WATERSHEDS:

PROCESSES,
ASSESSMENT,

AND MANAGEMENT

PAUL A. DEBARRY

UNIVERSITY OF MARYLAND
-:OLLEGE PARK, MARYLAND

SEP 7

ENGiNEERING AND PHYSICAL

SCIENCES LIBRARY
@
WILEY

JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC.

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herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a professional where
appropriate. Neither the publisher nor author shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other 1.0 Introduction / I
commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other 1.1 Sustainability / 3
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1.2 Watershed Assessm
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data: PART A: WATERSHED P

DeBarry, Paul A.
Watersheds: processes, assessment, and management I Paul
DeBarry. 2 PHYSIOGRAPHY
p. Col.

Includes bibliographical references and index.

2.0 Introduction / 19
ISBN 0-471-26423-7 (cloth)
2.1 Physiography and I
I. Watersheds. I. Title.
TC409D35 2004
2.2 Geology / 19
627-dc22 200.1017778 2.3 Soils / 30
Printed in the United States of America 2.4 Topography / 45
109 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 I 2.5 Summary / 47
 FGM CHAPTER 1
Editorial

Hydrology, Stream
Data
sity Water Quality,
Stormwater
st, Soils/Digital Data
'ces

INTRODUCTION: COMPREHENSIVE
WATERSHED ASSESSMENT
AND MANAGEMENT

1.0 INTRODUCTION

A watershed is an area of land that captures water in any form, such as rain,
snow, or dew, and drains it to a common water body, i.e., stream, river, or
lake. All land is part of the watershed of some creek, stream, river, or lake.
The watershed boundary is defined by the higher elevations or ridges that
define which direction the rainwater will flow, as shown in Figures 1.1 and
1.2. It is analogous to a bathtub, where water that falls on the inside brim of
the bathtub, or watershed, will flow to the drain, or outlet. Water that falls
outside the brim, or watershed, divides, and ends up on the floor-in the case
of a bathtub-or in another watershed. The entire continental landmass is
made up of watersheds.
The downstream-most point of a watershed is defined by the required point
of analysis, or where flows, samples, or design criteria might be required.
These are usually stream confluences (where two streams merge), bridges,
problem areas, dams, or some other type of outlet where the analysis ends.
The downstream-most location is referred to as the point of interest for anal
ysis purposes.
Delineating the watershed begins by identifying the point of interest, then
drawing a line perpendicular to the contours, picking the high points on a
topographic map, and continuing until returning back to the point of interest.
A typical watershed, as defined on a United States Geological Survey (USGS)
7'/2-minute topographic quadrangle, is shown in Figure 1.3.
A watershed assessment is a detailed evaluation of the specific processes,
influences, and problems in a watershed so that a plan of action to preserve
the watershed can be developed. The watershed management plan should be

...

2 INTRODUCTION: COMPREHENSIVE WATERSHED ASSESSMENT AND MANAGEMENT

Figure 1.1 A watershed boundary is defined by the higher elevations or ridges that
direct the flow in one direction or another, as shown from the ground.

Figure 1.3 Typical watershed defir

of-interest, in this case the dam of <

a systematic approach to preserv

regime, or to correct problems
detailed implementation prograrr
plan.

1.1 SUSTAINABILITY

Sustainability can be defined as

to theirs, a natural resource base
improvement, environmental qua
tomorrow and forever-because
make today" (Bucks County PIal
out this text, a watershed in hy(
sustainability of water resources
humans in general. Lives depen<
is paramount for the survival of h
Figure 1.2 A watershed boundary as shown in a GIS digital elevation model (DEM).
through "good science and smarl
iSESSMENT AND MANAGEMENT
1.1 SUSTAINABILITY 3

. the higher elevations or ridges that

Iwn from the ground.

Figure 1.3 Typical watershed defined by high points or ridges, draining to the point
of-interest, in this case the dam of a lake.

a systematic approach to preserve or restore the watershed and its hydrologic

regime, or to correct problems based on the comprehensive assessment. A
detailed implementation program should be a component of the management
plan.

1.1 SUSTAINABILITY

Sustainability can be defined as "creating, to pass along to our children and

GIS digital elevation model (DEM).
to theirs, a natural resource base whose yields in economic prosperity, social
improvement, environmental quality, and natural beauty will go on and on
tomorrow and forever-because of the political choices we are willing to
make today" (Bucks County Planning Commission, 2002). As seen through
out this text, a watershed in hydrologic equilibrium should be the goal for
sustainability of water resources and for the health, safety, and welfare of
humans in general. Lives depend upon it, thus water resource sustainability
is paramount for the survival of human beings. Sustainability can be achieved
through "good science and smart planning" (Schaffhausen, 2002).

....

4 INTRODUCTION: COMPREHENSIVE WATERSHED ASSESSMENT AND MANAGEMENT 1.3 COMI

1.2 WATERSHED ASSESSMENT AND MANAGEMENT

Each watershed has a unique personality that needs to be explored to develop

a truly personalized management plan. For instance, the Rio Santa Catarina
watershed evaluated in Nueva Leon, near Monterrey, Mexico, has an elevation
relief from 3,100 to 1,420 meters or 1,680 vertical meters within 6,500 meters
horizontal, for an average slope of twenty-five (25) percent and hard desert
soils with very little infiltration capability. The result: flash flooding with loss
of life during Gulf Coast storm events. The urban Darby Creek watershed
near Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, suffered flash flooding, reduced base flow,
and water quality problems due to urbanization and the increase in impervious
area. In contrast, the Wysox Creek watershed in rural Bradford County, Penn
sylvania, had stream bank erosion and agricultural nonpoint source pollution
problems due to stream banks comprised of unconsolidated glacial deposits
and mismanaged cattle grazing. The Solomon Creek in Wilkes-Barre, Penn
sylvania, watershed had a severe acid mine drainage (AMD) problem due to
past mining activities. As a recommendation of the assessment, funds were
procured to design and install an AMD treatment facility. The analogy of a
doctor seeing a patient for the first time can be used, whereby the doctor first
evaluates the individual's entire body before concentrating on the symptoms
and then recommending a remedy, as shown in Figure 1.4. Figure 1.4 A watershed assessme
A watershed is like an interdisciplinary puzzle; that is, the watershed as of the watershed, determining what
sessment collects the biological, physiographic, hydrologic, hydraulic, polit prove its health.
ical and social pieces of the puzzle and the management plan puts all the
pieces of the puzzle together. The puzzle can fall apart, however, unless it is
laminated and preserved in a frame for long-term enjoyment, hence the im
plementation phase. Perhaps the most important phase of a project is the upstream, a concept we know
implementation phase, thus it must be in the preparer's mind throughout the studies being performed at sep:
project, for if the plan cannot be implemented, it will become a typical report tants. It is good to see that FEN
collecting dust on the shelf. The best watershed management plans are those on a watershed basis. Studies pel
whose covers are the most worn. in data collection, monitoring, r
tual permitting. Managing on a \
municipalities within a watershe
1.3 COMPREHENSIVE WATERSHED MANAGEMENT CONCEPTS portion of the watershed may af
The watershed approach is l
Why manage our land and water resources on a watershed-wide basis? Be management that focuses on pul
cause watersheds are formed by natural land masses and water flows into a highest-priority problems within
common waterbody. In other words, watersheds are defined by natural hy ing into consideration both grou
drology. Streams and rivers do not follow political boundaries, and the flow Watershed management can t
of water, pollution, problems, etc. does not stop at political boundaries. In proach and the reactive approaf
addition, managing the whole is better than managing or correcting the sum quality problems, and stream bal
of its parts. creates a problem, then people I
The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) used to conduct build in the floodplain, then bui
Flood Insurance on a municipality-by-municipality basis. Unobstructed 100 greater than the levee capacity
year flood flows were reported less in downstream communities than those cleanup and to make the levees
SSESSMENT AND MANAGEMENT 1.3 COMPREHENSIVE WATERSHED MANAGEMENT CONCEPTS 5

II1ANAGEMENT

It needs to be explored to develop

instance, the Rio Santa Catarina
~nterrey, Mexico, has an elevation
ertical meters within 6,500 meters
five (25) percent and hard desert
'he result: flash flooding with loss
Ie urban Darby Creek watershed
lash flooding, reduced base flow,
ion and the increase in impervious
d in rural Bradford County, Penn
;ultural nonpoint source pollution
f unconsolidated glacial deposits
,on Creek in Wilkes-Barre, Penn
drainage (AMD) problem due to
m of the assessment, funds were
atment facility. The analogy of a
be used, whereby the doctor first
e concentrating on the symptoms
n in Figure 104. Figure 1.4 A watershed assessment involves closely examining the physical features
puzzle; that is, the watershed as of the watershed, determining what ails it, and prescribing a prescription plan to im
)hic, hydrologic, hydraulic, polit prove its health.
Ie management plan puts all the
ill fall apart, however, unless it is
g-term enjoyment, hence the im
)ortant phase of a project is the upstream, a concept we know not to be practical. This was caused by the
Ie preparer's mind throughout the studies being performed at separate points in time and by different consul
ed, it will become a typical report tants. It is good to see that FEMA is now conducting flood insurance studies
shed management plans are those on a watershed basis. Studies performed on a watershed basis allow efficiency
in data collection, monitoring, report writing, grant appropriation, and even
tual permitting. Managing on a watershed basis provides consistency amongst
municipalities within a watershed and takes into account how changes in one
ANAGEMENT CONCEPTS portion of the watershed may affect it in another area.
The watershed approach is a coordinating framework for environmental
, on a watershed-wide basis? Be management that focuses on public- and private-sector efforts to address the
Id masses and water flows into a highest-priority problems within hydrologically defined geographic areas, tak
sheds are defined by natural hy ing into consideration both ground and surface water.
political boundaries, and the flow Watershed management can be undertaken in two ways: the proactive ap
~t stop at political boundaries. In proach and the reactive approach. Humans typically react to floods, water
I managing or correcting the sum quality problems, and stream bank erosion. Once an event or series of events
creates a problem, then people react to fix the problem they created. People
.gency (FEMA) used to conduct build in the floodplain, then build levees to protect their buildings. A flood
icipality basis. Unobstructed 100 greater than the levee capacity occurs, and the government pays for the
vnstream communities than those cleanup and to make the levees higher. However, as we are slowly learning,

6 INTRODUCTION: COMPREHENSIVE WATERSHED ASSESSMENT AND MANAGEMENT 1.3

taking a proactive approach-performing a watershed assessment and putting cal, socioeconomic, and p
a watershed management plan in place to strive to maintain the natural hy ern Pennsylvania may co
drologic regime-prevents flooding, maintains groundwater quantity and charging stormwater. The
quality, maintains stream flow and quality, prevents stream bank erosion, pre when developing a comp]
serves environmentally sensitive areas, and so on. not exhaustive; other item
Natural, undisturbed watersheds are in geologic equilibrium. As human istics, issues, and goals wi
kind alters the land surface, the landform, hydrologic budget, and stream
processes are ultimately affected. Improper use of our natural resources causes
a number of problems, including flooding, erosion and sedimentation, stream Stormwater management
bank erosion, water quality problems, and reduction of groundwater and base Stormwater-related problen
flow augmentation. The goal of any watershed management plan should there Floodplain management
fore be to maintain the hydrologic budget. In order to properly manage a Flood control
watershed, the comprehensive picture or holistic approach must be followed. Hydrologic regime
Wellhead protection areas
This book summarizes the physical features that must be analyzed in order
to accomplish true comprehensive stormwater management. Sinkholes
Regional facilities
Ensuring sustainable water resources requires comprehensive management
of the many facets of water, including water supply (i.e., groundwater and Wildlife habitat managemer
surface water), stormwater management, flood control, nonpoint pollution Wetlands preservation
Invasive species
control, and wastewater treatment and reuse. Water resources management
FI uvial geomorphology asse
begins with understanding the various sources, paths and uses of surface and
Natural channel restoration
groundwater, stormwater, floodwaters, recreational waters, drinking water, ir
Stream bank erosion protect
rigation water, and so on. Generally, surface water includes rivers, streams,
reservoirs, lakes, and ponds. Groundwater can be classified as shallow and Erosion/ sedimentation proM
Sustainable development
deep. Water uses include municipal, industrial, and commercial uses, and
Conservation planning
residential wells and springs. Human water uses include irrigation, manufac
Public health, safety, and we
turing, recreation, and consumption. An adequate supply of clean water is
Infill/ redevelopment
essential for maintaining the quality and health of natural ecosystems such as
fisheries, forests, wetlands, and aquatic habitats. Urbanization
Water resources management is a broad and wide-ranging effort that en
compasses activities such as identifying and delineating source water protec The items in this list, whic
tion areas, minimizing discharges, and managing stormwater. Zoning and land sifications in the following s'
use regulations and growth management techniques are effective mechanisms the watershed plan. Determil
for directing development to areas that can best support it. Using a watershed tershed management plan is
based approach further ensures that down gradient areas are not adversely assessment and plan. Geogn
impacted. tool to aid in developing a Ct
In order to develop a comprehensive watershed management plan, a num
ber of steps must be followed. Most important, a comprehensive analysis of
all of the physical features of the watershed should be conducted. These 1,3.1 Stormwater Managl
features include geology, soils, topography or slopes, stream channel sections,
floodplains, and wetlands. In addition to the physical feature parameters, so As development occurs in a
cioeconomic and political parameters should also be considered. Once these decreases while the runoff ,
physical feature, socioeconomic, and political parameters are analyzed, first creases the peak and volume
individually, then as a connected whole, the goals and objectives of each is a major component of thl
individual watershed management plan can be developed. For instance, in major impact on the hydrolog
southeastern Pennsylvania, long-term groundwater supply is a crucial physi of the watershed. Therefore,
SSESSMENT AND MANAGEMENT
watershed assessment and putting
strive to maintain the natural hy
Itains groundwater quantity and
lrevents stream bank erosion, pre
so on.
~eologic equilibrium. As human
, hydrologic budget, and stream
lse of our natural resources causes
~rosion and sedimentation, stream
~duction of groundwater and base
~d management plan should there
. In order to properly manage a
listic approach must be followed.
s that must be analyzed in order
:er management.
Jires comprehensive management
:er supply (i.e., groundwater and
lood control, nonpoint pollution
;e. Water resources management
es, paths and uses of surface and
ational waters, drinking water, ir
:e water includes rivers, streams,
can be classified as shallow and
~trial, and commercial uses, and
uses include irrigation, manufac
[equate supply of clean water is
lIth of natural ecosystems such as
ltats.
and wide-ranging effort that en
I delineating source water protec
ging stormwater. Zoning and land
hniques are effective mechanisms
est support it. Using a watershed
gradient areas are not adversely
ershed management plan, a num
ant, a comprehensive analysis of
led should be conducted. These
r slopes, stream channel sections,
: physical feature parameters, so
j also be considered. Once these
:al parameters are analyzed, first
he goals and objectives of each
I be developed. For instance, in
dwater supply is a crucial physi
.
1.3 COMPREHENSIVE WATERSHED MANAGEMENT CONCEPTS 7
cal, socioeconomic, and political issue. Development of a plan for southeast
ern Pennsylvania may concentrate on replenishing the groundwater by re
charging stormwater. The following checklist itemizes factors to consider
when developing a comprehensive watershed management plan. The list is
not exhaustive; other items can be added to address the physical character
istics, issues, and goals within the study area.
Stormwater management Urban sprawl
Stormwater-related problems Riparian buffers
Floodplain management Lumbering activities
Flood control Agriculture activities
Hydrologic regime Bridge capacities/obstructions
Wellhead protection areas Existing flood control facilities
Sinkholes Agricultural concerns
Regional facilities Citizen concerns
Wildlife habitat management Water quality
Wetlands preservation Nonpoint source pollution
Invasive species Total maximum daily loads (TMDLs)
Fluvial geomorphology assessment Geology
Natural channel restoration Limestone
Stream bank erosion protection Water supply areas
Erosion/ sedimentation problems Base flow augmentation
Sustainable development Steep slopes
Conservation planning Gravel bars
Public health, safety, and welfare Cost/benefits
Infill/ redevelopment Other
Urbanization
The items in this list, which have been incorporated into seven major clas
sifications in the following sections, may dictate the goals and objectives of
the watershed plan. Determining the primary goals and objectives of a wa
tershed management plan is one of the first steps in developing a watershed
assessment and plan. Geographic Information Systems (GIS) is an efficient
tool to aid in developing a comprehensive watershed management plan.
1.3.1 Stormwater Management: Maintain the Hydrologic Regime
As development occurs in a watershed, the amount of infiltration/recharge
decreases while the runoff generated from increased impervious areas in
creases the peak and volume of stormwater runoff. Since stormwater runoff
is a major component of the hydrologic cycle, increasing the runoff has a
major impact on the hydrology, biology, chemistry, and other physical features
of the watershed. Therefore, the stormwater management plan must be an
I
8 INTRODUCTION: COMPREHENSIVE WATERSHED ASSESSMENT AND MANAGEMENT 1.3 CO

integral part of any watershed management plan. Developing one is complex pollutant loads and target pri4
and involves detailed hydrologic modeling and development of standards and was used to compute nonpoin
criteria for new development, as will be discussed in Chapters 12, 18, and utilizing the unit aerialloadinl
19. Project (NURP) and local are
The ultimate stormwater management scenario to achieve zero runoff subwatersheds contributing th
would be to maintain the existing hydrologic regime, recharging that which ditions could then be displa)
originally infiltrated to maintain both the existing peak and volume. Although management areas or require
in the majority of the situations this may not be practically feasible, keeping grids to determine pollutant I,
this goal in mind will aid in the prevention of stormwater problems. Another (EMCs) by the expected run
goal of comprehensive stormwater management should be to coordinate 1998). Water quality model~
stormwater management, erosion and sedimentation control, and water quality (Quenzer and Maidment, 19
control for best management practices (BMPs). (EPA) total maximum daily 10
303(d) of the Clean Water Ac
quality problems and contribl
1.3.2 Groundwater Recharge
nated with any watershed mm
As mentioned in the introduction, if base flow augmentation is a priority, the
plan should encourage groundwater recharge by providing relevant standards
and criteria. This could include such measures as infiltration and recharge 1.3.4 Flood Control
structures, porous pavement, and impervious surface reduction. However, cau
The objective of most waters
tion should be exercised in limestone areas so as not to create sinkholes or
local drainage level or on a re~
provide a direct conduit to groundwater reserves.
on a local and regional level
Maintaining groundwater quality is another factor that must be considered
potential development in a flo
when developing a plan. Evaluating the pollution vulnerability of specific sites
be major damage in a floodpla
would be imperative in proposing recharge structures. GIS can be utilized in
plan should manage that stOJ
a number of applications, including development of pollution vulnerability
flooding problems. In typical
mapping from physical feature overlays (Reese and DeBarry, 1994). The fea
criteria for stormwater detenti<
tures that would affect the vulnerability of groundwater to potential contam
that is, the 50- and 100-year
ination-geology (fractures, limestone, etc.), soils (permeability), land slope,
flood damage is not a problem
and streams (inflow or outflow)-can be overlaid to determine pollution vul
emphasis should be on prever
nerability. A pollution vulnerability map can be utilized not only to aid in
concentrate on the smaller de
evaluating the pollution potential of recharge structures but also for new well
storms-than to detain the 10l
siting, developing emergency spill response plans, and transportation planning
complished by placing tighter
(by overlaying major commercial highways).
even preventing development
Another facet that should be considered in development of watershed
ment facilities should also be
stormwater management plans in critical water supply areas are individual
of the watershed.
well recharge areas or zones of influence. These land areas could be mapped
into the GIS from MODFLOW or related groundwater programs, and specific
recharge evaluation criteria developed for these areas.
1.3.5 Stream Bank Erosion
In one particular study, throug
1.3.3 Surface Water Quality
that a stream was causing pr
Maintaining or improving water quality should always be a goal of any storm stream banks. Studies have she
watershed management plan because of long-term implications. With an in velocities in the stream reach
creased emphasis on managing the quality of stormwater runoff and 1994). This velocity has been j
controlling nonpoint source pollution through the use of BMPs, the use of full flow or the one- and one
GIS can again provide watershed managers with a significant tool to analyze flows in the stream from ever n
SSESSMENT AND MANAGEMENT
plan. Developing one is complex
and development of standards and
iscussed in Chapters 12, 18, and
scenario to achieve zero runoff
~ic regime, recharging that which
isting peak and volume. Although
ot be practically feasible, keeping
of stormwater problems. Another
gement should be to coordinate
entation control, and water quality
[Ps).
ow augmentation is a priority, the
~e by providing relevant standards
sures as infiltration and recharge
s surface reduction. However, cau
s so as not to create sinkholes or
;erves.
ler factor that must be considered
ution vulnerability of specific sites
structures. GIS can be utilized in
Jpment of pollution vulnerability
:ese and DeBarry, 1994). The fea
groundwater to potential contam
), soils (permeability), land slope,
rerlaid to determine pollution vul
an be utilized not only to aid in
~e structures but also for new well
plans, and transportation planning
;).
:d in development of watershed
.vater supply areas are individual
ihese land areas could be mapped
roundwater programs, and specific
hese areas.
uld always be a goal of any storm
ng-term implications. With an in
ality of stormwater runoff and
llgh the use of BMPs, the use of
: with a significant tool to analyze
...
1.3 COMPREHENSIVE WATERSHED MANAGEMENT CONCEPTS 9
pollutant loads and target priority management areas. As early as 1991, GIS
was used to compute nonpoint source pollution loads on a subwatershed basis
utilizing the unit aerial loading approach based upon National Urban Research
Project (NURP) and local area land uselloading data (DeBarry, 1991). Those
subwatersheds contributing the most pollution for existing and proposed con
ditions could then be displayed graphically in the GIS to develop priority
management areas or require BMPs in those areas. A similar approach using
grids to determine pollutant loads by multiplying event mean concentrations
(EMCs) by the expected runoff also utilizes GIS (Quenzer and Maidment,
1998). Water quality models have also been programmed into ArcView
(Quenzer and Maidment, 1998). The Environmental Protection Agency's
(EPA) total maximum daily load (TMDL) program, established under Section
303(d) of the Clean Water Act, is a written, quantitative assessment of water
quality problems and contributing pollutant sources, and should be coordi
nated with any watershed management plan.
1.3.4 Flood Control
The objective of most watershed plans is to prevent flooding, whether at a
local drainage level or on a regional stream level. The past history of flooding
on a local and regional level should be determined, and the existing and
potential development in a floodplain should be identified. Where there will
be major damage in a floodplain during a specific flooding event, a watershed
plan should manage that storm to reduce or prevent further exacerbating
flooding problems. In typical floodplains, this may include placing design
criteria for stormwater detention on new development for the larger storms
that is, the 50- and 100-year-as well as the smaller storms. However, where
flood damage is not a problem due to lack of development in floodplains, the
emphasis should be on prevention. In this case, it may be more prudent to
concentrate on the smaller design storms-that is, the 2-, 5-, and lO-year
storms-than to detain the 100-year storm. This objective can be further ac
complished by placing tighter restrictions on developing in the floodplains,
even preventing development in floodplains. Regional stormwater manage
ment facilities should also be considered to maintain the hydrologic regime
of the watershed.
1.3.5 Stream Bank Erosion
In one particular study, through input from concerned citizens, it was found
that a stream was causing property damage because it had very erodible
stream banks. Studies have shown that stream banks begin to erode when the
velocities in the stream reach the "critical velocity" (DeBarry and Stolinas,
1994). This velocity has been found to correspond to approximately the bank
full flow or the one- and one-half-year storm. Theoretically, preventing the
flows in the stream from ever reaching this threshold would prevent the stream
10 INTRODUCTION: COMPREHENSIVE WATERSHED ASSESSMENT AND MANAGEMENT
1.4 POL

banks from eroding. Naturally, this is impossible to achieve, but if the wa

management can be accomplis
tershed management plan incorporates reducing the peak flows from devel
ture. However, as will be expl<
opment to these smaller (l.S-year) storms through the use of a subregional
are not separated by political
detention facility, for instance, the frequency of stream bank erosion would
tegrated and are divided by dl
be reduced. Detention of the larger storms would typically be in the over
are interconnected. A watershe,
bank areas and would not significantly contribute to the erosion in the stream.
fore, for a sustainable future I
However, in implementing such a scheme, care should be taken to ensure that
a watershed basis, which inciu
one is not increasing the duration of flows above the critical value for the
face and groundwater systems
larger storms.
Source pollution, wetlands and
and streams, and physical, bioi
1.3.6 Conservation Planning (Nonstructural Stormwater Physical characteristics would
Management) Master Planning: Opportunity and Constraints mixing, and habitat. Biological
One of the most effective means of stormwater management is through open integrity of biotic communities
space conservation planning. By minimizing impervious areas and concen bient conditions as well as poll
trating development in those areas most suitable for development, runoff can Water resources are increasi
be minimized. instead of only at the political I
Large- or small-scale master planning can be developed utilizing the GIS. ical boundaries, land use reguh
By identifying areas that are suitable for development and, conversely, those ensure that upstream land and .
areas that are most sensitive, a development approach that best conserves the or adversely impact water quali
environment can be undertaken. Mapping development constraints (wetlands, Regulations also tend to foll<
floodplains, steep slopes, historic structures, critical habitat, sinkholes, individual regulations relating t<
erodible soils, etc.), and then overlaying each of these within the GIS, will ment, erosion and sediment pol
conversely display those areas most suitable for development. By preserving point source discharges, ground'
the conservation areas and developing only in those areas most suitable for As we will see, water is water
development, the "cluster" method of development occurs. Thus, many ob cycle. So why, then, are differer
jectives for sound stormwater management can be achieved, such as flood ently? Our lack of integrated \',
plain preservation, impervious surface reduction, determining the best location state regulations that require wa
for stormwater management measures, and preservation of natural drainage mum of 100 feet from existinGb
patterns. at least 100 feet from waste wat,
could be drilled right next to a
1.3.7 Habitat Identification / Preservation seen ch~nnelization or levee pro
so drastIcally altered the flow re!
Habitat preservation should be a prime concern in any watershed management capability to support a viable aql
program. Identifying stream buffers, wetlands, and even prime trout habitat Water resources management
through geomorphologic techniques should be performed. The use of GIS can and local officials, and involves
aid in this evaluation. Once identified through the process outlined in the operation, and maintenance. This
previous section on conservation planning, the preservation/management of ficials, program development, fin
each area can be accomplished. As can be seen by this example, this process workable criteria and adoption oj
should be coordinated with the conservation planning and stream bank erosion agement plan should be to enab
strategies mentioned previously. watershed, while using both struCi
manage water resources.
Regulations in the past have te
1.4 POLITICAL VERSUS NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
observed problem such as water Pi
now that we better understand tl
Management of our land and water resources in the past has been based
integration between them, future,
mostly on areas defined by political boundaries, and proper water resource
be proactive, putting into place mt
SSESSMENT AND MANAGEMENT
_sible to achieve, but if the wa
;ing the peak flows from devel
lrough the use of a subregional
V of stream bank erosion would
would typically be in the over
bute to the erosion in the stream.
re should be taken to ensure that
above the critical value for the
ural Stormwater
lity and Constraints
ter management is through open
5 impervious areas and concen
Ible for development, runoff can
I be developed utilizing the GIS.
lelopment and, conversely, those
approach that best conserves the
velopment constraints (wetlands,
res, critical habitat. sinkholes,
:h of these within the GIS, will
for development. By preserving
in those areas most suitable for
opment occurs. Thus, many ob
can be achieved, such as f1ood
ion, determining the best location
preservation of natural drainage
1
rn in any watershed management
js, and even prime trout habitat
e performed. The use of GIS can
ugh the process outlined in the
the preservation/management of
~en by this example, this process
)lanning and stream bank erosion
OURCE MANAGEMENT
ces in the past has been based
lries. and proper water resource
1.4 POLITICAL VERSUS NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT 11
management can be accomplished only by evaluating the comprehensive pic
ture. However, as will be explained in this text, our land and water resources
are not separated by political boundaries. Land and water resources are in
tegrated and are divided by drainage areas, and ground- and surface waters
are interconnected. A watershed is a natural resource management unit; there
fore, for a sustainable future, land and water resources must be managed on
a watershed basis, which includes an understanding and coordination of sur
face and groundwater systems, reservoirs and aquifers, point and nonpoint
source pollution, wetlands and uplands, wastewater and drinking water, lakes
and streams, and physical, biological, and chemical characteristics of water.
Physical characteristics would include parameters such as temperature, flow,
mixing, and habitat. Biological characteristics would include the health and
integrity of biotic communities; chemical characteristics would include am
bient conditions as well as pollutants.
Water resources are increasingly being addressed at the watershed level
instead of only at the political boundary level. When watersheds cross polit
ical boundaries, land use regulations need to be consistent across borders to
ensure that upstream land and water uses in one jurisdiction do not conflict
or adversely impact water quality and quantity in downstream jurisdictions.
Regulations also tend to follow various disciplines. For instance, there are
individual regulations relating to water for flood control, stormwater manage
ment, erosion and sediment pollution control, point source discharges, non
point source discharges, groundwater withdrawal, and drinking water supply.
As we will see, water is water; it is all connected through the hydrologic
cycle. So why, then, are different aspects of water resources regulated differ
ently? Our lack of integrated water resources management is illustrated by
state regulations that require waste water disposal drain fields to be a mini
mum of 100 feet from existing wells, but don't require that wells be drilled
at least 100 feet from waste water disposal drain fields. Theoretically, a well
could be drilled right next to a drain field. Likewise, in the past, we have
seen channelization or levee projects constructed for flood control that have
so drastically altered the flow regime that they totally undermine the stream's
capability to support a viable aquatic habitat, and biota was lost.
Water resources management requires cooperation between state, county,
and local officials, and involves proper planning, engineering, construction,
operation, and maintenance. This involves educating the public and local of
ficials, program development, financing, revising policy, and development of
workable criteria and adoption of ordinances. The goal of a watershed man
agement plan should be to enable future development to occur within the
watershed. while using both structural and nonstructural measures to properly
manage water resources.
Regulations in the past have tended to be reactive. those passed due to an
observed problem such as water pollution or flooding. In the future, hopefully,
now that we better understand the sciences relating to watersheds and the
integration between them, future regulations and policy can be developed to
be proactive, putting into place measures to prevent problems from occurring.
12 INTRODUCTION: COMPREHENSIVE WATERSHED ASSESSMENT AND MANAGEMENT

One option for the protection of water resources is to incorporate the de s.ource pollution assessment h
velopment of a standardized "water resources protection plan" for each new tIoned in the legislative docurr
or increased land development or water withdrawal. Such a plan would in world examples encountered 1
corporate all the existing water-related requirements such as stormwater man water resource approach. Ide~
agement and floodplain management items, and it would include additional should be combined to allow fL
computations to balance land use with water budget. These plans would com and management plan impleme
prehensively describe specific performance requirements that, when imple do not have a water resource
mented, would strive to ensure that the land development proposal does not economic and scientific advalll
adversely affect water resources. resources management approac
By necessity, all policies, standards, and recommendations included in the ~he plan should be compre
watershed plan should be consistent with sound environmental planning and matIon that may be required in
engineering practices and applicable laws, regulations, policies, and proce legal, scientific, and municipal
dures in effect at the federal, regional, state, and municipal levels. Examples form. the basis for developmen
include best management practices for stormwater management, stream water conSIdered for adoption by eac
quality standards, riparian protection areas, and wetland buffer standards. ment and wellhead protection or
Although a comprehensive watershed approach had been utilized in a va Plan impleme?tation will req
riety of projects in early years, the Watershed Protection Approach (WPA) ?rams and applymg available re
Framework was not formalized until 1991 by the U.S. EPA to meet the na Implement the plan at the munil
tion's water quality goals. It is encouraging to note that things are changing. be to limit growth but to provi
Pennsylvania, for example, is drafting a new "comprehensive water manage water resources and to apply s
ment" policy and regulations that tie together many aspects of water issues recommendations of the plan fO!
to be regulated. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, which had been criticized EPA (1997) has developed a I
in the past for destruction of aquatic ecosystems, is now employing biologists sons Learned." In summary, the)
and fluvial geomorphologists and incorporating natural channel design and
water quality concerns into its projects. Societies are now opening their doors
The best plans have clear vi:
to other disciplines, forming new "institutes" for mUltidisciplinary interaction
through cosponsored conferences and workshops. For instance, the American Good leaders are committed
Society of Civil Engineers has formed the Environmental and Water Re HaVing a coordinator at the 1

sources Institute for just this reason. Environmental, economic, an

The Federal Clean Water Act's National Pollutant Discharge Elimination Plans only succeed if implerr
System (NPDES) regulations utilize the WPA, and many states are now re Partnerships equal power.
vising or developing new regulations to manage water resources on a
Good tools are available.
watershed-wide basis, as opposed to political boundaries. Some states are also
providing funding for watershed assessment and management plans. And, Measure, communicate, and ~
although plans are now being accomplished on a watershed basis, many pro Education and involvement dl
grams still artificially separate groundwater from surface water, wastewater Build on small successes.
from "clean water," nonpoint sources of pollution from point sources of pol
lution, water supply from stormwater runoff, even though "water resources"
is really one integrated, connected, continuous system. 1.5 SUMMARY
Funding and grant programs are also set up accordingly, whereas certain
grants, for instance, may have to address only nonpoint source pollution; and The watershed is the framework j
even though this pollution may be indirectly affecting a groundwater supply fr~m the microbe to the mouth of
by recharging within the wellhead delineation zone, funding from a drinking bemg wat~r, its lifeblood (Figure
water source program would not allow for the nonpoint source pollution as such as mIcroorganisms or soil par
sessment. Or a state storm water management fund would not allow a nonpoint affect other components in the wa
) ASSESSMENT AND MANAGEMENT
~
resources is to incorporate the de
rces protection plan" for each new
vithdrawal. Such a plan would in
uirements such as stormwater man
IS, and it would include additional
er budget. These plans would com
:e requirements that, when imple
nd development proposal does not
i recommendations included in the
sound environmental planning and
>, regulations, policies, and proce
te, and municipal levels. Examples
mwater management, stream water
" and wetland buffer standards.
pproach had been utilized in a va
rshed Protection Approach (WPA)
by the U.S. EPA to meet the na
g to note that things are changing.
~w "comprehensive water manage
~ther many aspects of water issues
ngineers, which had been criticized
stems, is now employing biologists
,rating natural channel design and
cieties are now opening their doors
~s" for multidisciplinary interaction
kshops. For instance, the American
he Environmental and Water Re
al Pollutant Discharge Elimination
IIPA, and many states are now re
o manage water resources on a
:al boundaries. Some states are also
lent and management plans. And,
~d on a watershed basis, many pro
er from surface water, wastewater
'ollution from point sources of pol
lff, even though "water resources"
1l0US system.
et up accordingly, whereas certain
mly nonpoint source pollution; and
tly affecting a groundwater supply
tion zone, funding from a drinking
r the nonpoint source pollution as
nt fund would not allow a nonpoint
1.5 SUMMARY 13
source pollution assessment because water quality was not specifically men
tioned in the legislative document providing the funding. These are two real
world examples encountered when applying for funds for a comprehensive
water resource approach. Ideally, state and federal funds relating to water
should be combined to allow funding of comprehensive watershed assessment
and management plan implementation. Legislatures, whose members typically
do not have a water resources background, should be educated as to the
economic and scientific advantages of performing the comprehensive water
resources management approach.
The plan should be comprehensive, with the intent to present all infor
mation that may be required in order to implement the plan. It should cover
legal, scientific, and municipal government topics, which, when combined,
form the basis for development of model ordinance language that will be
considered for adoption by each municipality. Sample stormwater manage
ment and wellhead protection ordinances should be incorporated into the plan.
Plan implementation will require working within existing regulatory pro
grams and applying available regulatory, planning, and management tools to
implement the plan at the municipal level. The intent of the plan should not
be to limit growth but to provide a scientific approach for analysis of the
water resources and to apply sound planning principles to implement the
recommendations of the plan for the benefit of future generations.
EPA (1997) has developed a publication entitled "Top 10 Watershed Les
sons Learned." In summary, they are:
The best plans have clear visions, goals, and action items.
Good leaders are committed and empower others.
Having a coordinator at the watershed level is desirable.
Environmental, economic, and social values are compatible.
Plans only succeed if implemented.
Partnerships equal power.
Good tools are available.
Measure, communicate, and account for progress.
Education and involvement drive action.
Build on small successes.
1.5 SUMMARY
The watershed is the framework from which the web of life is structured,
from the microbe to the mouth of the watershed, with the common element
being water, its lifeblood (Figure 1.5). Affecting even a small component,
such as microorganisms or soil particles, causes a chain of events that could
affect other components in the watershed. This text therefore reviews even
14 INTRODUCTION: COMPREHENSIVE WATERSHED ASSESSMENT AND MANAGEMENT

concerns, whether it is stormwatl

ter quality control, or conservati
in more detail in the following c
The watershed should be divic
similar biological, chemical, hyd
and political and regulatory char:
tern, physiographic provinces ani
oping these districts. GIS provi
\.
planning and management. This
" in this chapter and will discuss
comprehensive watershed managf

\, , ),:... i: ....:.< .... REFERENCES

\ \/' . L.. ..... /
Bucks County Planning Commission.
County, PA, August 2002.
\\
DeBarry, Paul A., and Raymond 1. Stc
A Citizen/Consultant Approach 1
through Act l67," Storm Water Ru
PA: Penn State University), 1994.
". r Cl.' DeBarry, Paul A. "Comprehensive St<
, ...., ... [ . Proceedings from the Pennsylvani:
nova University, Villanova, PA, 19S
- - . "GIS Applications in Storm ,
Jution," Proceedings of the ASCE ~
Nashville, TN, 1991.
Figure 1.5 The watershed is the framework from which the web of life is supported. Quenzer, Ann M., and David R. Maidr
t~e Corpus Christi Bay System." PI
gmeering '98 Conference, Volume
Pezeshk & Chester c: Watson, ASC
the smallest component of the watershed, and the reader should keep in mind
Reese, Geoffery, and Paul A. DeBarry. '
when reading those sections how these relate to the processes in one. The
Proceedings of the ASCE National
text concerns things as small as soil particles to things as large as the Mis 1993.
sissippi River watershed.
Schaffhausen, Eric. Direct quote from Ci
Except in rare instances, for instance where a water company owns all the 2001.
watershed land to their reservoir, a watershed cannot be managed by a single
entity. However, one can manage the various parts that comprise the water
shed: land use, lakes, stream banks, water withdrawals, and so on. Of these,
land use change has the greatest impact on the watershed.
In order to develop a truly comprehensive watershed management plan, all
facets of the watershed, including physical features and socioeconomic and
political factors, must be considered. All of these factors should be analyzed
individually and then combined to detennine goals and objectives unique to
the particular watershed being studied. This will allow watershed managers
to better and more efficiently manage watersheds to address their particular

"

 ..

, ASSESSMENT AND MANAGEMENT REFERENCES 15

concerns, whether it is stonnwater management, floodplain management, wa

ter quality control, or conservation planning. Each factor will be mentioned

,:::::::::::::;\" in more detail in the following chapters.

The watershed should be divided into "management districts" based upon

~.\ /, /\/"~\ntt' similar biological, chemical, hydrologic, hydraulic, land use, geologic, soils,
";' .' '\\ ,',. .
'
\'?
-...
and political and regulatory characteristics. Therefore, evaluating the ecosys
~.~
'

\ /'
... ,

,,'.,
\ ~ :,"
".
tem, physiographic provinces and other classification systems aids in devel
oping these districts. GIS provides an efficient tool to aid in watershed
( \ planning and management. This book will expand upon the items described
\ \ \ " \.
\ ''\ \. \, \ in this chapter and will discuss in detail the requirements for a successful,
'\\'" \\ \\"
~\ ;il::;'~!!!i!> '\"
\-...~' comprehensive watershed management plan.
~+ :t"
i' '/'
. ./
\>

REFERENCES

m which the web of life is supported.
ld the reader should keep in mind
ate to the processes in one. The
es to things as large as the Mis
~re a water company owns all the
~d cannot be managed by a single
us parts that comprise the water
Nithdrawals, and so on. Of these,
the watershed.
Bucks County Planning Commission. "Pennridge Area Water Resources Plan," Bucks
County, PA, August 2002.
DeBarry, Paul A., and Raymond J. Stolinas Jr. "The Geography of a Rural Watershed:
A Citizen/Consultant Approach to Solving Accelerated Stream Bank Erosion
through Act 167," Storm Water Runoff and Quality Management (University Park,
PA: Penn State University), 1994.
DeBarry, Paul A. "Comprehensive Stormwater Management: Checklist for Success."
Proceedings from the Pennsylvania Stormwater Management Symposium, Villa
nova University, Villanova, PA, 1998.
- - - . "GIS Applications in Storm Water Management and Non-point Source Pol
lution," Proceedings of the ASCE National Conference on Hydraulic Engineering,
Nashville, TN, 199 J.
Quenzer, Ann M., and David R. Maidment. "Constituent Loads and Water Quality in
the Corpus Christi Bay System." Proceedings of the ASCE Water Resources En
gineering '98 Conference, Volume I, Edited by Steven R. Abt, Jayne Young
Pezeshk & Chester C: Watson, ASCE, Memphis, TN, pp 790-795, 1998.
Reese, Geoffery, and Paul A. DeBarry. "The GIS Landscape for Wellhead Protection."
Proceedings of the ASCE National Hydraulics Conference, San Francisco, CA,
1993.
Schaffhausen, Eric. Direct quote from a conversation with the author, December 21 ",
2001.

~ watershed management plan, all

features and socioeconomic and

, these factors should be analyzed
Ie goals and objectives unique to
s will allow watershed managers
rsheds to address their particular ,

....