Applied behavior analysis

Applied behavior analysis (ABA) is a scientic disci- Behavior analysts also emphasize that the science of be-
pline concerned with analyzing the principles of learning havior must be a natural science as opposed to a social
theory and its aects on the environment, and system- science.[21] As such, behavior analysts focus on the ob-
atically applying this technology to change behavior of servable relationship of behavior to the environment, in-
social signicance.[1][2] It is the applied form of behav- cluding antecedents and consequences, without resort to
ior analysis; the other two forms are radical behaviorism hypothetical constructs.[22]
(or the philosophy of the science) and the experimental
analysis of behavior (or experimental research).[1]
The name applied behavior analysis has replaced 2 History
behavior modication because the latter approach sug-
gested attempting to change behavior without clarifying Further information: Behaviorism, Behavior modica-
the relevant behavior-environment interactions. In con- tion, B.F. Skinner, Ivar Lovaas, and Operant conditioning
trast, ABA tries to change behavior by rst assessing the
functional relationship between a targeted behavior and
the environment.[3] This approach often seeks to develop The beginnings of ABA can be traced to a group of
replacement behaviors which serve the same function as faculty and researchers at the University of Washing-
the aberrant behaviors.[3][4][5] ton[23] and University of Kansas,[24] including Donald
Baer, Sidney W. Bijou, Bill Hopkins, Jay Birnbrauer,
Methods in applied behavior analysis range from early Todd Risley, and Montrose Wolf. In the 1960s, Baer,
intensive behavioral interventions for children with an Hopkins, Risley, Birnbrauer, and Wolf joined the De-
autism spectrum disorder (ASD)[6] to research on the partment of Human Development and Family Life at the
principles inuencing criminal behavior. However, ABA University of Kansas,[24]:570 where they and their col-
has also been brought to bear on a wide range of areas leagues began to apply the principles of behavior anal-
and behavioral problems, exemplied by the following: ysis to a wide variety of human problems. In 1968, they
HIV prevention,[7] conservation of natural resources,[8] founded the Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis which
education,[9] gerontology,[10] health and exercise,[11] publishes research in behavior analysis to socially rele-
industrial safety,[12] language acquisition,[13] littering,[14] vant behavior, and B. F. Skinner was the president of the
medical procedures,[15] parenting,[16] psychotherapy, journal until his death in 1990.
seatbelt use,[17] severe mental disorders,[18] sports,[19]
substance abuse, phobias, pediatric feeding disorders, Notable graduate students [24]
from the University of Kansas
and zoo management and care of animals. [20] include Ivar Lovaas, who established the UCLA
Young Autism Project while teaching at the University
of California, Los Angeles, devoted nearly half a cen-
tury to groundbreaking research and practice aimed at
1 Denition improving the lives of children with autism and their fam-
ilies. He even co-founded what is today the Autism Soci-
ABA is an applied science devoted to developing ety of America.[25] In 1965, Lovaas published a series of
procedures which will produce observable changes articles that outlined his system for coding observed be-
in behavior.[1] It is to be distinguished from the haviors, described a pioneering investigation of the an-
experimental analysis of behavior, which focuses on ba- tecedents and consequences that maintained a problem
sic experimental research,[6] but it uses principles devel- behavior,[25] and built upon these methods to develop
oped by such research, in particular operant condition- an eective way to teach nonverbal children to speak.
ing, classical conditioning and social learning theory. Be- He also described how to use social (secondary) rein-
havior analysis adopts the viewpoint of radical behavior- forcers, teach children to imitate, and what interventions
ism, treating thoughts, emotions, and other covert cog- (including electric shocks) may be used to reduce aggres-
nitive activity as behavior that is subject to the same sion and life-threatening self-injury.[25] In 1973, Lovaas
rules as observable responses. This represents a shift published a long-term follow-up of his interventions and
away from methodological behaviorism, which restricts was dismayed to nd that most of the subjects had re-
behavior-change procedures to behaviors that are observ- verted to their pre-intervention behaviors. He and his col-
able, and was the conceptual underpinning of behavior leagues proposed several ways to improve outcomes, such
modication. as starting intervention during the childrens preschool

1
2 3
years instead of during late childhood or adolescence, in-
volving parents in the intervention, and implementing the
intervention in the familys home rather than an institu-
tional setting.
Over the years, behavior analysis gradually superseded
behavior modication"; that is, from simply trying to al-
ter problematic behavior, behavior analysts sought to un-
derstand the function of that behavior, what antecedents
promote and maintain it, and how it can be replaced by
successful behavior.[5] This analysis is based on careful
initial assessment of a behaviors function and a testing
of methods that produce changes in behavior.
Applied behavior analytic methods are also used in a
variety of other elds, such as applied animal behav-
ior, criminology, organizational behavior management,
positive behavior support,[26][27][28] and clinical behavior
analysis (including cognitive-behavior therapies).
3 Characteristics
Baer, Wolf, and Risleys 1968 article[29] is still used as
the standard description of ABA.[30] It lists the following
the seven characteristics of ABA.
Applied: ABA focuses on the social signicance of
the behavior studied. For example, a non-applied re-
searcher may study eating behavior because this re-
search helps to clarify metabolic processes, whereas
the applied researcher may study eating behavior in
individuals who eat too little or too much, trying to
change such behavior so that it is more acceptable
to the persons involved, to others, and to society as
a whole.
Behavioral: ABA is pragmatic; it asks how it is
possible to get an individual to do something eec-
3.1 Other proposed characteristics
tively. To answer this question, the behavior itself
In 2005, Heward et al. suggested that the following ve
must be objectively measured. Verbal descriptions
characteristics should be added:[32]
are treated as behavior in themselves, and not as sub-
stitutes for the behavior described.
Analytic: Behavior analysis is successful when the
analyst understands and can manipulate the events
that control a target behavior. This may be rela-
tively easy to do in the lab, where a researcher is
able to arrange the relevant events, but it is not al-
ways easy, or ethical, in an applied situation.[29] Baer
et al. outline two methods that may be used in ap-
plied settings to demonstrate control while maintain-
ing ethical standards. These are the reversal design
and the multiple baseline design. In the reversal de-
sign, the experimenter rst measures the behavior
of choice, introduces an intervention, and then mea-
sures the behavior again. Then, the intervention is
removed, or reduced, and the behavior is measured
yet again. The intervention is eective to the extent
CHARACTERISTICS
that the behavior changes and then changes back in
response to these manipulations. The multiple base-
line method may be used for behaviors that seem
irreversible. Here, several behaviors are measured
and then the intervention is applied to each in turn.
The eectiveness of the intervention is revealed by
changes in just the behavior to which the interven-
tion is being applied.
Technological: The description of analytic research
must be clear and detailed, so that any competent
researcher can repeat it accurately.[29] Cooper et al.
describe a good way to check this: Have a person
trained in applied behavior analysis read the descrip-
tion and then act out the procedure in detail. If the
person makes any mistakes or has to ask any ques-
tions then the description needs improvement.[31]
Conceptually Systematic: Behavior analysis
should not simply produce a list of eective
interventions. Rather, to the extent possible,
these methods should be grounded in behavioral
principles. This is aided by the use of theo-
retically meaningful terms, such as secondary
reinforcement or errorless discrimination where
appropriate.
Eective: Though analytic methods should be the-
oretically grounded, they must be eective. If an
intervention does not produce a large enough eect
for practical use, then the analysis has failed
General: Behavior analysts should aim for inter-
ventions that are generally applicable; the meth-
ods should work in dierent environments, apply
to more than one specic behavior, and have long-
lasting eects.
Accountable: To be accountable means that ABA
must be able to demonstrate that its methods are ef-
fective. This requires the repeatedly measuring the
success of interventions, and, if necessary, making
changes that improve their eectiveness.[33]
Public: The methods, results, and theoretical analy-
ses of ABA must be published and open to scrutiny.
There are no hidden treatments or mystical, meta-
physical explanations.
Doable: To be generally useful, interventions should
be available to a variety of individuals, who might be
teachers, parents, therapists, or even those who wish
to modify their own behavior. With proper planning
and training, many interventions can be applied by
almost anyone willing to invest the eort.[34]
4.2 Environment 3

Empowering: ABA provides tools that give the 4.1.2 Respondent (classical) conditioning
practitioner feedback on the results of interventions.
These allow clinicians to assess their skill level and Main article: Classical conditioning
build condence in their eectiveness.[35]

Optimistic: According to several leading authors, Respondent (classical) conditioning is based on innate
behavior analysts have cause to be optimistic that stimulus-response relationships called reexes. In his fa-
their eorts are socially worthwhile, for the follow- mous experiments with dogs, Pavlov usually used the sali-
ing reasons: vary reex, namely salivation (unconditioned response)
following the taste of food (unconditioned stimulus).
The behaviors impacted by behavior analysis Pairing a neutral stimulus, for example a bell (conditioned
are largely determined by learning and con- stimulus) with food caused the bell to elicit salivation
trolled by manipulable aspects of the environ- (conditioned response). Thus, in classical conditioning,
ment. the conditioned stimulus becomes a signal for a biolog-
Practitioners can improve performance by di- ically signicant consequence. Note that in respondent
rect and continuous measurements. conditioning, unlike operant conditioning, the response
does not produce a reinforcer or punisher (e.g. the dog
As a practitioner uses behavioral techniques does not get food because it salivates).
with positive outcomes, they become more
condent of future success.
The literature provides many examples of suc- 4.2 Environment
cess in teaching individuals considered previ-
ously unteachable. The environment is the entire constellation of stimuli in
which an organism exists.[39] This includes events both
inside and outside of an organism, but only real physical
events are included. A stimulus is an energy change that
4 Concepts aects an organism through its receptor cells.[39]
A stimulus can be described:
4.1 Behavior
Main article: Behavior Topographically by its physical features.
Temporally by when it occurs.
Behavior refers to the movement of some part of an or-
ganism that changes some aspect of the environment.[36] Functionally by its eect on behavior.
Often, the term behavior refers to a class of responses that
share physical dimensions or functions, and in that case a
4.3 Reinforcement
response is a single instance of that behavior.[37] If a group
of responses have the same function, this group may be
Main article: Reinforcement
called a response class. Repertoire refers to the various
responses available to an individual; the term may refer
to responses that are relevant to a particular situation, orReinforcement is the key element in operant
it may refer to everything a person can do. conditioning[40] and in most behavior change
programs.[41] It is the process by which behavior is
strengthened. If a behavior is followed closely in time
4.1.1 Operant conditioning by a stimulus and this results in an increase in the
future frequency of that behavior, then the stimulus is a
Main article: Operant conditioning positive reinforcer. If the removal of an event serves as
a reinforcer, this is termed negative reinforcement.[42]
Operant behavior is the so-called voluntary behavior There are multiple schedules of reinforcement that aect
that is sensitive to, or controlled by its consequences. the future probability of behavior.
Specically, operant conditioning refers to the three-
term contingency that uses stimulus control, in particular
an antecedent contingency called the discriminative stim- 4.4 Punishment
ulus (SD) that inuences the strengthening or weakening
of behavior through such consequences as reinforcement Main article: Punishment (psychology)
or punishment.[38] The term is used quite generally, from
reaching for a candy bar, to turning up the heat to es- Punishment is a process by which a consequence im-
cape an aversive chill, to studying for an exam to get good mediately follows a behavior which decreases the future
grades. frequency of that behavior. As with reinforcement, a
4 5
stimulus can be added (positive punishment) or removed
(negative punishment). Broadly, there are three types of
punishment: presentation of aversive stimuli (e.g., pain),
response cost (removal of desirable stimuli as in monetary
nes), and restriction of freedom (as in a 'time out').[43]
Punishment in practice can often result in unwanted side
eects.[44] Some other potential unwanted eects include
resentment over being punished, attempts to escape the
punishment, expression of pain and negative emotions as-
sociated with it, and recognition by the punished individ-
ual between the punishment and the person delivering it.
4.5 Extinction
Main article: Extinction (psychology)
Extinction is the technical term to describe the procedure disorders. Skinners system includes:
of withholding/discontinuing reinforcement of a previ-
ously reinforced behavior, resulting in the decrease of
that behavior.[45] The behavior is then set to be extin-
guished (Cooper et al.). Extinction procedures are often
preferred over punishment procedures, as many punish-
ment procedures are deemed unethical and in many states
prohibited. Nonetheless, extinction procedures must be
implemented with utmost care by professionals, as they
are generally associated with extinction bursts. An ex-
tinction burst is the temporary increase in the frequency,
intensity, and/or duration of the behavior targeted for
extinction.[46] Other characteristics of an extinction burst
include an extinction-produced aggressionthe occur-
rence of an emotional response to an extinction procedure
often manifested as aggression; and b) extinction-induced
response variabilitythe occurrence of novel behaviors
that did not typically occur prior to the extinction pro-
cedure. These novel behaviors are a core component of
shaping procedures.
4.6 Discriminated operant and three-term For assessment of verbal behavior from Skinners system
see Assessment of Basic Language and Learning Skills.
contingency
In addition to a relation being made between behavior
and its consequences, operant conditioning also estab-
lishes relations between antecedent conditions and be-
haviors. This diers from the SR formulations (If-A-
then-B), and replaces it with an AB-because-of-C formu-
lation. In other words, the relation between a behavior
(B) and its context (A) is because of consequences (C),
more specically, this relationship between AB because
of C indicates that the relationship is established by prior
consequences that have occurred in similar contexts.[47]
This antecedentbehaviorconsequence contingency is
termed the three-term contingency. A behavior which
occurs more frequently in the presence of an antecedent
condition than in its absence is called a discriminated op-
erant. The antecedent stimulus is called a discriminative
stimulus (SD ). The fact that the discriminated operant
MEASURING BEHAVIOR
occurs only in the presence of the discriminative stimu-
lus is an illustration of stimulus control.[48] More recently
behavior analysts have been focusing on conditions that
occur prior to the circumstances for the current behav-
ior of concern that increased the likelihood of the be-
havior occurring or not occurring. These conditions have
been referred to variously as Setting Event, Establish-
ing Operations, and Motivating Operations by various
researchers in their publications.
4.7 Verbal behavior
Main article: Verbal Behavior
B.F. Skinners classication system of behavior analysis
has been applied to treatment of a host of communication
[49]
Tact (psychology) a verbal response evoked by a
non-verbal antecedent and maintained by general-
ized conditioned reinforcement.
Mand (psychology) behavior under control of mo-
tivating operations maintained by a characteristic re-
inforcer.
Intraverbals verbal behavior for which the rele-
vant antecedent stimulus was other verbal behavior,
but which does not share the response topography
of that prior verbal stimulus (e.g., responding to an-
other speakers question).
Autoclitic secondary verbal behavior which alters
the eect of primary verbal behavior on the lis-
tener. Examples involve quantication, grammar,
and qualifying statements (e.g., the dierential ef-
fects of I think... vs. I know...)
5 Measuring behavior
When measuring behavior, there are both dimensions of
behavior and quantiable measures of behavior. In ap-
plied behavior analysis, the quantiable measures are a
derivative of the dimensions. These dimensions are re-
peatability, temporal extent, and temporal locus.[50]
5.1 Repeatability
Response classes occur repeatedly throughout timei.e.,
how many times the behavior occurs.
Count is the number of occurrences in behavior.
 5

Rate/frequency is the number of instances of be-
havior per unit of time.
Celeration is the measure of how the rate changes
over time.
Manipulations of the independent variable so that its
eects on the dependent variable may be quantita-
tively or qualitatively analyzed
An intervention that will benet the participant in
some way[52]

5.2 Temporal extent

This dimension indicates that each instance of behavior
7 Functional analysis (psychology)
occupies some amount of timei.e., how long the behav-
ior occurs. Main article: Functional analysis (psychology)

Duration is the amount of time in which the behav-

ior occurs.
7.1 History of functional analysis

5.3 Temporal locus
Each instance of behavior occurs at a specic point in
timei.e., when the behavior occurs.
Response latency is the measure of elapsed time
between the onset of a stimulus and the initiation of
the response.
Interresponse time is the amount of time that oc-
curs between two consecutive instances of a re-
sponse class.
5.4 Derivative measures
Derivative measures are unrelated to specic dimensions:
Percentage is the ratio formed by combining the
same dimensional quantities.
Trials-to-criterion are the number of response op-
portunities needed to achieve a predetermined level
of performance.
6 Analyzing behavior change
6.1 Experimental control
In applied behavior analysis, all experiments should in- groundwork for a functional analysis of aberrant behav-
clude the following:[51]
At least one participant
At least one behavior (dependent variable)
At least one setting
A system for measuring the behavior and ongoing derlying psychological condition, and (5) psychodynamic
visual analysis of data
At least one treatment or intervention condition
Prior to the seminal article on functional analytic method-
ology for aberrant behaviors, behaviorists used the be-
havioral technology available to them at the time. Instead
of treating the function of the disruptive behavior, be-
havioral psychologists would instead pre-assume conse-
quences to alter disruptive behaviors. For example, in the
past to decrease self-injurious behavior in an individual,
behaviorists may have delivered an aversive stimulus con-
tingent on the response, or assume a reinforcer without
identifying the reinforcer that would be most motivating
to the client (Iwata, 1988). This type of intervention was
successful to the individual, but it was not uncommon to
see other variations of aberrant behavior begin to appear.
When applied behavior analysts let clients choose from a
wide array of reinforcers (often determined through data
collection and reinforcement assessments) in the mid-
1980s, reinforcement was shown to be more eective
than punishment contingencies. In general, applied be-
havior analysis as a eld favors reinforcement based inter-
ventions over aversive contingencies, but at the time the
behavioral technology was not advanced enough and the
individuals needing intervention had a right to an eec-
tive treatment (Van Houten et al., 1988). Nevertheless,
not all behavioral therapies involved the use of aversives
prior to the mid-1980s. Some behaviorists (for instance,
B.F. Skinner) always preferred reinforcement and extinc-
tion contingencies over punishment even during that time.
In 1977, Edward Carr published a paper on poten-
tial hypotheses for the occurrence and maintenance of
self-injurious behaviors. This paper laid out the initial
iors. In the paper, Carr described ve potential causes for
self-injurious behaviors that included (1) positive social
reinforcement contingent on the response, (2) negative re-
inforcement in the form of removal of an aversive stimu-
lus contingent on the response, (3) the response produced
stimuli possessed reinforcing qualities (automatic rein-
forcement), (4) the behavior was a byproduct of an un-
hypothesis in which the behavior was an attempt to re-
duce guilt. Throughout the paper, Carr cited recent re-
search to support the rst three hypotheses, and disprove
6 7 FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS (PSYCHOLOGY)

the latter two hypotheses, but no formal experiment was ble/activity): The individual engages in the behavior to
conducted to determine the controlling variables of the obtain a specic item or engage in a specic activity from
problem behavior. another person. For example, a child hits mom because
In 1982, Iwata and colleagues conducted the rst exper- s/he wants the toy mom is holding. (If this behavior re-
imental analysis of the maintaining variables for self- sults in mom giving the child the toy, s/he will be more
injurious behavior. In the paper, the researchers alter- likely to engage in the same behavior in the future to get
nated between specic conditions to examine whether or moms attention.) Common forms of tangible items in-
not the behavior occurred under specic environmental clude, but are not limited to, food, toys, movies, video
games, etc.
conditions. Through direct manipulation of the environ-
ment, the researchers could accurately identify the con- Automatic positive reinforcement: The individual engages
trolling variables of the aberrant behavior, and provide in the behavior because the response-produced stimula-
interventions that targeted the functional relationship be- tion possesses reinforcing characteristics. In other words,
tween the behavior and the environment. Since this sem- engaging in the behavior produces reinforcing stimula-
inal article was published, a wide range of research has tion unique to the specic context. For example, a child
been published in the area of functional analyses of aber- hits his/her eyes because it produces the specic stimula-
rant behaviors. The methodology has since become the tion of various colors and eects. Another example in-
gold standard in assessment and treatment of aberrant be- cludes a child spinning a bowl on a table to produce the
haviors. specic auditory stimulation unique to that object. Com-
mon forms of automatic stimulation include, but are not
limited to, auditory stimulation, visual stimulation, en-
7.2 Functional behavior assessment (FBA) dorphin release, etc.

Functional assessment of behavior provides hypotheses

about the relationships between specic environmental 7.3.2 Escape/avoid undesirable events (negative re-
events and behaviors. Decades of research have estab- inforcement)
lished that both desirable and undesirable behaviors are
learned and maintained through interactions with the so- Escape/avoid socially mediated events Es-
cial and physical environment. Functional behavior as- cape/removal of attention: The individual engages
sessments are used to identify controlling variables for in the behavior to escape aversive socially mediated
challenging behaviors as the basis for intervention eorts attention. Put another way, social situations that are
designed to decrease the occurrence of these behaviors. aversive to the child are removed contingent on the
behavior occurring. For example, a child hits the teacher
to avoid talking in front of the class. Common forms of
7.3 Functions of behavior aversive social situations include, but are not limited to,
smiles, hugs, frowns, corrections, group settings, etc.
Behavior serves two major functions for an individual: Escape/removal of tasks or activities: The individual en-
(1) to obtain desired events, or (2) to escape/avoid unde- gages in the behavior to escape aversive tasks or demands.
sired events. Put another way, individuals engage in be- For example, when a child is told to take a bath he begins
havior to get something or to get out of something. When to cry, and his mother tells him he no longer has to take
trying to identify the function of a behavior, it is often a bath. Another example includes a teacher telling a stu-
helpful to think, What purpose is this behavior serving dent to complete a series of math problems, to which the
the individual?" Described below are the common func- student ips the desk and is sent to the principals oce.
tions of behavior. Being sent to the principals oce reinforced the behavior
of ipping the desk because it allowed the child to escape
the aversive activity of completing math problems. Com-
7.3.1 Obtain socially mediated events
mon forms of aversive demands/activities include, but are
not limited to, dicult tasks, changes in routines, unpre-
Access to attention (positive reinforcement: social): The
dictability, novel tasks, etc.
individual engages in the behavior to obtain attention
from another person. For example, a child throws a toy
because it characteristically results in moms attention. Escape/avoid specic stimulation Automatic nega-
(If this behavior results in mom looking at child and giv- tive reinforcement: The individual engages in the behav-
ing him lots of attentioneven if shes saying NOhe ior because it produces a decrease in aversive stimulation.
will be more likely to engage in the same behavior in the Put another way, something aversive is occurring in some
future to get moms attention.) Common forms of atten- location on the organisms body, and engaging in the be-
tion include, but are not limited to, hugs, kisses, repri- havior decreases the level of discomfort. For example,
mands, frowns, smiles, etc. a child bangs his head against the wall to decrease the
Access to tangibles (positive reinforcement: tangi- pain experienced from a toothache. Another example in-
7.5 Method of identifying functions of behavior
cludes a child scratching his arm to decrease the level of 7.5.2 Descriptive FBA
itchiness experienced from a bug bite. Common forms
of aversive stimulation abated by engaging in specic be- Unlike the indirect methods of FBAs, descriptive func-
haviors include sinus pain, itching, hunger, etc.
7.4 Function versus topography
As previously stated function refers to the eect the be-
havior produces on the environment. The actual form of
the behavior is referred to the topography. Dierent be-
haviors may serve the same function, thus describing one
limitation of treating behaviors based on form alone. For
example, a child may scream, hit, and cry to obtain atten-
tion from his mother. What the behavior looks like often
reveals little useful information about the conditions that
account for it. However, identifying the conditions that
account for a behavior, suggests what conditions need to
be altered to change the behavior. Therefore, assessment
of function of a behavior can yield useful information
with respect to intervention strategies that are likely to
be eective.
7.5 Method of identifying functions of be- than it does during lunchtime). Although this assessment
havior
FBA methods can be classied into three types:
Indirect assessment
Descriptive assessment
Functional (experimental) analysis
7.5.1 Indirect FBA
This method uses structured interviews, checklists, rat-
ing scales, or questionnaires to obtain information from
persons who are familiar with the person exhibiting the
behavior to identify possible conditions or events in the
natural environment that correlate with the problem be-
havior. They are referred to as indirect because they do
not involve direct observation of the behavior, but rather
they solicit information based on others recollections of
the behavior. This form of assessment typically yields the
least reliable information about the function of behavior,
but can provide insight as to possible functions of the be-
havior to be tested in the future, the form of the behav-
iors (e.g. screaming, hitting, etc.), and environments in
which the behavior typically occurs (e.g. school, home,
etc.). This type of assessment should be performed as
the initial step of any functional behavior assessment to
gather relevant information to complete more direct as-
sessments.
7
tional behavior assessment employs direct observation of
behavior. These observations occur in the environment in
which the behavior naturally occurs (e.g. school, home,
etc.) therefore there is no direct manipulation of the en-
vironment. The most common form of descriptive as-
sessment involves recording the antecedents and conse-
quences that naturally occur when the individual emits
the behavior. This is referred to as ABC data collection,
in which (A) represents the common antecedent, (B) rep-
resents the behavior of interest, and (C) represents the
immediate consequences that occur following the behav-
ior. ABC data collection is used to identify the naturally
occurring consequences delivered in the environment in
which the behavior occurs. ABC data collection can be
conducted by a wide array of individuals who have re-
ceived appropriate training on how to record the data.
Another form of descriptive FBA is called a scatterplot.
In this assessment, sta record the time and setting in
which the behavior of interest occurs over a series of days.
The data are plotted on a visual scale to indicate whether
there are any patterns in the behavior (for example, if the
behavior occurs more frequently during math instruction
does not indicate the consequences maintaining the be-
havior, it can be used to identify some of the antecedent
conditions that typically precede the behavior of interest.
7.5.3 Functional (experimental) analysis
A functional analysis is the most direct form of functional
behavior assessment, in which specic antecedents and
consequences are systematically manipulated to test their
separate eects on the behavior of interest. Each ma-
nipulation of the antecedent and consequence in a par-
ticular situation is referred to a condition. In a functional
analysis, conditions are typically alternated between quite
rapidly independent of responding to test the dierent
functions of behavior. When data paths are elevated
above the control condition (described below) it can be
said that there is a functional relation between that con-
dition and the behavior of interest. Complexity, time re-
straints, and setting restraints, are a few limitations to this
particular method. When deciding to use this method, it
should be noted that there is a chance of high-risk behav-
ior and the possibility of low-rate behaviors.[53]
Below, common examples of experimental conditions are
described. A standard functional analysis normally has
four conditions (three test conditions and one control).
Attention In this condition, the experimenter gives the
individual moderately preferred items and instructs them
to go play. After that initial instruction, the experimenter
pretends to act busy and ignores all bids for attention from
the individual. If the individual engages in the behavior
8 8 TECHNOLOGIES DISCOVERED THROUGH ABA RESEARCH

of interest, the experimenter provides the individual with
attention (commonly in the form of a reprimand). Be-
haviors that occur more frequently in this condition can
be said to be attention maintained.
Escape In this condition, the experimenter instructs
the individual that it is time to work. After the initial in-
struction, the experimenter delivers a series of demands
that the individual is typically required to complete (e.g.
math problems, cleaning up, etc.). If the individual en-
gages in the behavior of interest, the demand is removed
and the child is allowed to take a break. Behaviors that
occur more frequently in this condition can be said to be
escape maintained.
Alone In this condition, the child is left alone with a
variety of items to engage with. If the child engages in
the behavior of interest, no programmed consequences
are delivered. Behaviors that occur more frequently in
this condition can be said to be automatically maintained.
Control (play) In this condition, the child is allowed
to engage with a variety of items during the session. No
demands are placed on the child throughout the duration
of the session. The experimenter provides attention to
the individual throughout the session on any behavior that
is not the target behavior. If the target behavior occurs,
the experimenter removes attention until the behavior has
subsided. This session is meant to act as a control con-
dition, meaning that the environment is enriched for the
purpose of the behavior not occurring. Said another way,
by meeting environmental needs for all possible func-
tions, the individual is not likely to engage in the behav-
ior of interest. This condition is used as a comparison to
the other conditions. Any condition that is elevated to a
large degree form the control condition, shows a higher
degree experimental control indicating the functional re-
lationship between the specic environmental conditions
and the behavior of interest.
4. Developing intervention options based on the func-
tion of problem behavior.
8 Technologies discovered through
ABA research
8.1 Task analysis
Task analysis is a process in which a task is analyzed
into its component parts so that those parts can be
taught through the use of chaining: forward chaining,
backward chaining and total task presentation. Task anal-
ysis has been used in organizational behavior manage-
ment, a behavior analytic approach to changing the be-
haviors of members of an organization (e.g., factories,
oces, or hospitals).[54] Behavioral scripts often emerge
from a task analysis.[55][56] Bergan conducted a task anal-
ysis of the behavioral consultation relationship[57] and
Thomas Kratochwill developed a training program based
on teaching Bergans skills.[58] A similar approach was
used for the development of microskills training for
counselors.[59][60][61] Ivey would later call this behavior-
ist phase a very productive one[62] and the skills-based
approach came to dominate counselor training during
197090.[63] Task analysis was also used in determining
the skills needed to access a career.[64] In education, En-
glemann (1968) used task analysis as part of the methods
to design the Direct Instruction curriculum.[65]
8.2 Chaining
Main article: Chaining
The skill to be learned is broken down into small units for
easy learning. For example, a person learning to brush
teeth independently may start with learning to unscrew
the toothpaste cap. Once they have learned this, the next
step may be squeezing the tube, etc.[66][67]

7.6 Conducting a functional behavior as- For problem behavior, chains can also be analyzed
and the chain can be disrupted to prevent the problem
sessment [68]
behavior. Some behavior therapies, such as dialectical
behavior therapy, make extensive use of behavior chain
Functional behavior assessments are rarely limited to only
analysis.[69]
one of the methods described above. The most common,
and most preferred, method for identifying the function
of behavior can be seen as a four-part processes.
8.3 Prompting
1. The gathering of information via indirect and de- A prompt is a cue or assistance to encourage the desired
scriptive assessment. response from an individual.[70] Prompts are often cate-
2. Interpretation of information from indirect and de- gorized into a prompt hierarchy from most intrusive to
scriptive assessment and formulation of a hypothesis least intrusive. There is some controversy about what
about the purpose of problem behavior. is considered most intrusive: physically intrusive versus
hardest prompt to fade (i.e., verbal).[71] In a faultless
3. Testing of a hypothesis using a functional analysis. learning approach, prompts are given in a most-to-least
8.6 Generalization 9

sequence and faded systematically to ensure the individ- 8.6 Generalization

ual experiences a high level of success.[72] There may be
instances in which a least-to-most prompt method is pre- Generalization is the expansion of a students perfor-
ferred. Prompts are faded systematically and as quickly asmance ability beyond the initial conditions set for acqui-
possible to avoid prompt dependency. The goal of teach- sition of a skill.[78] Generalization can occur across peo-
ing using prompts would be to fade prompts towards in- ple, places, and materials used for teaching. For example,
dependence, so that no prompts are needed for the indi- once a skill is learned in one setting, with a particular in-
vidual to perform the desired behavior.[73][74] structor, and with specic materials, the skill is taught in
more general settings with more variation from the ini-
Types of prompts:
tial acquisition phase. For example, if a student has suc-
cessfully mastered learning colors at the table, the teacher
Vocal prompts: Utilizing a vocalization to indicate may take the student around the house or his school and
the desired response. then generalize the skill in these more natural environ-
Visual prompts: A visual cue or picture. ments with other materials. Behavior analysts have spent
considerable amount of time studying factors that lead to
Gestural prompts: Utilizing a physical gesture to in- generalization.[79]
dicate the desired response.
Positional prompt: The target item is placed closer 8.7 Shaping
to the individual.
Modeling: Modeling the desired response for the Main article: Shaping (psychology)
student. This type of prompt is best suited for indi-
viduals who learn through imitation and can attend Shaping involves gradually modifying the existing behav-
to a model. ior into the desired behavior. If the student engages with
a dog by hitting it, then he or she could have their be-
Physical prompts: Physically manipulating the indi-
havior shaped by reinforcing interactions in which he or
vidual to produce the desired response. There are
she touches the dog more gently. Over many interac-
many degrees of physical prompts. The most in-
tions, successful shaping would replace the hitting be-
trusive being hand-over-hand, and the least intrusive
havior with patting or other gentler behavior. Shaping
being a slight tap to initiate movement.[72]
is based on a behavior analysts thorough knowledge of
operant conditioning principles and extinction. Recent
This is not an exhaustive list of all possible prompts. eorts to teach shaping have used simulated computer
When using prompts to systematically teach a skill, not tasks.[80]
all prompts need to be used in the hierarchy; prompts are
chosen based on which ones are most eective for a par- One teaching technique found to be eective with some
ticular individual. students, particularly children, is the use of video mod-
eling (the use of taped sequences as exemplars of behav-
ior). It can be used by therapists to assist in the acqui-
8.4 Fading sition of both verbal and motor responses, in some cases
for long chains of behavior.[81][82]
The overall goal is for an individual to eventually not need
prompts. As an individual gains mastery of a skill at a
particular prompt level, the prompt is faded to a less in- 8.8 Interventions based on an FBA
trusive prompt. This ensures that the individual does not
become overly dependent on a particular prompt when Critical to behavior analytic interventions is the concept
learning a new behavior or skill. of a systematic behavioral case formulation with a func-
tional behavioral assessment or analysis at the core.[83][84]
This approach should apply a behavior analytic theory of
8.5 Thinning a reinforcement schedule change (see Behavioral change theories). This formula-
tion should include a thorough functional assessment, a
Thinning is often confused with fading. Fading refers to a skills assessment, a sequential analysis (behavior chain
prompt being removed, where thinning refers to the spac- analysis), an ecological assessment, a look at existing
ing of a reinforcement schedule getting larger.[75] Some evidenced-based behavioral models for the problem be-
support exists that a 30% decrease in reinforcement can havior (such as Fordyces model of chronic pain)[85] and
be an ecient way to thin.[76] Schedule thinning is often then a treatment plan based on how environmental fac-
an important and neglected issue in contingency manage- tors inuence behavior. Some argue that behavior an-
ment and token economy systems, especially when devel- alytic case formulation can be improved with an assess-
oped by unqualied practitioners (see professional prac- ment of rules and rule-governed behavior.[86][87][88] Some
tice of behavior analysis).[77] of the interventions that result from this type of conceptu-
10
alization involve training specic communication skills to
replace the problem behaviors as well as specic setting,
antecedent, behavior, and consequence strategies.[89]
9 Ecacy in autism
ABA-based techniques are often used to change behav-
iors associated with autism, so much so that ABA itself
is often mistakenly considered to be synonymous with
therapy for autism.[6] ABA for autism may be limited by
diagnostic severity and IQ.[90][91] The most inuential and
widely cited review of the literature regarding ecacy
of treatments for Autism is the National Research Coun-
cils book Educating Children with Autism (2001) which
concluded that ABA was the best research supported and
most eective treatment for the main characteristics of
Autism. Some critics claimed that the NRCs report was
an inside job by behavior analysts but there were no board
certied behavior analysts on the panel (which did include
physicians, speech pathologists, educators, psychologists,
and others). Other criticisms raised include the small
sample sizes used in the published research to date. Med-
ications have not been proven to correct the core decits
of ASDs and are not the primary treatment. ABA is the
primary treatment according to the American Academy
of Pediatrics.[92] Recent reviews of the ecacy of ABA-
based techniques in autism include:
A 2007 clinical report of the American Academy
of Pediatrics concluded that the benet of ABA-
based interventions in autism spectrum disorders
(ASDs) has been well documented and that chil-
dren who receive early intensive behavioral treat-
ment have been shown to make substantial, sus-
tained gains in IQ, language, academic performance,
and adaptive behavior as well as some measures of
social behavior.[93]
Researchers from the MIND Institute published an
evidence-based review of comprehensive treatment
approaches in 2008. On the basis of the strength of
the ndings from the four best-designed, controlled
studies, they were of the opinion that one ABA-
based approach (the Lovaas technique created by
Ole Ivar Lvaas) is well-established for improv-
ing intellectual performance of young children with
ASD.[94]
A 2009 review of psycho-educational interventions
for children with autism whose mean age was six
years or less at intake found that ve high-quality
(Level 1 or Level 2) studies assessed ABA-
based treatments. On the basis of these and other
studies, the author concluded that ABA is well-
established and is demonstrated eective in en-
hancing global functioning in pre-school children
with autism when treatment is intensive and carried
9 EFFICACY IN AUTISM
out by trained therapists.[95] However, the review
committee also concluded that there is a great need
for more knowledge about which interventions are
most eective.
A 2009 paper included a descriptive analysis, an
eect size analysis, and a meta-analysis of 13 re-
ports published from 1987 to 2007 of early inten-
sive behavioral intervention (EIBI, a form of ABA-
based treatment with origins in the Lovaas tech-
nique) for autism. It determined that EIBIs ef-
fect sizes were generally positive for IQ, adaptive
behavior, expressive language, and receptive lan-
guage. The paper did note limitations of its nd-
ings including the lack of published comparisons be-
tween EIBI and other empirically validated treat-
ment programs.[96]
In a 2009 systematic review of 11 studies published
from 1987 to 2007, the researchers wrote there
is strong evidence that EIBI is eective for some,
but not all, children with autism spectrum disorders,
and there is wide variability in response to treat-
ment. Furthermore, any improvements are likely
to be greatest in the rst year of intervention.[97]
A 2009 meta-analysis of nine studies published from
1987 to 2007 concluded that EIBI has a large ef-
fect on full-scale intelligence and a moderate ef-
fect on adaptive behavior in autistic children.[98]
In 2011, investigators from Vanderbilt University
under contract with the Agency for Healthcare Re-
search and Quality performed a comprehensive re-
view of the scientic literature on ABA-based and
other therapies for autism spectrum disorders; the
ABA-based therapies included the UCLA/Lovaas
method and the Early Start Denver Model (the lat-
ter developed by Sally Rogers and Geraldine Daw-
son).[99] They concluded that both approaches were
associated with ... improvements in cognitive per-
formance, language skills, and adaptive behavior
skills.[99]:ES-9 However, they also concluded that
the strength of evidence ... is low, many chil-
dren continue to display prominent areas of impair-
ment, subgroups may account for a majority of the
change, there is little evidence of practical eec-
tiveness or feasibility beyond research studies, and
the published studies used small samples, dier-
ent treatment approaches and duration, and dierent
outcome measurements.[99]:ES-10
A 2009 systematic review and meta-analysis by Spreck-
ley and Boyd of four small-n 20002007 studies (involv-
ing a total of 76 children) came to dierent conclusions
than the aforementioned reviews.[100] Spreckley and Boyd
reported that applied behavior intervention (ABI), an-
other name for EIBI, did not signicantly improve out-
comes compared with standard care of preschool children
with ASD in the areas of cognitive outcome, expressive

language, receptive language, and adaptive behavior.[100]
In a letter to the editor, however, authors of the four
studies meta-analyzed claimed that Spreckley and Boyd
had misinterpreted one study comparing two forms of
ABI with each other as a comparison of ABI with stan-
dard care, which erroneously decreased the observed ef-
cacy of ABI.[101] Furthermore, the four studies authors
raised the possibility that Spreckley and Boyd had ex-
cluded some other studies unnecessarily, and that includ-
ing such studies could have led to a more favorable eval-
uation of ABI.[101] Spreckley, Boyd, and the four studies
authors did agree that large multi-site randomized trials
are needed to improve the understanding of ABAs e-
cacy in autism.[101]
A United States District Court Judge ruled withholding
ABA from children (021) with autism causes irrepara-
ble harm, nding Elizabeth Dudek of Floridas Agency
for Healthcare Administrations position suggesting ABA
was experimental was arbitrary and capricious, ordering
AHCA enjoined from withholding ABA.[102] Thereafter,
CMS ordered its guidance that all states to cover ABA via
Head Start and Early Head Start EPSDT programs.[103]
9.1 Criticism
Conversely, various major gures within the Autistic
community have written biographies detailing the harm
caused by the provision of ABA, including restraint, of-
ten used with mild self stimulatory behaviors such as hand
apping, and verbal abuse. Several of these have since
been diagnosed with PTSD and depression. The Autis-
tic Self Advocacy Network campaigns against the use of
ABA in Autism.[104] Less scholarly reviews were pro-
vided by Elizabeth Devita-Raeburn of The Atlantic.[105]
and by an ex-practitioner.[106]
Further research is clearly required, specically to include
larger and thus more representative samples.
10 Major journals
Applied behavior analysts publish in many journals.
Some examples of core behavior analytic journals are:
Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis
Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior
Journal of Organizational Behavior Management
Journal of Behavioral Education
Journal of the Analysis of Verbal Behavior
Behavior Analysis Research and Practice[107]
The Behavior Analyst Today[108]
The Behavior Analyst
11
The Journal of Speech-Language Pathology and Ap-
plied Behavior Analysis[108]
Journal of Early and Intensive Behavioral Interven-
tions[108]
The International Journal of Behavioral Consulta-
tion and Therapy[108]
The Journal of Behavioral Assessment and Interven-
tion in Children[108]
The Behavioral Development Bulletin[108]
The Journal of Precision Teaching and Standard Cel-
eration
Behavior and Social Issues[109]
Journal of Behavior Analysis of Sports, Health, Fit-
ness, and Behavioral Medicine[108]
Journal of Behavior Analysis of Oender and Vic-
tim: Treatment and Prevention[108]
Behavioral Health and Medicine[108]
Behavior Therapy
Behavior and Philosophy[110]
11 See also
Association for Behavior Analysis International
Autism rights movement
Behavior analysis of child development
Behavior therapy
Behavioral activation (BA)
Educational psychology
Parent management training
Professional practice of behavior analysis
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behavioral interventions for children with autism. Am J Behavior Management: Principles and Practices of
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tensive Behavioral Intervention for children with autism. H. (2007). Applied behavior analysis: beyond dis-
J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol. 38 (3): 43950. PMID crete trial teaching. Psychol Schools. 44 (1): 91
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[99] Warren, Z.; Veenstra-VanderWeele, J.; Stone, W.;
Bruzek, J.L.; Nahmias, A.S.; Foss-Feig, J.H.; Jerome,
R.N.; Krishnaswami, S.; Sathe, N.A.; Glasser, A.M.;
Surawicz, T.; McPheeters, M.L. (2011). Therapies for
children with autism spectrum disorders (PDF). AHRQ
Publication No. 11-EHC029-EF, Comparative Eective-
ness Review No. 26. Rockville, MD: Agency for Health-
care Research and Quality.
Mayer, G. Roy; Sulzer-Azaro, Beth; Wallace,
Michele (2011). Behavior Analysis for Lasting
Change (2/E ed.). Sloan. ISBN 978-1-59738-032-
4.
Catania, A. Charles (2007). Learning. Sloan. ISBN
1-59738-007-5.
16 14 EXTERNAL LINKS

14 External links
Applied Behavior Analysis: Overview and Sum-
mary of Scientic Support
Functional Behavioral Assessment, The IRIS Center
- U.S. Department of Education, Oce of Special
Education Programs Grant and Vanderbilt Univer-
sity
 17

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