to cause such a dynamic effect on structures
are increased by certain impact percentages, or impact factors.

For highway bridges, the AASHTO Specification gives the expression for the
impact factor as:
15
I= 0.3
L + 38.1
Where:
L = length in meters of the portion of the span loaded to cause maximum
stress in the member under consideration.
 Theory of Structures

Wind loads
Wind loads are produced by the flow of wind around the structure. The
magnitudes of wind loads that may act on a structure depend on the
geographical location of the structure, obstructions in its surrounding
terrain, such as nearby buildings, and the geometry and the vibrational
characteristics of the structure itself.

Earthquake loads
An earthquake is a sudden undulation of a portion of the earths surface.
Although the ground surface moves in both horizontal and vertical directions
during an earthquake, the magnitude of the vertical component of ground
motion is usually small and does not have a significant effect on most
structures.