CARTES IA

TENSORS
CARTESIAN TENSORS

BY

HAROLD JEFFREYS
l!.A. D.So., F.R.S.

CA:\IBRIDGE
AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS

1969
Published by tho Syndio.s of tho Cambridge Cniversily Press
'Bentley Hou.ie, 200 Euston Road, London .,V. l
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l'init published I 031
Reprinted 1952 19.37 1961
1963 1965 1960
Prin.'Cl in Great Britain
at tho t:nivoreity Prl1lting HoU11C, Cambridge
(Drooku Crutchley, Cnivorsity Printer)
PREFACE
It is widely felt that when the equations of mathematical
physics arc written out in full Cartesian form tho structural
simplicity of the formulae is often hidden by the mechanical
labour of writing out every term explicitly. Attempts ha.ve
been made to reduce this Jabour by one form or another of
vector algebra.; but it has always seemed to me that this
method both introduces new difficulties and is insufficiently
general. Thus the product of two vectors, in vector lan
guage, means one of two things, either the scalar or the
vector product, and it is not physically obvious why just
those functions of the vectors should a.rise a.nd no others.
The use of tensor notation, with the summation con
vention, carries out as great a. simplification of the writing
as does vector notation. The notation has actually at
tracted attention owing to its applications in the theory of
relativity, but for ordinary purposes two great abbrevia
tions may be made. We use rectangular Cartesian axes;
the result is that the distinction between covariant and
contra.variant vectors disappears, and with it the terms
arising from curvature of the surfaces of reference. The
fonnida.ble character of most of the formulae of the theory
of relativity is absent from the formulae of tensors referred
to Cartesian axes. The tensor method is a necessity for re
lativity; for applications in dynamics, electricity, elas
ticity, and hydrodynamics it is a great convenience.
It is found that the scalar a.nd vector products are not
the only functions of two vectors that arise, though the
theory provides reasons why they are important in many
applications. There is also a. symmetrical product, which
ortlina.ry vector notation is completely unable to express.
In tensor notation it arises naturally as a symmetrical
vi PREFACE
tensor of the second ordor. 'l'he system of momonts a.nd
products of inertia. of a. rigid body constitutes such a.
tensor; so do the stress components and the strain com NOTE
ponents in an elastic solid.
The present method, like vector notation, is of use prin Since this book was written most of the material in it
cipally in proving general the01ems. In concrete applica has been incorporated in Chapters 2 and 3 of Methods of
tions there is usually some asymmetry about the coor Mathematical Physics, by my wife, Bertha. Swirles Jeffreys,
dinates that makes it necessary to abandon tho tensor and myself. The present reprint has been ma.de partly
form at some stage in the work. It has been said that because of a. continuing demand for a. treatment of Car
vector equations are like a pocket map, and it has been re tesian tensors by themselves; partly because some results,
plied that a. pocket map has to be talton out of the pocket
notably on the thermodynamics of a.n elastic solid a.nd the
and unfolded before it is of any use. The same applies to the
circulation in viscous flow, are not given in textbooks of
tensor method, and for tho same reason; but it has tho
great advantage that it is not a new notation, but a. concise
the special subjects.

way of writing the ordinary notation, so that the unfolding

HAROLD J Eb' .ll.REYS
January,
can be carried out more conveniently when occasion a.rises.
1952

What is usuaJly ca.lied Statics is troated in Chapter v,

after Dynamics. I consider this to be the proper order, be
cause Statics is a special case of Dynamics, and many of its
NOTE ON THE SE VENTII IMPRESSION
formulae have physical significance for reasons explained
in Dyna.mies. The customary reversal of the order is due,
I believe, to the fact that a.n introduction to mechanics has
In the present reprint a fow small changes have been made.
to be given at schools before the students ha.ve received
In Ex. 3, p. 15, the components are given explicitly; these
any training in calculus; but this nocd not influence
have been found useful in developing tho strain energy for
students working for a. university examination.
an elastic sphere under rotation. Omissions have been
corrected on pp. 81 and 82. As these do not affect the
It should perhaps be stated that the object of this work

later work they appear to have given readers no trouble.

is to illustrate the use of tensor methods; it does not claim
to give a complete theory of a.ll the subjects touched, re
ference for which must be made to the standard text-books. HAROLD JE.li.ll'REYS
I must express my gratitude to Mr M. H. A. Newman, December, 1968
l\liss L. M. Swain, Dr S. Goldstein, and Dr Bertha. Swirles
for assistance a.t various stages in the work, and to the
staff of the University Press for their care in the printing.

September 1931
HAROLD JEFFREYS
 CONTENTS CHA PTER I

CARTESIAN TENSORS
Chap. I. Cartesian Tensors p<UJt 1
If we have two sets of rectangular axes (Ox, Oy Oz),
n. Geometrical Applications ,

(Ox', Oy', Oz')

16
at the same origin, the coordinates of a.
m. Particle Dynamics 24 point P with respect to the second set are given in terms

IV. Dynamics of Rigid Bodi

of the coordinates with respect to the first set by the

v. Equivalence ofSystems of Forces

29
42
equations
x' = Zix + m,y + niz
y' = Ztx + 'mtY + n.iz
l (1).
VI. Continuous Systems
z' = Zsx + may + naz
48

The quantities (l.i, mi, ni, .. , na) aro the cosines of the
V II. IsotropicTensors 66
.

VIII. Elasticity 71 angles between the various axes; thus li is the oosine of the
angle between the axes Ox' and Ox, ns is the cosine of the
IX. IIydrodynamics 83 angle between Oy' and Oz, and so on. It follows that the
Index 93 coordinates (x, y, z) can be expressed in terms of (x', y', z')
by the relations
x= li_x' + l"!.y' + Zaz' )
y = 11ti x' + fntY' + msz' l (2).
z = nix' + n.iy' + n,z' J
We can shorten the writing of (1) and (2) considerably
by a change of notation. Instead of (x, y, z) let us write
(x,., x,, Xa), and instead of (x', y', z') write (x,.', Xi', :i:a'). We
can now say that the coordinates with respect to the first
set of axes are x,, where i may be I, 2, or 3; and those with
respect to the second set are x/, whorej may be I, 2, or 3.
Then in (1) ea.ch coordinate x/ is expressed as the sum of
three terms depending on the throe x,. Each x, is associated
with the cosine of the angle between tho direction of that
2 CARTESIAN TENSORS CARTESIAN TEXSORS 3

x, increasing and that of x/ increasing. Let us denote this the left it is to be given in turn all the values 1, 2, 3, and the
cosine by a,1 Then we have, for all values of j, resulting equation is aaserted in each case. In each such
x/= '11Xi + 1X2 + <is1Xa equation the right side is the sum of three terms, obtained
by givingj or i the values 1, 2, 3 in turn and adding. Wher
Z a11x, (3).
il, 2, 3 ever such a summation occurs a. suffix is repeated in the
Conversely (2) can be written expression for the general term; whore there is a. summa
I:
tion for all values of j the general term, such as atiu/, con
x, = a0x/ (4),
;-1. 2, 3 tains j twice. We make it a. regular convention that, unless
the a" having the same value as in (3), for the same values the contrary is stated, whenever a. suffix is repeated it is
of i andj, because it is in both cases the cosine of the angle to be given all possible values and that the terms a.re to be
between the directions of x, and x/ increasing. added for all. Thus we write (5) as simply
In mathematical physics we often have to deal with sets (9),
of three quantities in relation to a set of axes, of the general
the summation sign being automatically understood by
form u, (that is, u,,, ""2 Us), and such that in relation to a
our convention. Then (9) really means three equations,
different set of axes the corresponding quantities are
(u,,', ""2', its'), which satisfy the relations
with three terms on the right of each, but we can by means
of our conventions express all of the twelve terms com
u/= Z a0u, (5)
(l, 2, 3
pactly by the single equation (9).
Z
There a.re single quantities, such as mass and distance,
and u, = a0u/ (6).
;-1. 2, s that are the same for all sets of axes. These are called
Such sets of three quantities are called tensors of the first tensors of zero order, or scalars.
or<ler, or vectors. The individual u,,, ""21 Us may be called the Consider now two tensors of the .first order, u, and vk.
components of the tensors. C'Vhen we write" a tensor u/' we mean of coUl'Se a tensor
Clearly if we multiply all of the u, and u/ by the same of the first order whose components are u,., ""2, Us This is
quantity m we get another piece of shorthand.) Suppose each component of
mu/= Z au (mu,) (7), the one multiplied by each component of the other; then
i-1. 2, 3 we obtain a set of nine quantities expressed by u,vk> where
so that mu, is another tensor of the first order. ea.ch of i and le is independently given all the values 1, 2, 3.
Again, if we have two tensors of the .first order, u, and The components of u1, vk with respect to the other set of
v,, we shall have axes a.re u/, v,' say; and
u/ + v/= I: au (u, + v,) (8), u/v1' = (a0u,) (ak,vk)
il, 2. 3

so that u, + v, is a tensor of the first order. (10).

We notice that each of the equations (3) to (8) is really The suffixes i and le are repeated on the right. Thus (10)
a set of three equations; where the suffix i or j appears on represents nine equations, each with nine terms on the
4 CARTESIAN TENSORS
right. Each term on the right is the product of two factors,
one of the form atlak1, depending only on the orientation of
the a.xes, a.nd tbo other of the form u1v t. representing the
products of the components referred to the original axes.
In this way the various u/vi' can be obtained in terms of
the original u,vk. But products of two vectors are far from
being the only quantities satisfying this rule. In general a.
set of nine quantities W1t referred to a. set of axes, and
transfonned to another set by the rule
(11),
is called a. tensor of the se(;()nd order.
We may go on similarly to construct and define tensors
of the third, fourth, and higher orders. Thus a. set of quan
tities that transforms like x,xkxmx,, ... is called a. tensor of
order n, where n is tho number of factors in this product.
When we say that a certain sot of quantities is a. tensor
of any ordor n, we moan that we have ways of specifying
its components with respect to any set of axes, and that the
components with regard to any two different acts of axes
are related according to the rule appropriate to tensors of
that order, and in particular to tho products of the coor
dinates with n factors. For instance, if we say that u, is a
tensor of order 1, we are not simply defining u/ as meaning
a11u,. We a.re supposing both that u/ has a. meaning, such
as a. displacement or a. velocity, with reference to the axes
of x/ , and that the value of each component is equal to
a11u,. Thus the statement that any set of quantities is a
tensor is not a mere convention, but a. statement capable
of test and therefore needing proof. In (7) and (8), for
example, our data are that 1l., and u/ are the components
of a. vector with regard to two different sets of axes. We
prove that the sets of quantities obtained by multiplying
both by the same quantity are related according to the
vector rule; and therefore the products are vectors.
CARTESIAN TESORS 5
If we interchange j and l in (11), we get
(12).
But on the right i and k are "dummy suffixes"; that is,
they are to be given all possible values and the results
added. It is unimportant which of them we call i and which
k; we may therefore interchange them and get
w 1/ = a,,1allwk, = a11at1Wt1 (13).
Thus wk, transforms according to the same role as w,k and
therefore is another tensor of the second order. The im
portance of this is that if we know tho set of quantities
arranged
(
Wu Wu W13
W21 W22 W23
) (14)
W31 W112 Waa
to be a. tensor of the second order, thon the urra.ngoment
( ::: :: :: )
UJi3 W23 Was
(15)
-
is another tensor of the second order. Thoreforo the sets
(w", +wk,) and (wtt w.t,) are tensors of the second order.
The first of these has the property that it is unaltered by
interchanging i and k, and is therefore called a symmetrical
tensor. The second has all its components reversed in sign
when i and k are interchanged, and is called an antisym
metrical tensor. Clearly in an antisymmetrical tensor the
"leading diagonal" components, i.e. those with i and k
equal, are all zero. Also, since
Wtk = i (wtk +Wt,) + t (w,k - W.1:1) (16),
we can consider any tensor of the second order as the sum
of symmetrical and antisymmetrical parts.
The gradient of a. scalar is a vector. For if U is a. scalar,
6 CARTESIAN TESORS CARTESIA TENSORS 7
its gradient is oU/ox, or oU/'Ox/ according to the set of formation is that 811' = l if j = l, and 811' = O if j :;= l. It
axes. But follows that the set of quantities
au ax, au au
( l 7).
ox/ = ox/ o =
a,1
oi,
so that the gradients transform according to the vector
rule. Similarly the gradient of a. vector is a. tensor of
( )
0 0 1
(21)

is transformed into itself by the rule (11) and therefore is

order 2. For if u, and u/ are the components of a. vector
a tensor of the second order.
If u, i s a vector and we form the product 8,.tum, we have
with respect to two sots of a.xes,
0 a. tensor of order 3. But now put m = k a.nd add for all
= aki
ou,/ oxk ou/
= (a,J u, )
ox,' ox,' ax.t OXt vlues of k. Since 8,,. = 0 except for k = i, the only term
au, different from zero is that fork= i, and this is 1i,. Hence
UX,t
= aua.t, -::. - (18),
8,.tuk = u, (22).
so that the rulo of transformation is as in (11). This operation therefore replaces the suffix k by i. The
Since x, is a. vector, it follows that oxtfox,, is a tensor of tensor Stt can therefore be ca.Hod tho aubstitution tensor.
the second order. But ox,/oxk is unity if i = k and zero if .In the tensor w,.t let us put k= i, and in accordance
i :;= k. Hence the sot of quantities 8u, such that with our convention add for a.ll values of i. Then the
corres onding quantity w 1/ is got by putting l j and
811 = 822 = 833 1, =
....

summing; but
812 = 813 8n = 823 831 = = 0,
=
w1/ a0a.t1W,t = 8u.wt.t
=

constitutes a. tensor of the second order. We can prove this

directly; for if we apply (11), 811' in the new system of
= Wo (23).

coordinates should be given by
(19).
The suffix k has to take all values 1, 2, 3. But if k :I= i,
811, is 0, and the corresponding term is zero. If k = i,
8a = 1, and the result of the summation with regard to k is
(20).
But the a,1 are the direction cosines of the axis of x/ with
regard to the x,, and tile a0 a.re those of x1' with regard to
'
x,. Hence a,1a0 is the cosine of the angle between x/ and
x1 , and is equal to 1 if the axes are identical and to 0 if they
a.re perpendicular. It follows that the result of the trans-
Thus Wu transforms into itself and therefore is a scalar.
This operation of putting two suffixes in a tensor equal
and adding accordingly is known as contraction. In general
it gives a new tensor, whose order is less by 2 than that of
the original tensor. If for instance we contract the tensor
u,v.1:, wo obtain
U1Vt = 'U1V1 +'UiV2 +'U3V3 (24},
which is the scalar product of u, and V.1:.
Similarly the tensor tt,vk yields the symmetrical and
antisymmetrical tensors (u,vk+ukv1) and (u,vk-ukvt). We
ma.y call these tho symmetrical andanti-symmetrical products
of u1 and v".
8 CARTESIAN TENSORS CARTESIAN TE:N"SORS 9
The tensor ou1:Jox, gives similarly, on contraction, a scalar We notice that the second and third of (27) both contain
au,= oUi + 0ui+Otta (au, a'21 , a,,). We may therefore solve them for the ratios
(25) ,
ox, OXi OX2 OXa of these quantities. Thus
which is known as the divergence of u,; while it gives also
symmetrical and antisymmetrica.l tensors
au.i,+au, au.i, au1 (28),
ax"
and _

ax, ox" ax, say. Substituting in the first of (26) we get

The former has important applications, especially in the 1 = k {aii (a'2.3a32 - '33 )+L (a33a12 - a13a;n)
theory of elasticity and hydrodynamics; the latter is
+ ll.si (llta - au)}
known as the curl or rotatm of u,. The vanishing of the = - k a11 a21 (29).
curl is the condition that u, ma.y be the gradient of a. scalar.
All the above considerations can be extended to any
'1 2 a22
number of dimensions. Inn dimensions a. tensor of order r
Also
has nr components. A tensor of order 2, in particular, has
n1 components. If it is antisymmetrica.l, the n diagonal kt {{a23a:n-'33 )9..L.. ('a:Jllis lliaO:n )2+(au- Zu)2} = l
components a.re zero, and the others are equal a.nd opposite
-

(30).
But we have a. gonera.l identity

(a2 +62 - c2) (a'' + b'2 + c'2 ) - (aa' +bb' +cc')'

in pairs. Hence an antisymmotrical tensor of order 2 has
in (n - 1) independent components. Ifn 1, 2, 3, 4,. . in
= (be' - cb')2 + (ca' - ac')2 + (ab' - ba')'
= .

turn, this number is 0, 1, 3, 6,... . It happens tha.t in three (31).

dimensions the number of numerically independent com Hence
ponents of an antisymmetrical tensor of the second order is
k2 [(au:i+2 + a332) (a122 +a22' +a:n')
equal to the number of components of a vector. Actually it
can be proved that with any vector we can associate an anti - (ezuai, +a'23 +lla3)2 ] = I (32).
symmetrical tensor of the second order, and conversely. But on account of the second and third of (26) and the first
This is not true in any number of dimensions other than 3. of (27) the expression in brackets is unity, and therefore
Since the a,, are the directioncosines with respect to thex, k= 1

}
(33).
of three porponclicular lines, they are connected by six re

au'+a!!J.'+1'"" 1
For any given transformation the determinant in (29) i s
Evidently i ts sign i s reversed if we
lations
therefore equal to 1.
au'+att2+a322

}
1 (26), interchange any two of the suffixes j, for this interchanges

a132+a2:1' +a332
-

two rows of the determinant; so that the sign is a. matter of

the numbering of the axes. If we start with a rigid frame
= 1
a12a13 f- aa13 + a32a33
and rotate it continuously till it
0
=

ttached to the axes x"

a13au t a23 a.il + a33a31 = 0 (27). is attached to the axos x/, all the a" vary continuously and
a11ai2+a:a.a.22 a31 a32 ._ 0 therefore the determinant cannot change from + 1 to - l
a
JCT
10 CARTESIAN TENSORS
' '
CARTESIAN TENSORS 11
or from - 1 to + 1. II then Xi goes to :ti , Xi to x.i. , &nd Xa
'
to :ta , the determinant is initially
Those relations are of course identical with those ex

- - -
pressed in the usual notation of solid geometry by

1 0 0 =l (34), li =111.tns ms; '"'1 =n2ls n3; n. =Z2111.a l3fnt

0 1 0 (40).
0 0 1 Now suppose that u, is a vector, and consider the set of

and therefore
k=
- 1 (35),
quantities
Wa: =
(- -) (41 ).

and the determinant formed by the a11 is always + 1.

If we have a. frame of axes (x1Xa} we c&n turn it by a.
-'Ut 'Ui 0
(11) to this, taking i to be the number of the row and
continuous movement so as to bring
x1 along
have
Xi along the old X2,
the old Xa, and Xa along the old Xi. In this case we
Apply

-
k that of the col umn
. We see that 'Ui enters as wtJJ and as
W32. Its coefficient in W111 is therefore a.ua,1 as1a2,, -
(36), and in all

(1asi - ass az,) 'U1 + (a,,ai, - ai1a:i1}

-
and

}
w,/ =

a11=0, a21=1, a31=0; a12=0, a'22=0, =l;
a13 = 1, a13 = 0, = 0
The detorminant of tho a11 is therefore
0 1
(37). + (ai1a'21 ai1a11} Us (42).
This is obviously zero iij = l. Ilj :t: land if the other axis
'
pe1pondicular to x/ and x/ is x" , and jlnjln is & cyclic
order, the quantities in brackets are equal to (a1", a2n, a,").
0 =l (38), This is true ii l immediately succeeds j in the order. I1 l

1
0 0
0
1
0 -
precedes j by ono place the signs are reversed. Hence if
j 1 and l = 2, or j = 2 and l = 3, or ii j 3 and l = 1,
w11' =a,.u, =Un' (43},
=-

as before. Any rotation of the axes that does not alter the
cyclic interchange of suffixes 1 2 31 231 .. . therefore and in the alternative case
)eaves the determinant equal to unity, and therefore so
(44).
long as we always use right-handed or always left-handed
axes the determinant of the a11 is+ 1.
Thus
- u'2
'U
'
I ) (45),

-
With this restriction 1

'32a23; a'21 =Clu - a.2; } (39), 0

ai1=au
Cl.at =a12 - aisais
and therefore every direction cosine is equal to its first
and is of the same form as (41). Thus with any vector we
can associate an antisymmetrical tensor of tho second order.
Conversely with any antisymmetrical tensor of tho second
minor in the determinant. order we can associate a. vector.
12 CARTESIAN TEXSORS CARTESIAX TENSORS 13

We can proceed alternatively by considedng the set of
quantities ,km, defined by the condition that if any two
of i, k, m are equal the corresponding component is O; if
i, k, mare all unequal and in cyolio order, the component
is+ l; if the order is not cyclic, the component is - I.
Let us see whether this is a tensor of the third order. If so,
we should have
11n1 = a,,a1ciam,,tkm
= a11a21aa.. + a21l:iia1,, + a31auatn
- 1<2i1<l:in - a:i1a21a1,, - ai1a3,a'2,. (46).
Now if, for instance,j= l, the right side is clearly zero and
11,.'= 0. If j, l, n are all unequal, the expression is
ai1 a.u a'31
<Zi1 ' a,,
<Zin atn a3,.
which is equal to 1 if jln are in cyclic order and to - 1 if
not. Hence the sot of quantities 11,,, is transformed into
itself by the rule for transforming tensors of order 3, and
therefore constitutes a tensor of order 3. This is called the
alternating tensor.
Xow consider the product 11,,.u,,, where u,, is a vector.
so thn.t the a.ntisymmetrica.I tensor associated with a vector
can actually be obtained from it by multiplying by 0.-m
and contracting.
Again, suppose that we a.re given a. tensor of the second
order wi.k and that we form a vector um by multiplying by
;km and contracting twice. We have, if m=3,
Us= 0t3Wtt = 123Wu+ 213W21=Wu - W21.
Thus u.,,=a,,.w11; ( 51).
If w,1 is symmetrical, this evidently gives zero. If it is
antisymmetrical the components of um are numerically
twice those of Wet
On account of the intimate relation between the vector
and the a.ntisymmetrical tensor we shall habitually denote
(47), the tensor Wu of (41) by ulk, so that
Uu = U:?i=u33=O; u12='IJ-s, 1"23='Ui.1 U1 = U:?;} (52) .
Utt=- 'IJ-s, 'U:i2= - u,, Uu= - U:a
It will always be seen at once whether the vector or the
tensor is intended, since the former has one and the latter
two suffixes.
If we have any three vectors u,, v,, w,, and consider the

This is a. tensor of the fourth order. If we contract it by scalar ,,,mu,v1w,,., we see that
putting p=m and summing we get a second order tensor
wlk = ,1;,,.u,,.. If i= I and k=2, tbe only value of m that
...
makes12,,.differentfromzero is3,and then 1.1:,,. + 1. Hence
Ettm'U1V1;Wm - 'UiV2W3 + 'U2V3W1 + 'IJ-sV1Wa
- UtV1Wa - 'IJ-stl1W1 - 'UitlaW2
(63).
Wu='IJ-s (48).
i Vi tla Vs
If i=2 and k 1, m s 3; but
== 213 is the reverse of cyclic
W1 Wt W3
order and 213= - 1 . Hence
so that we have a concise way of writing tho determinant
formed by the components of three vectors. If any two of
W21= - Us (49).

(
Similarly we find that tho elements of wa are
0
- Us
Us
0 (50),
the vectors are parallel this scalar vanishes.
In associating a vector with an antisymmetrical tensor
of order 2 a sign convention clearly a.rises. We make the
Ut - 'Ui positive signs in (41) lie one place to the right of the leading
14 CARTESIAN TEXSORS CARTESIAN TEXSORS 16
wagonaJ. If then we have two vectors u, and V.1n their anti If i = k = p, the component is + l, unless i also = k,
m,
symmotrical product is u,vt - 'UtV,, and in the associated
vector we give the positive sign to Wtt when k follows i in
i = p, k = m, the component is -
l, unless i also = k,
i = k or m = p, the component is 0.
the cyclic order. Hence the components of this vector are These results apply also to the tensor
taken to be
a,mak,, - a,,,atm>
(iVa - 'Ua":1 1l3V1 - UiVa, UiV2 - 1l1V1) and therefore
(55).
This vector is perpendicular to both the original vectors; for

Ui (UitJ3 - UatJi) + Ui (ttsV1 - UiVa) + Ua(UiVz - 'U1tl1) = 0, EXA11PLES

111 (Uitla - U:JVs) +tit (UaV1 - Uit'a) + V3 (U iVz - Ust11) = 0. 1. If u,, u/, tti," are the components of e. vector with rcgnrd to

We call it the vector product of u, and Vt, and can save

three sots of aes. prove that the values of ut' tho sarno o.s
would be obtained by transforming finlt from u, to u/ and then
are
writing by denoting it by [u, v]m from u/ to Ut .

Similarly with the antisymmetrical tensor t - 1 we

UXt CFJ.;t
2.

S.
Prove that

-
Show that
S0,SuScm - S018Se.., S0,,,Sb,,.S,,
associate a. vector so as to leavo the sign unaltered when '*''1:m +
k follows i in tho cyclic order. Thus the components are
(au.a - au. OUi ?u.a OUi OU,
- -
) (54). 4. Provo that
OX2 Ox3 ) OX3 OXi_ OXi_ OX2
5. Provo that
This is of ten called "curl u."
6. Prove that if u,. tit Wm are vectors,
The TeM()T' thmw Since this tensor is the product of
two third order tensors, once s umm
ed, it is a tensor of [w [u, v]Jm - u,,. (11,w,) - Vm (u1w,).

the fourth order, i, k, m, p being arbitrarily assignable. u.,. [v, w],,. - 'fkm u,t,,,w111,

Evidently if i = k or m= p, the corresponding component 7. If A (u) - Ui1 ii Uis ,

is zero.
If i m, the contribution from any value of s is zero
unless also k p, and then
=

= prove that
'tft A u11u1mtl.tn
m111 = 1,
(u) - 'imn

;n:tl11UJmtll'JI - 'lmn A (u),

1u -=

and the component is + 1. 6.1. (u) - 'u. t'1mntl111l1 mtltn

If i = p, then no value of s gives a contribution unless 8. Use Ex. 7 to prove the ruJo for the multiplication of dot.er
k = m. Then one of'"' and m111 is + 1 and the other - 1,
and the component is -
1. Hence the components of the
rninant.s
'
'lmn 1mn A (u) A (v) - GA (u) A (v) - 6.:l ( uv),
tensor are as follows. wJ1ore (uv);p - u11v1JI.
 GEOIETRICAL APPLICATIONS 17

the distance betweenx, andy, is given by

(y, - x,}2 = (sm, - rl,)2
OH A P T EB 11
= 82+ ,..2 - 2rsl,m, (IO).
GEOMETRICAL APPLICATIONS But this quantity is also equal to82 + r2 - 2rs cos8, whore
8 is the anglo between the lines. Hence the angle between
The displacement from any point to any other obviously two intersecting lines is given by
constitutes a. vector. The distancebetween the points is a.
scalar. If x,, y, are the coordinates of the points andr the cos8 = l1m, (11).
distance between them, If two Jines have the same direction cosines they are said
r1 = (y, - x,)' (1), to beparallel. If two lines do not intersect we can takea.
line through any point on one of them parallel to tho other;
thon this lineis inclined to thefirst ata.n angle givenby (11).
the square on the right indicating the scalar product of the
vector into itself. Also the quantities(y, - x,)/r constitute
We can then use (11) to determine a. unique quantity
a. vector.
If we take afixed pointa, a.nd consider points givenby
associated with any two lines, which we may call their
inclination, whether they intersector not.
If we have a line given by (2) andy, is a point outside it,
x, =a, + l,r (2),
where r is a varia.blo scalar and the z, are constants such tho linejoininga, andy, subtendsa. right angle atx, ii
that
z,2 = i (3), (y, - a,)2 = (x, - a1)2,... (y, - x,)2
(x, - a1)2 = r2 (4), = ,..2z,2 + (y, - a, - rl,)2
so thatr is the distance ofx, froma,. If wetake another = (y, - a,)2 - 2rl, (y, - a,) + 2r2z,2 (12),
pointy, such tha.t
and therefore
y, =a,+ l,8 (5),
r = l, (y, - a,) (13).
(y, - a,)2 = 82 (6),
This gives the projection of the displacement y, - a, on
(y, - x,)2 = (8 - r}2 (7),
the line. The foot of the perpendicularis
and therefore the distances betweena,, x,, andy, are such
that the sum of two of themis equal to the third. Thus the a,+ l,r =a,+ l,l,. (y,. - at)
points are on a. straight line; and (2) gives the equations Evidently r in(13)will be the same for all points'!1' such
of the line in terms of the parameter r. The l, are the thatl,y, is constant. Hence
direction cosines of the lino.
If we take two lines througha, given by
l,y, = s (14)
x, =a,+ l,r (8), represents a planeperpendicular to the line.
y, =a,+ rn,s If we take two intersecting lines given by (8) and (9), we
(9),
18 GEOMETRICAL APPLICATIONS QEOlIETRICAL APPLIOATIONS 19

can find the equation of the plane containing them aa For any point on (8),
follows. If this plane is
E,11:m:t11:lm = e,,...,,. (a.t + Z.tr) lm
n, z , = p
= Etkin a.tlm (25).
(15),
this equation must be satisfied by x, and th for all values of
This is a constant vector for all values of r, and may there
fore be considered as a. property of the line. We denote it
rands. Hence
n,a, = p by l/. Then we have six properties of the line given by
l,, l/. These are coordinates of the line. They are connected
(16),
n,l, = 0 (17),
by two relations,
n, m , = 0 (18),
(26),
l,l/ = E1kf11 l,a1;lm
and from (15) and (16).
n, (z, - a,) = 0
= 0 (27).
(19).
Then ( 17), ( 18). ( 19) a.re three homogeneous equations in
Tho l/ have a geometrical interpretation. Thus if we con

then,, and can bo consistent only if

sider the plane
(28).
E11m1 (z, - a,) li:mm = 0
this plane passes through the line. Also if x9 a.l, x, = ,
(20).
(28) is sa.tisfiod for all values of x1, and thorofore if wo take
=

This is the equation of tho required plane. Also then, arc

proportional to a line through a, parallel to the x1 a.xis, (28) represents the
Eu: ml1:mm - (l.ms - lam2. la1ni - lims. lim2 - Z2m1) (21). plane through (8) and this line. Two such planes determine
But n,2 = l (22). the line, and therefore the Z, and l,' together determine the

Clinis - Zam2)2 + (lam. - Zima)2+ (lim2 - l2m1)2

line.
If we have two non-intersecting lines given by
(l12 I 42 + Za2)(m,2 + m12 +ml) - (limi+ '2 t lam3) 2
x, = a, + rl,
=

(29),
... 1 - cos' 8
sin2 8 y, = {3, + sm, (30),
(3).
y, = {3, + rl,
=

sin 8n, Ear,,.l11: m m

the line (31)
Thus (24).
passes through {3, and is parallel to (29). The plane including
=

The ambiguity in sign corresponds to a. general one in

specifying the parameter r of a. point on a. line. If r in (8) (30) and (31) is, by (20),
is taken negative, we get a point on the line on the opposite Efkm (z, - {3,) l.tmm = 0 (32).
side of a, from those given by positive values of r. But if
This therefore represents a. plane through (30) parallel to
we reverse both r and tho z, we still keep ll = 1, and we
(29). The plane through (29) parallel to (30) is
still have the same point. We may take either direction
along a line to bo tbat of r increasing; if we reverse the Earrn (z, - a,) l11: mrn = 0 (33).
direction the signs of aJl the l, are reversed for the same
The distance between these planes is the projection of the
point.
lino joining any two points on them upon a. line perpon-
20 GEOMETRICAL APPLICATIONS GEOMETRICAL APPLICATIOXS 21
dioula.r to both. If a. Jino perpendicular to both has direc If we havo a line given by
tion cosines n,, the shortest distance d between the lines
X, = a,+ rt,
is therefore given by
(39),
and fJ, is a point not on the line, let us suppose the point fJ,
d sin 8 = (fJ, - a ,) n, sin 8 turned through an angle () a.bout the line. The foot of the
= ({J, - a,) f.;tml1m.,. normal from fJ, to the line is given by

= {tkm{J,l1m,.. - f.tma,l,,mm} (34). r = l, (fJ, - a,) (40),

and therefore the displacement from the foot of the normal
But f.ftm fJ,m,.. = - m,,'; 1ma,11 = l,,/ (35), to fJ, is equal to
and therefore fJ, - {a,+ l,lk (fJ1c - a1)} = l,.1 (fJ, - a,) - l,lt ({J1 - a.t)
d sin 8 = (- l,m/ - ni,l/). = l" {l" (fJ, - a,) - l, ({J,. - a,.)}
so that, a.part from the ambiguity in sign, (41).
d sin 8 = l,m/ T m,l/ (36). The magnitude of this displacement, p, is given by

Thus the shortest distance is directly expressible in terms

p2 = (fJ, - a,)2 - {l, (fJ, - a,)} 2
of the 0001dina.tes of the two lines. = l1:2 (fJ, - a,) 2 - l,l,. ({J, - a,) (fJ ,, - a")
Now consider two intersecting lines = ! {l" (fJ, - a,) - l, (fJ,. - a,.)}2 (42),
x, =a,+ rl,; y, =a,+ sm, (37). the ! being needed because in the double summation each
The area of the triangle formed by a,, x,, y, is !rs sin 0.
pair of values of the suffixes would occur twice.
The plane through fJ, and the line is
The projections of these points on the plane Xi =0 are
(0, e.i, a,), (0, :i;i, x3), (0, Yt Ya) and form a triangle whose n, (z1 - a1) = 0,
area is subject to n,l, = 0,
i' 1 ai a, =! 1 e.i a, n, ({J, - a,) = O,

Xi X:s l2r
0 T.,r and is therefore

I Y 'Y3
2
0 11lt8 1n:J8
(z, - a,) l" (flm - a,..)
f.a:m ca 0 (43),
while then, are proportional to 0.:ml1: ({J,.. - a,,1) and there
= irs <Zima - Z,)
fore equal to ,1m1l1: (fl,.. - a,..)/p.
= }r.sni sin 8 (38). If now we turn fJ, through an angle 8, it receives a dis
Thus tho projections of a triangle, and therefore of any placement p (1 - cos 8) along the normal to (39), and a.
plane area, on the coordinate planes are in the ratios of the displacement p sin 8 along the perpendicular to the plane
direction cosines of the normal to tho planes. A plane area. (43) . If it goes toy,, we have therefore
can therefore be treated as a. vector whose components are y1 - fl, .. - (1 - cos 8) l1: {l1: ({J, - a,) - i, (fJ1e - a,.,)}
proportional to tho direction cosines of the normal. sin 8 11..,,l,. ({J,.. - a,..) (44).
 23
22 GEOETRICAL APPLICATIO:XS
If 8 is a. small angle and we neglect 81, the displacement is for le :t:
GEOMETRICAL APPLICATIONS
i; if le = i, the coefficient is - (1 - cos 8) (1 - l,l,.).
simply
y1 - {3, = 8 E1tn.Zk (f3m - am) (45),
Thus

where c," is the

ba: = ( 1 -cos 8) (l,l" - 8"') - sin 8 c,"
antisymmetrical t.easor corresponding to
(52),

- (- - t)
and in particular
lm , namely
Yi - f3i = :1. {12 8 ({33 a,) - l;, 8 ({32 - a.z)} (46),
and from tho additive form of this equation we see that the (53).
displacement is the sum of those given by separate small l, - l,, 0
rotations l,8 about axes through a, parallel to the co Thus the displacement is represented in general by b,.,p",
ordinate axes. Conversely, displacements due to small where b," is a t.ensor of the second order, expressed as the
rotations about axes through a. point can be added vectori sum of symmetrical and antisymmetrical tensors. The anti
ally as if all were applied to the system in its original symmetrical part is seen to be of tho first order of magnitude
position, and give the same total displa-0ement as if they in 8 and the symmetrical part of the second ordor.
wore compounded into a single rotation about an a.xis by
the vector rule. Wo still have, however, to establish a. sign
convention. Wo docido that 8 is to be taken positive if a EXAIPLES
turn about the axis of Xa is from Xi towards x1 'l'his would
1. Givan that the general quadric surfaoo is
make

Y1 - f31
l2
== - 8 (f32 - <Lt); Y2 - f32 = 8 (f3i - <ti) (47)
S = fA,kxtxk + B,x, + 0 - 0,
prove that the locus of the mid-points or para.lie! chords s
i t\ plane,

- -
with li = = 0, l;, =- I. Hence and find the condition for th.is plane to be perpendicular to the

y,
chords.
{3, =
E11;m l.1:8 (f3m am) {48).
If we write 2. lt'ind the condition that the line
l"8 = m,.,
YI - f31 =
E1km ID,t (f3m - a,,.) {49). mo touch the quadric S.
l1x1 +p- 0

For instance, if

Yi
a"' ==

- f31 = m2f33 - f32; Yi

0, we have

Ys - f3s = mif31 - m2f31

- f32 = m3f3i - mif3a;
(50).
For finite rotations we return to (44) or (41), keeping the
positive sign in the second term. \Ve may transfer the
origin to a, to savo writing. The coefficient of pk in y, - p,
is
 PARTICLE DYNAMICS 25

is actually measured by the acceleration. If we have the

three acceleration components of the particle 1 due to the
particle 2, we can find the acceleration in the direction of
OHAPTER III
x/ by the formula. (4), and the form (1) will become

PARTICLE DYNAMICS mX/ = L.X/ (5),

provided that we define X/ by tho rule
The essence of particle dynamics is that the second do
riva.tives of the coordfoatcs of a particle with regard to the X/ = at1X, (6).

time a.re equal to functions of the position and velocity of
the particle with reference to neighbouring particles. The
relations therefore provide a. set of differential equations
to determine the coordinates. The equations for any
particle can be put in tho form
The meaning of the force in any direction requires de
finition in any case : if we define it by its relation to the
acceleration component in that direction, it follows auto
matically by (6) that force is a. vector. It follows that the
sum of any number of forces, obtained by adding the

mX, = x, (1), components separately, is also a. vector. But the practical

importance of the idea of force arises equally from the fact
where m is the mass of the particle, X, are the forces due
that in many cases the force components are known once
to the other particles, and the summation is for all the
It is a. matter of experiment that this
for all from experience as functions of the coordinates and
velocities. The form (6) then says, as a. general principle,
other particles*.

that the forces in any direction are additive.

form holds when the axes are a. certain type of Cartesian
axes, which we call non-rota.ting and unaccelerated, or in
If we form the contracted or scalar product of mX, and
brief dynamical.
X, by tho vector i,, we get
If we take a different set of non-rotating axes at the
same origin we ha.ve (7),

and sinco the axes are not rotating the a11 are constants.
(2),
the left side of which is (tm.i,2). (Tho square of course

Hence by differentiation implies the product of i, by x, and therefore the summation

for 1, 2, 3.) We write
(3),
...

T= !m.i,a = tm (i12 + i22 + i:i2) (8),

(4),
and therefore velocity and accoleration a.re vectors. and calJ T tho kinetic energy of the particle. Then by in

The force X, on the particle duo to some other particle tegration with regard to the time from iv to ti we get

is measured by the contribution to mi, due to the other

particle; that is, the part of mx, that would disappear if
T
[ ]' t. = .L J'' X,i, dt
t. (9).

But in any short interval of timo dt, is the increase

the other particle was removed to an infinite distance. lt
Cf. Jeffreys, Scitntijic 111/trcnct, Chapter vm, for a. fuller analysis.
x,dt
of x,, namely d:x,. Hence the right side is equal to
3 JCT
26 PARTICLE DYNAMICS PARTICLE DYXA>'.i:IICS 27

J x,ax, taken from the initial to the final position of the If U exists, then in all possible small displacements of
tho system
particle. We call the scalar the work done on the
X,d:c, (14),
particle by the force X, in a.
small displacement dx,.
Then where the dx,, 3n in number for n particles, are all n i
J X,ax, is the total work done by all the forces on the dependent. The coefficient of d:c, for any one particle s i
l:X,, the total force in the direction of on that particle.
x,
Hence the force on a. particle in tho direction of x, s i
particle during the motion. We have therefore the scalar
relation that in any motion of a. particle
oU/'Ox,, which is of course a. vector.
Increase of kinetic energy = Work done on the particle lVo can also take the scalar product of (1) by any sot of
(10). small quantities 8x, \vhatever that constitute a. vector.
In a system of particles we may add up the equations (10} Thon
for all the particles. We now take T, the kinetic energy of (15)
the wholo system, as the sum of those of all the particles. is a. scalar relation; but as the 8x, are arbitrary we can
Then we get equate tboir coefficients and regenerate the equation (1).
t1
If we now integrate with regard to t from t0 to we got
:
[T]t, [ imx,2]' = : J''X,dx,
14 = 14 ' (11},
J''mx,8x,dt J'' !.X,8x1dt
'4
=

to
(16).
the double summation implying summation for all pairs of The loft side, on integration by parts, gives
particles ; the first summation is for the particles producing
the forces X, and the second for the particles acted on. It [mx,8x,J:- J: mi, 8x1 dt (17).
may happen that tho X, are all functions of the coordinates But wo can consider the x, + 8x, as
coordinates of a par
ticle n
i a. motion differing slightly from the actual one; that
alone, and not of their volocities, and that provided the
x,
initial and final values of the are the same the integral is
at a. given value of t, the coordinates are x, + 8x, instead
the same however tho x, may vary in the interval. If so,
is,
of x,. Then
the int-0gral is the difference between the values of a certain d d d
function U for the initial and final positions of the system; dt 8x, = dt (x, + 8x1} dt x,
-

we call the system conservative and U the u:ork-function. = x, + 8i, x,

-

Then ( 1 1} becomes
=8x, (18},
is
since x, + 8x, simply the varied velocity or rate of change
(12),
of the varied coordinate x, 8x,. Thon
-L-
or - U = constant
T (13).
This is tho equation of conservation of energy. The quanti
ties on both sides aro scalars. - U is often denoted by V
and called the potential ener(Jy.
(19).
28 PARTICLE DYNA:\IICS
Then for every particle, to the first order,
h {8 (!mil) I- :EX,8x,} dt = m.X,Sx,
[ Jh
J
le
(20).
CHAPTER IV

We can now add up those equations for all the particles of

the system. If U exists we can express the result in the D Y N A :\I I C S OF RIGID BODIES

A rigid body is one such that whenever it is displaced the

form

I,,
t. 8 (T + U) dt = :E m.X,Sx,
[ ]h
t. (21), distance between any two particles of it is unaltered. Since
three particles A, B, 0 are in a straight line if the sum of two
or, sinco the limits aro not varied, we can move the 8 out of the distances AB, BO, OA is equal to the third, it follows
side the integral. If the variation is such that the initial that straight lines are unaltered by displacements of a. rigid
and final positions of the system are unaltered, 8x, = 0 body. Since when A, B, 0 are not in a. straight line the angles
...
when t t., or t1, and we have of the triangle ABO are determinate functions of the three
sides, it follows that all angles a.re unaltered by displace
O
8
I,, (T + U) dt =
to ments of a rigid body. If three lines meeting a.t a. point and
to the first order in the variations of the path. This is fixed in the body are mutually perpendicular before dis
Hamilton's principle. placement, they are still perpendicular after the displace
ment.
The equations of dynamics in the form tn.X, X, are-
EXAMPLES true with respect to dynamical (that is, non-rotating a.nd
1. If the Cnrtc!linn coordinat of every particle of a system are unaccelerated) axes. Let a.ny particle Q of a. body have
knO\\O functions of a sot of generalized coordinates qr coordinates x, with reference to dynamical axes a.t 0. Then
{cl (
prove that
aT ) - aT} Jet the body be displaced in any way, and let the particle
'<:
-" &i:, - di aqr aqr &ir have the new coordinates x/. We require the relation

u,&i:, - x, '&ir
uqr
between x/ a.nd x,. Consider a. particle of the body, P say,
whose coordinates before and after the displacement are
i also understood on the right
where tho summ ation convention s a, and a/. Put
side. Deduce Lagrange's equations for the case where tho qr are
all i ndependent. z, = a, + y,; z/ = a/ + y/ (1).

2. Tho equations of motion of a particle are 1, ... X, - k:t1 Then y, and y/ are the coordinates of Q with respect to
where k is constant. Provo that axes at P parallel to the dynamical axes before and after
<!'- cl the displacement. Also il we imagine the original axes at
2T - - x,X, + dt2 (tmx,2) + dt (!lc:t,2). P to be specified by the particles on them, these particles
in the new position still specify a set of rectangular axes,
changing ils state, on an average over a long time, 2T- - x,X,.
JTence how lhat for a system in periodic motion, or in ono slowly
with respect to which the coordinates of Q are still y,. If
 DYNAMICS OF RIGID BODIES DYAMIOS O F RIGID BODIES 31
30
the cosine of the angle between the Yk a.xis in its new posi
where l, are the direction cosines of the a.xis of rotation.
Thus tho a,.,. are determined in terms of this axis a.nd the
angle of rotation. Conversely, if we take the symmetrical
tion and the y, axis in its old one is a,.,., we ha.ve therefore

y,' = auY1 (2),

and antisymmetrical parts,
whence x/ = a,' + au (x.,. - a1:) (3) .
(l,lk - 81k) {l - cos 8) = l (b,.,. + b111) ( 10).
The displacement of Q is

a,' - a, + a,.,.y.,. - y, (4). l {e.,.,m - ;i:m) lm sin 0 = i (b,k - b,,,) (11).

We can prove that thoro is a. straight line of particles in the But for a given m, with ikm in cyclic order,
body such that the displacement of Q is the same as that
11m - 11cm = - 2 (12).
of P. For such a. particle we should have
Thus ( 1 3),
auYt - y, = (au - 8,.,.) y.,. = 0 (5),
and these three homogeneous equations in Y1c are consistent and

sin2 0
provided
(6), = l {(b1 - b21)2 + (b23 - ba2)2 + (b31 - b13)2} {14).
2
tha.t is, =0 (7). Now suppose that the displacement is small. Then a11,

a23
have nearly their values for zero displacement, that is,
8,.,.. The direction cosines of the '!
/k and y1 axes in their now
l.:!1 a22 - 1
ll:i1 ll:i2 ll:is - I positions are au: and a11, and thus, if k :F l,
Now the determinant II au: II is unity, and each element in
it is equal to its first minor. If we expand (7) we get
a,,,a0 = 0 ( 1 5),

1 1 a,.,. 1 1 - Hau au - au au) + Ca22a,,, - a.:ia) and, if k = l, a,.1:au = l (16).

+ (ll:i:l<Lu - a31ttuH + (au + au + ll:i:i) - 1 = 0 (8), But in (15) for i = k, aa is nearly l and a0 small; for i = l,
since the terms all cancel. Hence (5) have an infinite a0 is nearly 1 a.nd aa: small ; for i not equal to k or l, both
number of solutions, all proportional, and the points there au and a11 are small. Hence to the first order
fore lie on a straight line.
If we take any two planes through this line, the angle
(17).
between them is the same after displacement as before, II k = l, then for i #:- k or l both terms of ( 16) are small of tho
and therefore all planes are rotated through the same angle. second order, and therefore for i = k or l, a,,, = 1 + a.
Thus any displacement of a rigid body is equivalent to a. second order quantity. Thus to the first order
displacement of a particle of it combined with a rotation
about a. line through that particle. If the angle of rotation
(18),
is 8, we have, by comparing (5) with {52) of Chapter II, where bu, is an anti.symmetrical tensor.
is 8a, + a,,.y,, - y,, whero 8a, is
b,a: ""' a,.,. - 8,.,. 'rhe displacement of Q
tho displacement of P, and is a first order small quantity.
- (l,l1c - 8,k) (1 - cos 8) - 11,m lm sin 8 (9),
32 DYNAMICS OF RIGID BODIES DYNAMICS OF RIGID BODIES 33
Now let X, be the total force acting on the particle at Q. sider the displa-0ements that take place in a short time
In the clisplacomont the work it does is the scalar interval St, and put in the limit
S W = X, (Sa, + a,"y" - y,) Sa, = u,St; b"' = w,,.St (24),
= X, (Sa, - b,,.y,.) and call u, the velocity of P and w1,. the angular velocity
of the body. Then the velocity of Q is
= X,Sa, - !bo, (X,y,. + X"y,) - ib'" (X,y,. - Xky,)
(19 ). (25).
:c,
When i and k are interchanged, b," and X,y,. - X1:Y are
Now consider the centroid G, with coordinates de
fined by
reversed in sign, while X,y,. + X,.y, is unaltered. Hence
(26).
SW = X,Sa, + t (y,X,. - y,.X,) b,,. (20). It is usually assumed without proof that G is fixed in the
Now write y,X,. - y,.X, = L,,. (21), body, though this is not obvious. But suppose that the
particle at G with coordinates x, in the original position of
so that L"' is an antisymmetrical tensor. The second term
the body goes to G' when the body is displaced, its new
in (20) is the sum of nine terms, of which three are always
coordinates are x/, given by
zero and the others equal in pairs. If we replace b"' and
L' by the associated vectors, we have x/ = a/ + a,,. (:ck - ak) (27),

S W = X,Sa, + Lmbm (22), and the coordinates of the new centroid G" are :e,", given by
('f.m) ;:c," = "f.mx/
where the Sa, and bm are all independent of one another (28).
and the same for all particles of the body. Hence if we add We have to show that G' and G" coincide. We have
for all particles of the body ('f.m) ii/ = Lm {a/ + a,,. (xk - ak)} (29),
S W = (:tX,) Sa, + (Um) b.,, (23), and therefore
and the total work done in any given small displacement is (Lm) (:&/ - x/) = Lm {a/ + a,,. (x,. - ak)}
determinate if we sum up the forces acting by the six - (E1n) {a/ + a,,. p;,. - ak)}
= 'f.maa:x,. - "f.ma,,.:ck
expressions 'f.X,, 'f.Lm . Further, the contributions to
U,, Um from the internal reactions are zero. This follows
at once if these reactions consist of equal and opposite =0 (30).
forces between pairs of particles along the line joining Thus the particle originally at G is displaced to the new
them, and also has the justification that it leads to correct position of the centroid, and therefore the centroid is fixed
results. Then we may restrict il,, 'f.Lm to the contribu in the body.
tions from the external forces. This is d'Alembert's Prin Now return to the equations of motion of a particle of
ciple. the body
In the limiting case of continuous motion, we may con- m.X, = x, (31 ).
34 DY.NA:II!CS OF RIGID BODIES DYNAMICS OF RIGID BODIES 35
By addition we form from these the equations efficients of the independent 8a, and bm of (23) must all
:Emx, = :EX, (32), vanish. But these coefficients aro the :EX, and :EL.,., and
and by cross-multiplication followed by addition for all therefore the :i;, and h1c do not vary with the time. The
the particles of the body, vanishing of the work done by the external forces in six

(x,i1: - x1:i1) = :E (x,X1: - x1:X,)

independent small displacements is therefore a necessary
(33).
and sufficient condition for equilibrium.
On the right sides of (32) and (33) the contributions from The equations (38) may be put in another form. If we
the internal rea<:tions are zero, by d'Alembert's principle. consider any moving origin O', not necessarily fixed in the
Also body, with coordinates a,, we can write for the coordinates
.. d3 ... d"' ( '
- ...
""mx, = d,tt ""mx' = dt"i ""m) x, = u.
,.,,c,

J. (34), of a particle with respect to O',

M = :Em. (35), (39).

where
the total mass of the body. Also if If any vector associated with the particle, such as its
velocity, momentum, or acceleration, or the force a.oting
on it, has components u,, we may form the antisymmetrical
hu. - :Em (x1i1: - X1:i,) (36).
wo can reduce (32) and (33) to tensor y,it1c - y,.u, a.nd call it the moment of the vector
M, .. :EX, (37), about O'. From (32) and (33) we can form the equations

:t h,1: = >:.L,1: (38). :Em (x,i1: - x1:i1) - (a,:Emx1: - a,.:Emi,)

These are the fundamental equations of rigid dynamics.
The three independent hrt a.re expressible in terms of the
three independent w,1: by (36), and we have therefore six
d.ifierential equations for the :c, and w,1:. which determine
them in terms of the initial conditions if the external forces
are given. The motion of the body is therefore determinate.
The principle of virtual work follows immediately. For
if a body is initially at rest, :t, and h;Jt are zero, and the
condition that they may remain zero is that :EX, and '1:.L11:
shall vanish. But this implies, by (23), that in any small
displacement of the body the work done by the oxterna.J
forces is a. small quantity of the second order in the dis
= :E (x,X,. - x1:X,) - (a,LX,. - ai::EX,) (40),
where only the external forces make any contribution to
the right side. But by (39) this is equivalent to
:Em (y,x,. - y,.x,) = :E (y,X1c - y,.X,) (41).
Therefore the sum of the moments of the mass-accelera
tion productl.i a.bout any origin is oqual to the sum of the
moments of the external forces about that origin.
If we denote the moment of momentum, or angular
momentum, about O' by hi: ; ' , we have
(42),

placements. Conversely, if there are six independent

and

possible small displacements such that the external forces #t h11c' = m (y,i1c - t1J.:X1) + m <f11i1: - Yiti,)
do no work, to the first order, in any of them, the co- (43).
36 DYNAl!ICS OF RIGID BODIES DYNAIICS OF RIOID BODIES 37
The second term ma.y be written where B,m is tho symmetrical tensor defined by
Dn {(x, - a,) i" - (i" - ci") x,} ... - m (a,x" - ci"x,) B,m = 1:my,ym (49),
= - M (aA,. - cii::t,) (44). and depends only on the masses and positions of the par
Thus (41) is equivalent to ticles of the body. In the threo-dimcnsional case, with i

:th,"' + M (a,.ii - dii',) = (y,X" - Y1tX1) (45).

and k unequal, m must be equal in turn to i, k, and the
other value. Then, for instance,

In many important cases the second tensor on tho left hu' = (BuWu + Buwu + B%3w13)
vanishes identically. This is clearly true if O' is fixed, when - (B11w21 + Buw22 + B13W23)
the time derivatives of the a, are zero ; when the centroid
is .fixed; and, if both are moving, if the vectors a, and it,
= (B22 + Bu) W12 - B13w'l:J - B'l:Jw31 (50).
are parallel, tha.t is, if the velocity of the moving origin O' If we replace tho antisymmetrical tensors by the associated
is parallel to that of the centroid. The most important case vectors this takes the form
is where the moving origin is identical with the centroid, "3'
= (Bu + B22) w3 - Buw1 - Bt:iwt
when the last condition holds automatically. These terms
also disappear if the moving origin is an instantaneous
= (Bu+ B21 + B33)w8- (B13w1 + B23w2 + B33w3) (51),
centre of rotation always at the ea.me distance from the and in general
centroid. They vanish for a sphere or circular cylinder hm' = A,mWt (52),
rolling down an inclined plane, but not for a rolling elliptic where A,m is the symmetrical tensor given by
cylinder.
If the moving origin is the centroid,
A,m = Bkk8im - B,m
ha' = 1:m {y, (.ii: + Yi:) - Y1: (x, + y,)} = (:Emy"2) 8,m - 'Lhny,y.,. (53).
It evidently corresponds to the system of moments and
= Dn (Ytfki - Ykif1) (46), products of inortia given in ordinary treatises on dynamics;
since Dny, = "i:nny" = 0, Au, A22, A33 are the ordinary moments of inertia. A, B, 0,
by tho definition of the centroid. Thus tho angular mo but At:i, 1131, A12 are equal and opposite to the ordinary
menta about the centroid are expressed completely in products of inertia F, G, H.
terms of positions and motions relative to the centroid, and It should be noticed that this reduction is chnraoteristic
the formulao for them have the same form as those for the of three dimensions; in a highor number of dimensions
total angular momenta with reference to a fixed origin. there is no analogous simplification of the form (48).
By (25) The equations of motion of a. rigid body then take the
if, = - WtmYm (47),
form
m being here a dummy suffix. Substituting in (46) we have M:&, U, = (54),
h0t' = - 1:m (wtm1/iYm - W1mY1/Ym)
(48),
#t h11t' = "Lt1:; or :t hm' = :ELm' (55),
38 DYNAICS OF RIGID BODIES DYNAMICS OF RIGID BODIES 39
where L,1/ is the moment of the external forces about the The kinetic energy of the body is given by
centroid.
It may happen that one point of the body s i fixed. In
2T = :Em..X,2
that case we may take the origin at that point. Then in = L>n (.13, - w,,,.ym)2
= :E1n."t,2 + :Emykymwu, Wtm
addition to the known external forces there is a. reaction
at the origin which can if required be found from (37); but
the reaction has no moment about the origin and the = M'&5t2 + BkmWtkWlm (63).
motion is given by (38). But in this case In three dimensions Q.ltkWim is zero unless i is different from
both le and m. Ii i = 1, le = 2, m = 3, or if i = 1, k = 3,
(50}, m = 2, WJ2W13 = - W2W3. If i = 1, k = m = 2, Wu2 = W32,
and we find, by a process analogous to the Inst one, and has coefficient B22 Thus w32 enters with a coefficient
h,k = D1cmWtm - D,mWkm (57}, B22 + B1v or A33 But w2w3 has a coefficient - 2B23 or
A23 + A32 Thus in all
where (58).
In terms of the associated vector,
2T = M:iJ2 + AkmWkWm (64).
When a point of the body is kept fixed,
hm = O,mwi (59),
2T = OkmWkWm (65).
where o,m = (:Wnxk2) 8,m - !:mx,xm (60).
We notice that the linear and angular momenta take the
Tbo 0,,,. correspond to the moments and products of inertia forms
about the origin. They can be expressed in terms of those
about the centroid; for
O,m = fEm (.ck + Yk)2} 8,m - :Em (.&, + Yi) (.Cm + Ym) 'OT
h,= (66)
ow,
= {:Dm..Ck2) a,,,. - L>nx,:Em
for origin at & point of the body held fixed.
(61), In one respect the forms (55)and (02) a.re inconvenient.
the terms linear in the y's vanishing by the definition of the They involve the tensors A ,mand 0,111 , which depend on
centroid. the x, and y, and therefore in general change as the body
The relevant equa.tions of motion then take the form rotates. It is more convenient to use such axes that the
relevant tensor in tho particular problem is constant. To
(62), achieve this the axes must rotate, and then are no longer
dynamical axes. Suppose then that we have a. set of axes
where the L111 are the moments of the external forces a.bout x/ rotating in any way, and that their direction cosines
the origin, the reaction at the origin making no contri with respect to the dynamical axes x, are au. All the usual
bution. tensor relations hold for transformations from the x/
40 DYSAl\IICS OF RIGID BODIES DYNAMICS OF RIGID BODIES 41

system to the x, system and vice versa; but the a11, while If for instance the components of a. displacement along the
specified for each instant, are now functions of the time. x/ a.xes are u/, the formula. (73) gives the components of
If u, is any vector, we have the velocity along these axes ; if u/ are tho components of
u/ = a11u,; 1t, = a11u/ (67). velocity, (73) gives the components of acceleration; if u/

'
are the components of angular momentum, (73) gives the
Then is another vector; and components of their rates of change with reference to
dynamical axes, and these are equal to the components of
du, d1t/ + , da11 the moments of the forces acting.
dt = au dt
u
, dr
(68).

The component of this vector in the xi' direction is

EXAMPLE
+ auu1 -dt-
du/ , dau
a"a,1 (69).
dt Prove that

The first term of this is

h,,' - - m!ft?him11nob w,
du/ _ du (_ - A,11w1
II - (70).
dt dt

Also a;;' is the x, velocity of a point at unit distance along

the x/ axis, that is, a point with coordinates a11 (i = 1, 2, 3)

with rofcrenoe to tho dynamical axes. This velocity is
- 8u.:ak1, whoro 80, is the antisymmetrical tensor expressing
the rotation of the rigid frame consisting of the moving
axes. Then

= - 81/u/ (71 ),
and the required component is

dt - 811 u,
du,' t I
(72).

If we use instead of 811' the associated vector, the three

components become

(iii' - Ui'8a' + ""3182' 2' - ""3181' + Ui'8a'

U31 - 'Ui1 82' + U21 8/) (73).
JCT
 EQUIVALENCE OF SYSTErs OF FORCES 43
If we take the associated vector, its component in the
direction m,,. is
CHAPTER V
.
.,. m,,.a,Z1c) = R (m,l/
R (m,,.l,,.' - Eil + l,m/) (8),
EQUIVALENCE OF SYSTEMS where m/ are the other coordinates of the line through a,
OF FORCES in the direction m,. We notice that

An external force X, acting at a point x, of a rigid body

produces dynamical effects summed up in tho vector x,
and the antisymmotrical tensor x,X"' - x1cX,. A forco has
a line of action; that is, if wo take its resultant R given by
(1)
m,l/ + l,m,' = d sin 8 (9),
where 0 is the angle between the two lines and d the length
of their common perpendicular. \Ve may call Rd sin 8 the
moment of the force about the line (m,, m,').
By d'Alembert's principle, the motion of a. body is un
altered if to the forces acting on it we add two equal and

we can define a direction l, by opposite forces acting at the same point, oc, by (3). along
the same line of action.
X, ... Rl, (2).
Now consider a pair of equal and opposite forces X, and
By convention R is always taken positive. If a. force X, - X, acting at points a, and b,. They clearly make no
acts at the point x, + 1l,, whore r is arbitrary, we ha.vo contribution to :EX, . Their contribution to r.L,k is
(x, + rl,} Xi; - (X1c + rlk) X, = x,X11: - x1cX, (3). (a,X,., - a,,X,) - (b;X1c - b,,X,)
Thus the dynamical effects are the same if the force X, = (a, - b,) X,, - (a,, - b1) X, (10).
acts a.t any point of a. lino through x, with direction cosines
proportional to X,. This line is called the line of action of
Since a, and b, are equally affected by any motion of the
origin, the contribution of such a pair of forces applied to
the force, and the force can be said to act alon{l it.
If a force has magnitude R and acts a.t x, in the direction
definite particles to both 'i.X, and !.L0: is independent of
the position of the origin. Such a. pair is called a couple,
and its contribution to 'i.L11c is called the
l,, we have
X, = Rl, (4), moment of the
couple.
L0, = R (x,l,, - x,1:l1)
- b,
(5), If the vectors a, and X, are both perpendicular to
or L,,. .... Rl.,/ (6), a line with direction cosines n,, tho components of 'i.L,,. are
the components of a. vector aJong this line; wbiJe the forces
in the notation of the coordinates of a line. Thus the X,
the products of the resultant into the six
act in tho same p1ane perpendicular to the line. This plane
and L,,. are
s
i called the plane of the couple, and the line an axis of the
coordinates of the line of action.
is couple. Evidently equal couples in parallel planes are
equivalent. The magnitude of this vector is Rd, whore
The moment of tho force X, about a. point a,

(x, - a,} X,, - (x,, - a,,) X, = B (Z,,; - a,l11: + a,,l,) (7). B2 =- X,2 and d is the perpendicular distance of a, from a
44 EQUIVALENCE OF SYSTE.lfS OF FORCES EQUIVALENCE OF SYSTEl\IS 0.1" FORCES 45

lino through b, parallel to X,; and its components can
accordingly be written Rdnm.
Any system of forces is equivalent to a. force at an
arbitrary point a, together with a. couple. For with each
X, acting at x, we can associate a. pair of forces X, a.t a, .
Then the system is equivalent to I:X, at a, together with
a. set of couples whose t-0tal moment is
M,1c = l: {(x, - a,) X1c - (x1c - a1c) X,} ( 1 1).
But this is equivalent to a single couple ; for we have only
to make nm proportional to the M.,. and Rd equal to their
resultant.
If L1111 are the moments about the origin,
L,1c = 1: (x,X,, - x1cX1)
(12),
and if for brevity we replace :EX, by simply X,,
M,,, = L,t - (a,X1c - a1cX1) (13),
or (14 ).
Evidently X,2 is a scalar and independent of a,. Also
XmMm = XmLm - Etkm a,X1cX,,. (15).
i a scalar and independent of a,. The second
The first term s
is identically zero. Hence X,2 and X,M, a.re scalar in
variants.
The system s i equivalent to a force X, and a. couple M,
at a,. These vectors are parallel if
(16),
where p is a scalar length called the pit,ch. These give three
linear relations between the three a, and the pitch, and we
therefore expect a. single infinity of solutions. But if we
take the scalar product of (16) by X,,, we have
(17),
so that p is tho same for all admissible values of a,. With
this value of p, (16} represents three planes with a. line in
common. If we change a, to a, + uX" where u is a. scalar,
the loft side of (16) is increased by
- Ea:muX,X,, = 0 (18),
and therefore if a, is one point on the line, all points on the
line through a, parallel to X, satisfy the conditions. This
lino is the central axis of tho system; the system is equiva
lent to a. force R along the central axis and a couple G
about it. This expresses the syBtem as a. wrench. If we take
the central axis as one of the coordinate axes, we have,
since X,2 and X,Mi are scalars,
R2 = Xl (19),
GR = X,M, = pX/ (20),
and therefore G, R, and p are determined.
The system can also be reduced to a couple parallel to
a preassigned plane togothor with a. force. For if S is the
couple, and n, are the direction cosines of tho normal to the
plane, and fi the force acts through a,, we have, for the
moments a.bout a"
(21),
and also M,,, = Sn,,. (22).
We have three equations to determine tho a, and S. Again
there are a single infinity of solutions. But if we take the
scalar product by Xm, we get
Sn.,.Xm = L,,.Xm - Ef1.:ma,X1cXm
= GR (23),
so that S is determined provided nm Xm is not zero, that is,
provided the resultant force is not parallel to the plane.
Then the equations
(24)
46 EQUIVALECE OF S YSTE1\1S OF FORCES EQUIVALENCE OF SYSTEMS OF FORCES 47

determine a line parallel to X,, which is the line of action so that we have in goneral just enough equations. Two such
of tho force. Jines are conjiigate lines. Clearly any line intersecting two
If l, are the direction cosines of a line through a,, the conjugate lines is a null line.
moment of the system about this line is lt can be shown easily that

lmMm = lmLm - EtkmaiXklm (25) S (X,l/ + L,l,) = L, X, (31),

lmLm + l,/Xk T2 = x,2 - 2sz,x, + s2 (32),

= (26),
If this
whence (28) and (29) determine the coordinates of the
whore lk' are the other coordinates of the line.
moment vanishes the line is called a null line of the system.
second line explicitly.

If b, is another point on it,

L.,. (b,,. - a,,.) = eo.ma,XJ: (b,,. - a,,.) (27}, EXAMPLES

which shows that b, lies in a definite plane through a,. All 1. A system of forces is reduced to a. force a.t P together with
a. couple; P is chosen so that the couple is parallel t-0 a. given
null lines through a point therefore lie in one plane. This
central &.'\:s.
i
plane. Show that the locus of P is a. straight line parallel to the
plane is called the null plane of the point.
All null lines in a plane pass through a point. For the
2. Show that
system can in genoral be reduced to a couple in the plane
and a force whose line of action intersects the plane in one
point. Then the system has no moment about any line in point on the central a.xis.
the plane through this point, which is the null point of the
s
i a

S. Two systems of forces are given by (X" L,). (Y,, K,). Show
plane.
tha.t X,K, + Y,L, is invariant.
.Any system is equivalent to two forces, one of which can
be made to act along a given line. For let the lines of
action pass through a, and b, , and have direction cosines l,
and m,, and let the magnitudes of the forces be S and T.
Then we have six equations,

X, = Sl, + Tm, (28),

Lm = Etkm (a,Slk + b,Tmk)
(29).
Tho coordinates of the first line being given, these are six
linear equations to determine the six coordinates of the
second line and S and T. But we have also

(30),
 COXTINUOUS SYSTEMS 49

integral is over S; and the sense of the normal is such tha.t

if the contour is described in the positive sonso about any
OH A P TE R VI
axis x,, z, is taken positive when the normal is in the direc
tion of x, increasing.
C O N T I N U O U S S Y S T E l! S The gravitational potential of a distribution of matter is
given by
In problems involving volume and surface integrals we find
(6),
it convenient to denote elements of volume and surface by
dn and dS respectively ; both are alwa.ys ta.ken positive. where m is an clement of mass, r is its distance from the
They aro of course scalars. The direction cosines of the point where V is to be found, and f is a constant equal to
normal to an element of surface are usually denoted by l1; 666 x 10-s when m and r are measured in grams and centi
in most cases the normal is drawn outward.a from the region metres and the time in seconds. When the mass is distributed
under consideration. continuously over a surface or through a. volume, m must bo
Green's Lemma. takes the form replaced by udS orpdn respectively, where u and p are called
JJJ ; dT = JJ l,u,dS (1),
the surface and volume densities. The work in displacing
a mass m' through a small distance is m'dV.
and we have the corollary, if The electrostatic potential of a system of point charges
u, = is given by
=
oV/ox, (2),
where V is a scalar, e
V f'Tt (7 ),
JJJv2 V = JJ dS
r

dn (3), where e is a typical element of charge. If e is in electro

a a o' static units of charge and r in centimetros,/is + 1. The work
V'= '.:lz= -::. 2+ ;;;-z +
a
ux, uXi ox, ax,
where (4), in a small displacement of a charge e' in the field is- e'dV.
The usual relations follow, that in free space in both
and o/on denotes dilierentiation along the outward normal.
Stokes's Theorem takes the form
cases
v2v o = cs>.
and in space occupied by matter of finite density
v2v = - 4'1Tfp (9).
Also we have Gauss's Theorem
- JJ l, E(l'n4 OU,,./OX1c dS (5).
JJ as = 4'1Tf''L'm or - 4'1Tf'Tt'e (10),
The integral on the left is round a. closed contour 0. On
-

the right l, is the direction cosine of the normal to any whcro the summation is over all the masses or charges
element dS of a. surface S that fills up the contour; the within the closed surface 8. In crossing a surface whoro
ISO CONTINUOUS SYSTEMS CONTINUOUS SYSTEMS IS l

there is a finito surface density CT, oV/an bas a. finite dis whore the first integral is through all regions where p is
continuity - 4:-rrjCT. finite and the second over all surfaces where CT is finite ; the
All tbcso relations are scalar in form. For a. gravitational first integral may therefore be taken through all space,
field the force on a. small particle of mass m' is excluding the surfaces where there is a surface density. It
can be shown that with proper precautions about the de
m'X, = m'oV/ax, (11),
finition of V the restriction p :F q gives no trouble provided
while for an electrostatic field the force on a. small charge V is everywhere finite.
e' s
i Now if we consider the integral through all space except
e'X, = - e'oV/ex, (1 2). thin laminae surrounding the surfaces where CT is finite,
The vectors X, are called the intensities of gravitational
! JJJ VdT
p = -s!r1 JJJ V :dT
_ ...!_ JJJ { ( v a v)_ (av)'}
and electric force respectively. The analogy in form be
d-r
tween (6) and (7) is constructed for mathematical con
ax, ax,
venience; the difference in sign in (11) and (1 2) embodies =
87Tf ex,
tho physical difference that whereas two positive masses
attract, two positive charges repel. =-
Sf
JJ V dS + s!,1 JJJ(:,r dT (15},
In a gravitating system wo may construct a work-
where the dn in the first integral is out from the region of
integration and therefore towards the swi'a.co whore CT is
function
(13},
finite. On the two sides of such a. surface tho values of V
differ by an indefinitely small a.mount, and for tho two

where the summation is over all pairs of particles m,,, m,,,
and rw is the distance between m,, and m,,. The case where
p = q is excluded. Then the force on the pth particle is
o W/(<Jx,),,. The potential at m,, due to the other particles is
V,, ... "i:.'Jm,,/r", tho accent indicating that the case where
q = p is excluded from the summation; and the function
l:m,, V,, - 2W, since each pair of particles is counted twice
in this double summation. The function !l:m,, V,, therefore
plays the part of a work-function. Similarly in electro
statics the function yl:e,, V,, plays the part of the work
function with its sign reversed, that is, of a potential energy.
These results may bo generalized to the case of continuous
distributions; thus we can replace these functions by
dS = 4-rrjCTdS,
sides together by GaU&>'s Theorem.
Hence the first integral in (15) is equal to - ! JJCTV dS
taken over the surface and cancels the second term in (14).
Hence
( 16)
through all space. In consequence of this form wo may say
that the gravitational work-function, or the electrostatic
potential energy, is R2/87r/per unit volume, where R is the
resultant of the appropriate intensity vector.
When the properties of the medium vary from place to
place, V is no longer of the form "i:,fe/r, and V2V is no longer
zero. But a potential still exists ; if a small charge e' is
52 CONTINUOUS SYSTEMS CONTINUOUS SYSTEMS 53
moved from a point P to a point Q, the work done is still Tho first integral, applied to all space except thin regions to
the sa.me whatever the route, and may be denoted by cut off surfaces where there are surface densities, gives
(VP - V0 ). The treatment is suggested by the fact that
&rrf JJJ v ax, (x0ox,v) aT
_!_
e'
_
two similar condensers with the plates at the same po
tentials, but with air between the plates of one and another
material between those of the other, have charges in a. ratio
K depending only on the media. oV/on
on the outside of
- - ! JJJ{a:, (xv) - K ()2} dT
the condenser being small compared with its value be
tween the plates, we infer that the charge per unit area. for
=- 81 JJxv as + 81 JJJx (rdT c22).
the same distribution of Visrelated to the discontinuity in The surface integral cancels the integral ! JJ VdS; and
u
KoV/on, where K depends on the material. This suggests henco
= 8/ JJ1 K (r dT
in turn that Gauss's Theorem must be replaced by
w (23).
JJK d B = - 47Tf2-e (17),
so that the energy can be considered equal to KR2/87rf per
unit volume.
where the summation is for all charges inside S. Then
Magnetism may be treated similarly, starting from the
applying this to the two sides of any surface we have
assumption of volume and surface distributions of mag
netic pole st1ength, subject to tho condition that the total
(18),
pole strength in any solid is zero ; or we may regard the
and applying it to a region with a finite volume density we ultimate magnetic unit as the doublet, which explains the
have need for the restriction involved in the former method of
treatment. The potential at x, due to a doublet of strength
- hf JJJ pdT = JJJ !, (x ;) dT (19), M at tho origin with its axis in the direction ,\ is
and as this must hold for all such regions,
V = yM >.,x,/r' (24).
and if the doublet strength per unit volume in a solid is I
-;,oX1a- (K av)

CX;
= - 4-rrjP (20). in the direction >., we can introduce the intensity of mag
netization at ', the vector A, = I>.,, and say that the
These equations are all homogeneous in V, p,
u; hence poteutial at x, is
the potential due to any set of charges is proportional to
(25 ),
the charges if all are altered in the same ratio. Using this
principle we can show by the usual method that the energy w1cro A , corresponds to the point g, and d!r = d!1 d!2d!3;
of a distribution is y is a constant. Tho magnetic force in frco space s
i
oV
a, = -

ox,
-
(26).
54 COTINUOCS SYSTElIB CO:N"TINUOUS SYSTEIS 53

We may write it also contributes nothing to X,; but if the cylinder is

of disc-like form it contributes 4rry>..,T to X ,. Hence if we
V = y JffAt 0' () dT
tako V for the complete body and define a, by

_ ,, JJJ{a, (') - 1;} &r a =

,
av
- ox, (29),

JJ JJf 1'}
z, , as _ ,,
a, is the value taken by X, in a. thin cylindrical cavity
-= ,,
&r
(27).
parallel to the intensity of magnetization. The force in a.
flat cylindrical cavity with its generators in this direction is
The potential is therefore equivalent to that due to a dis
tribution of magnetic poles l,A, per unit area. over the a, = a, + 4rry>.., J = a, + 4rryA, (30).
boundary and - oA1/oe, per unit volume through the in
Evidently a, and a, are both vectors ; the former is called
terior.
tho magnetic force and tho latter the magnetic induction.
Within a. solid special treatment is needed. To define V
or tho force atx,, when x, is within a. solid, we must imagine
The theory of susceptibility and permeability may then be
developed as usual. Also (27) shows that V is continuous
a. small cavity made a.bout x,, the intensity of magnetiza
tion everywhere remaining as before, and consider V and
across a boundary ; but Z, a, a V/On. has a. discontinuity
=

a, within it; then the values of V and a, at x, are defined to
be the limits of those in the cavity when the dimensions of
the cavity become indefinitely small. This process leads to
- 4rryl,A,; whence l,a, is continuous across a botmdary.
The mutual potential energy of two doublets M and M'
at x, and x/, oriented in directions >.., and >../, is

little difficulty in gravitational and electrostatic problems,

W = ,\ 'M'
oi_ (31) ,
but in magnetism the limit of the force is found to depend ' ox/
on the shape and orientation of the cavity. The force in
the cavity can be written where V is the potential at x/ due to the magnet at x,; this

- oo-,
gives

' (" t - xk)

V
x, =
x
(28).
r -
'V - ll K '' I a
JJ. M " -
'}'J
flXt
-::. ,
' x,/
t
3
- -

where V is given by (27); in the first integral the normal is

inwards towards the cavity. The contributions to X, from =
YMM
' {>..,'>.., 3 >..,'>.."
r
3
_
r
3
x ,/ - xk x/
r
- x,
r
} (32)
the volume integral and the outer boundary aro of the same
form as for gravitation, and give no trouble. II the cavity
is a cylinder in the direction of the intensity of mB-oanetiza. =
yJfM'
r' (cos E -3 cos 8 cos 8') (33),
tion, l,A,is zero over the sides and equal to J, the resultant
intensity of magnetization, on the ends. Such a surface where E is tho angle between tho axes of the magnets and
density over the ends in the limit contributes nothing to V ; 8 and 8' are the angles made by the axes with the line
if the radius of the cylinder is small compared to its length joining the centres.
 67
66
CONTIXUOUS SYSTE:\IS
CONTIUOUS SYSTE)!S
If the second magnet is turned through a small angle 8ifs we have
an d
I
about a. line with direction cosines n,, d11,
-dt
=
0 dt dt J
dx, + o u, (dx,)

JcP! p dx, Jo
8.\/ = n1t'A.r.' 8rp
Jc u1du,
e,nn (34),
ux,
= - + X,dx, + (4).
by (49) of Chapter II. Hence, by (32),
The last integral is r!u,2], which always vanishes because
SW = :.\ 8i\/
when we move round the contour we come back to the
same point, where the velocity has its original value. Also
= ')'M.m \ - 3 COS 0
sip f
. 3 /\t
UI
X/ - z,} Ef,tm?t,t llm ,
\ t
if X, is tho gradient of a. single-valued potential, as when
r l r
the bodily forces are due to gravity (the commonest case),
so that the couple a.bout a line parallel to the a.xis of Xt is
J X,dx,istho change of thispotcntial round thecontourand

MIt = y
MM ,
' Et1tm llm , {'/\' - 3 COS u
ax/ - x, }
(35). is zero. Again, if p is a function of p only, as in an incom
r
pressible liquid or a gas at uniform temperature, the first
Hydrostatics and Olassical Hydrodynamics. The internal integral vanishes and
reaction in a. fluid across an element of surface
dS is a
pressure pdS normal to that surface. If the density is p,
=0 (5).

the bodily force per unit mass X,, and the velocity of the If then 0 is ever zero a.round a. circuit it remains so per
fluid at x, is u,, the acceleration of the fluid is found, by manently. This is true if the fluid is initially at rest and is
considering a small parallelepiped, to be given by set in motion by solids moving in it, and in various other
cases of importance. But tho vanishing of n for all circuits
( l).
du, op
p di = - OX + pX, is the condition for the existence of a velocity potential cf>

such that
If
u, is given in the Eulerian way as a. function of the (6).
coordinates x1 and the time t, the opera.tor d/dt, giving the
rate of change of any element associated with a given In this case we can rewrite the equations of motion in
particle of the fluid, is equivalent to the form
ati, ..J.. 1"1: au, _ ! op + x,
d
a a = (7),
P ax,
u,.. ax.1:
+ (2). at ax/t;
=
dt at
and multiplying by dx, and adding we have
If we consider the circulation n around any closed
circuit 0 in the fluid and moving with it, defined by
</> dx, + uk uk dx, = - !
ot ox, ox,v
,
dx; + X,dx, (8),
p

(O).
ax, oxk .... ax,
au, o'<P au,..
since =
(3), ax/t;
' JCT
58 COXTINUOUS SYSTEMS CONTIXUOUS SYS1'EiUS 69
This shows that for all contemporaneous variations and a i:;olution of (4) is

f + iuk2 =

-
J; + U + constant (10), cp = - JJI dT (0),

where </> is to be evaluated at x, and 6. at g,;

X, =
oU
ax,
where - (11);
a,,. = ae1 M2 ea (7),
d
uk2 is tho square of the resultant velocity q. The constant of
integration is not necessarily the same a.t all instants and and r is tho distance from e, to x,.

u, =
oFm oFk oFm
oxk - OXm = a.-m a..c
therefore may be a function of the time. Hence we have
the Bernoulli integral
If
-;; (S).
d

at
+ q
i ' = f p + U + F(t )
- P
(12). where F, is a. vector such that
F,
o (0),
oxi =
Tho rate of change of mass within a given small paral
lelepiped d1 ddXs is equal and opposite to the rate of
= ikm -:1_ -
0-u, o2Fm
0 0
ox, v1uX.t
'iJp we haYe (10).
d7' =
outflow ; hence

(pu, d
=

- OXi
) T (13),
3t Thon also
and wo ha.vo the equation of contimuty
Ouk ou, Ouk
Wm =
ax,
-O
Xk = ;i.,-m ax,
op o
- (14}, 'iJF
ct == oxi (pu;) = um1 "1.-.,,. '5 .
o
dp - p ou, Ci
X, ux"
or = (15).
dt ax, aeF,
= - i.,-m t>k3
Vectors with given Divergence and Curl. We sometimes vX,uX"

=
have to find a. vector u, such that a2F.
(8;.. 8m" - 8,f)8ma) ox,

CiX"

; =
6. ( 1 ),
= 8u dXi
02F, o2Fm
ouk oit, dX,.,.
-- - 81i> - -
ox, <JX"
(2),
a aF, a2F,.,.
- - = Wtk
ox, Oxk
where 6. is a given scalar and wik a given antisymmetrical OXm axi - ex,2
=

=
tensor. We want particular int.egrals of these equations.
v2 F"' (11)
Evidently if
aq,
1i, =
-

ux, ), by (9).
(3
where </> is any scalar, Thus if (1 2),
(4), we shall have
o
u
),
ott, ou,
ax, == 0
(5 = wu-; ( 1 3},
a:v; - Oxk
 COXTINUOUS SYSTElIS 61
Thus u,' is the gradient of a scalar </>' satisfying Laplace's
60 COXTINUODS SYSTEllS
provided (0) is satisfied. But
oF"' ... ..!_
JJJ w ex"'
._ ()r d-r
equation. Thero is no such scalar that makes tho velocity
finite everywhere, including at an infinite distance, except
CXm 47T "'
a linear function of the coordinates. Hence u/ is the same
..!_ JJJ "' agm
w __ () d..,. (14), everywhere.
If there a.re solid boundaries or free surfaces at a. finite
-
r
=

4m
since w,,, is a function of g, alone and
a. function of r distance u,' may not be constant. lf the region where
x, - g,. Applying Groan's Theorem to all space except a. vorticity is present does not extend to a. boundary, there is
small sphere about x,, we get no contribution to (14) from points outside this region; we
?F.,.
ax,,.
=
- ..!. Lim
4m
JJ l"'rw"' dS + - 1 Lim
4m
JJJ r! og.,.
w,,, ..,.
d
therefore take (14) through a. region largo onough to contain
the wholo of the vorticity. Then the surface integral in (15)
(10), must also be taken over the boundary of this region, but
since F.,. has the form of a gravitation potential and still vanishes, and (17) is still a. solution. But ( 1 i) may not
oF,,./ax, that of a. gravitational force. But the first integral satisfy the boundary conditions, and then we must add to
vanishes in the limit when the sphere becomes very small, u, an irrotational solution chosen to make the whole velocity
and the integrand in the second s i zero provided the com satisfy them.
ponents u, exist, for In electromagnetism u, may be the magnetic intensity
cw,,, _ j._ (ou1c _ ou,) = <n _i:uk =O (lG).
and wm the electric current a.cross unit surface in a plane
of xm constant.
axm O
Xm ax, exit "" ox, OXm
In many cases u, has no curl outside a limited region of
If then we arc given a scalar 6 and a vector w,11 such that
very small cross-section. This is often truo in the motion of
a real !luid, when tho region may be called a vortex fila
its divergence is zero, a solution of (1) and (2) is

u, =
o<f> Fm _ oF"
+ (l7 ), ment, and in magnetism, when the region is a. wire carrying
ax, ox1: ox,,,
an electric current. The former statement may be oxpressed
where </> and F"' are given by (6) and (12) and i/cm, are also by saying that the motion is irrotational outside the
in cyclic order. vortex filament; the latter says that magnetic forces due to
This analysis has two practical applications. In hydro electric currents ha.ve a potential. In either case the integral
dynamics 1t, s i tho velocity and w"' is twice the vorticity,
denoted by 2gm in Chapter IX. Hore the divergence of the
velocity and the vorticity may be given through all space,
(20),

and the velocity (17) satisfies the conditions. If the actual taken around a. closed circuit, is zero if the circuit can be
velocity is v,, we may put filled up by a. surface not cutting tho filament or the wire,
v, = u, + 1t/ (18},
ou,' = O
and has a. constant value for all circuits that cannot be so
Ou.1t'
O;
filled up. The two conditions are mutually exclusive, and
and then u,'
ox,
....
ax,
_

ox"
(19).
therefore the critical region it.5elf must be a closed circuit.
62 CONTINUOUS SYSTEMS
CO.NT!.NUOUS S YSTElS 63
I n each case 6. vanishes. Then </> = 0, and the component
Fm is given by
and

J Ettm e;;m ds = 0 for i = } 01'

(21) 2
and = 277' for i = 3.
taken through the critical region. But if we consider the
Also for unit current Us , the magnetic force, -= 211.
contribution from an element between two planes sepa
rated by dfm, and call the element of surface in a plane
llcnce, in this case, by (25),
n = 4-rr,
parallel to these dS, we have

dT df.,,.dS
=
and in general, if the current is I, n = 4.-rrl, and
f
fJw.,,dS u,dg,
(22),
u' == 1 JE <e1: - x1:) lm as
nm ,.a
= = n (23), (26)

where the line integral s

the filament. Hence
i taken around the boundary of = 1 J E,A...,. e'" x" <1e... (27).

F = m n
J aem
r
(24), This may be transformed by Stokes's Theorem into an
integral over a swface with the wire as its boundary ; thus
ffl.,.Em'/)6 aa Etk ek-
47T

I
u,
e,, xk d8
the integral being taken around the length of the filament.
Also -

I fJ l.,.E,k8 E.,.,,,
= -

ag;g,, G) dS

= - I JJ l.,. (8,.,. 8t,, - 8,,,8A...,.) ogkag,,

a:i ( dS
i) r

=
_
1 JJ {8,.,.v2 (!) - af:;gm (!)} dS
z,,.

lm - 1 JI a.,.
a:, G) as
where ds is an element of length of the filament and a.
z,,.
= (28).
direction cosine.
In hydrodynamics n is the circulation around the fila
ment. In electromagnetism the unit current is such that But - l.,. of.,.02ax, ;:
(1) .
lS the magnetlC force a.t
'
x, due to
if it flows in a. circle of radius 1 cm. it produces magnetic f,
force 277' a.t the ccntrc. If we take tho circle to be in the plane
a. doublet of unit strength at with its axis in the direction
lm.
of Xa constant, with its centre at the origin, we have
Hence the force a.t any point is equivalent to that due
to a. distribution of doublets over tho closing surface, with
ds dB; r = 1 ; Xi = Xi = Xa = O; intensity I per unit area and directed normally to the sur
niagnetic shell
-

f1 = cos 8, g2 = sin 8, g3 O ; li = - sin 8, l2 = cos 8, la=O

face. Such a. distribution constitutes a.
strength I.
of
64 CONTINUOUS SYSTEMS CONTINUOUS SYSTElIS 66
It is customary to assert as a fundamental postulate that where N is now the normal magnetic force due to the whole
the magnetic force due to an electric current is equivalent of the rest of the field. This form may be further extended
to that of a magnetic shell, but I think this course un to express the mutual energy of two electric currents.
desirable. The magnetic shell does not exist in nature and From this equation we can infer, as is done in the standard
direct experimental test is therefore impossible. Further,
though it gives the same force, it does not give the same
works of Jeans and Livens, that if II
NdS varies with the

potential ; the magnetic potential due to a magnetic shell time, the variation generates an induced E.M.F. Jf N dS
is a single-valued function with a. finite discontinuity at the
-

in the circuit.
H we have two circuits carrying currents I and J, their
shell, while that due to an electric current is a cyclic
function with no discontinuity except at tho wire itself.

Field. mutual influence is expressed by the statement that their

(32), where N is taken to bo
x,
Mutual Energy of Electric Circuit and Magnetic mutual energy is of the form
A magnetic pole 11t at is under a force mu,; but the force near e, due to the current J ; points on the latter

mu, = ml /x, JI l,,. o,,. (!) dS (29)

circuit can be taken to be given by x,. Then
-
W = IJM (33),
and lm 0m G) is tho magnetic force normal to the
where M= JJ l,u,dS (34),
'tLt
-

surface at e,,.
due to the polo. Hence - JI l,,. am G) dS and
second circuit. But if F,
is the magnetic force at e, due to unit Current in the
is the vector potential due to such
is the total Bux across the closing surface, or through the a. current,
circuit, of the magnetic force due to the polo. Also if V is u, = t'ti:m
oF..,.
"'l:
- (35).
the magnetic potential due to the current, 0
; ,:
M = JI e{J;ml, 0{e: dS (30)
(30),
and therefore the correct forces arc given by taking
= f F..,.<le,,. (37),
taken around tho circuit. But
(31),
F,,. = f <1;..,. (38),
where N is the normal magnetic force due to a unit mag
netic polo. This can now bo generalized; we say that in
taken around tho second circuit; a.nd therefore

general the mutual pot.ential lV of a current and a set of M=

fJ dx'"raem (39),
magnetic poles is
taken around both circuits. This gives the required form
W = - I If NdS (32), for the coefficient of mutual induction of two circuits.
 ISOTROPIC T BNSORS 67

If i and k are unequal, take i = 1, k = 2. Since r11- ez.i- 0

we ba.ve
CuUu + Cia'l + CitUi1 + 1'13 = 0 (3),
CHA P TE R V I I
and therefore
I S O T lt O P I C T E N S O R S = Ui3 = O; ttu = 1'u (4).
By symmetry u"' is therefore 0 if i #: k, while uu - Ur! u,, .
A tensor is called isotropic if its components retain the II i and k are both I, we have
Ci!Un +Ciat +Ci.situ + Cis1l1s = 0
same values however the axes are rotated. We have
(5),
already obtained three examples, namely 8,,., Ettnu and
Ea.. Empe which is satisfied since every term vanishes. Ilence the
There are no si otropic tensors of the first order. For if onJy isotropic tensor of order 2 is a scalar multiple of 8u,.
u, was such a tensor, lot us give the axes a small rotation II u,11,,. is an isotropic tensor of the third order,
u',,.,,. = (8,1 - Co) (8,., - C1;1) (8,nn - C,,.11) U11n (1),
expressed by the antisymmetrical tensor c,,.. Thon in the

and therefore, for a.11 values of i, k, m,

new system
u/ = (8u - C;1) u1 - u, - cuu1 ( 1),
and this can bo equal to u, only if Cu'Un.-m + C1cJUt1m + c,,,1u,,.1 = 0 (2).
C1f' UJ = 0 (2) Take i = k = I. Then
for all admissible values of the c11 Thus
CuIm + Cis tm + C12 'Ui2m + Cis 'Ui3m
Cu 'U1 + Cu'U2 + Ci3 = Ol
C.n'Ui + C.12 U2 + Ct:i
+ Cm1Uiu + Cm21'1u + Cn13Um = 0 (3).
0 = (3).
so
C:Ji1'1 + e:izu + 1 = 0
Now put m = 2 that Cmt = 0. Then
But Cii = C.n - e:i:i = 0, while ei2 , C-;i:,, e:ii arc independent and 2 + Uitt = Ui11 l
equal and opposite to tho components obtained by inter 'Uatt + 'Ui3t = Uiu (4).
changing suffixes. Ucnco (3) can be satisfied only if Um = O
1t.i = 1L = U3 = 0 (4),
2 From tho last equation, and by symmetry, un,.,,. 0 if two
=-

and therefore there is no isotropic tensor of the first order of i, k, m are equal and the third unequal. Then by the
other than zero. first, U;nn is also zero if all of i, k, m are equal; and the
If uu, is an isotropic tensor of the second order, second shows that
'
u. '" = ( 8" - c0) ( 81:1 - a,,,) u" u a.
.... = - u..,,,. .
= u," - c11 8,.,u11 - c,.18uun If in (3) we put m = I, every term vanishes, so that (3)
= 1i,,. - c11u,,. - c,.11'-n (1) holds.
to the first order, for all values of i and Tc. Hence N'ow in (2) if i, k, m arc all different, u1l:Jn is zero unless
C1111k + C111Ufl = 0 (2). j .., i, and then cu = 0. Hence (2) holds. It follows that tho
68 ISOTROPIC TESSORS
ISOTROPIC TENSORS 69
only isotropic tensors of order 3 are scalar multiples
and therefore, by interchange of suffixes, all components of
class (b) are zero. Also, from the coefficient of ei3,
of c,l.,,. .
If 'Uo:mi> is an isotropic tensor of order 4, we have,
similarIy, 1'11u2 + 'lL1312 + Umi = 0 (10).
Cu'UJl:mp + c111'U11mp + C,,./UfltlP + Cp1'Ua.
....1 = 0 ( 1). But in (3) the last t-erm vanishes and we infer
There are only three possible values for i, k, m, p, a.nd
therefore at least two of them must be equal. We ma.y con (11),
sider separately the cases where (a) two are equal and the
and therefore
'Uim + 1'11m - 0 ( 12),
other two unequal, (b} three equal, (c) two equal and the whence, by (10),
other two equal, (d} all four equal. Uus:i = 0 (13).
In case (a), take i k = l, m = 2, p = 3. Then
=

Thus all components of class (a) are also zero.

C12U2123 + Cia1'11123 + Cu'Ui22J + Ci3Uim The coefficient of ei2 in (8) gives
+ Ca 1llll3 + 'lu33 + C:i11i121 + C:i2Uu.22 = 0 (2).
Hence, by the antisymmetrical property of Coa
(14),

'Uu23 + 'Uim - Uius = o} (3),

so that the components of class (d) arc expressible in terms

23 + 'Ui823 - 'Uil2l = 0
of the three types of class (c).
No further information is got by transforming com
'U1133 - Uu22 =0 (4). ponents of classes (c) and (d). Thus if i = k = I, m. - p 2,
=

Other instances of case (a) can be obtained by inter replacing i or k by j will give a zero component unlcss j is
changing suffixes that are not already equal, and by turning equal to 1 ; and then the factor c11 or c1r1 is zero, and the
the axes so as to bring 3 into the position of 1, 1 into that relation holds automatically. Similar considerations apply
of 2, and 2 into that of 3. Thus (4) gives if all of i, k, m, p are equal.

'Uiu3 = 'Uitn = 'Uma = U2211 = tla:m =

We may denote the components of type (5) by .\, those
of type (G) by . + v, a.nd those of type (7) by . - v. Then
(5).
And also (14) gives
'Ui:na = 1L1212 = 1(2323 = Unu = u'3m = U:il3t (6}, 'll11u = 'Um! = U3333 = ,\ + 2. (15).

U3m = U21n - = U1tt1 = 'llt:132 = Uu31
In case (b), take i = k m = 1, p = 2.
Ci2Uw2 + Ci3U;n12 + C12tt12u + Cistlm!
+ Cntlu12 + Ci3'llu:n + Cii Ulll1 + 'Uw3 = 0
The last term shows that
1Lws = 0
(7). There appear therefore to be three independent isotropic
tensors of order 4, obtained by taking each of .\, ., v in
turn equal to 1 and the others to zero.
In the .\ tensor, 'U11.,11,, = 1 if i = k and m - p, and in all
(8). other cases is zero. It is therefore equivalent to 8,k8,,.11,
which is obviously a tensor of order 4, being the product of
two tensors of order 2.
In the . tensor, ua..,11,, = I if i = m, k p, or if i ... p,
(9),
==
70 ISOTROPIC T E N S O R S
k = m, and i i= k. If also i = k, the component is 2. Other
components are zero. This can be written

u,kmp .... s,msk1> + 8,,,akm (16}, C II A P T E R VIII

and is obviously a. tensor of order 4.

ELASTICITY
In the v tensor, u,km11 = 1 if i = tn, k = p, and = - 1 if
-
i = p, k m, and in all other cases is zero. If also i = k, In an elastic solid, as in a fluid, tho distance between any
u;1,,,." is zero. In this case, therefore, two particles of the body usually varies with tho time.
u,,,,,.. = 8,m ah - (17) . The body, however, has an equilibrium configuration that
could persist if the external forces were zero or constant.
s,,, s,..,,.
This can also be written
We may take this as a. standard of reference.
(18}, particle actually at x, would be at x, - ti, in the standard
If a.

for if i = 1, k 3, e,1k = 0 unlcssj = 2 and then = 1.

= But configuration, we call u, the displacement at x,; in pra.otico
then Emfp""' l if m - 1, p = 3, - 1 if m = 3, p = 1, and the squares of the u, can usually bo neglected. Evidently
otherwise = 0. Thus u, is a. vector.

'Uis13 1, 1l1331 = - 1
At a point x, + y,, where y, is small, tho displacement is
(19} ,
1"' + v,. whore
with corresponding values for the other components. ou,
v, =
Evidently ( 1 7 ) and (18) represent a tensor of order 4. It ax"
y" (1 )
has already appeared in Chapters I and Vl.
= (e,.t - '") 1/k (2),
The general isotropic tensor of order 4 is therefore
where e," and '" are the symmetrical and antisymmetrica.l
A8,t8,,.,, + . (8,,,.8t,, .J,. 8,1181..,,.) + v (8,111 8b- S,,,Stm) (20}, tensors
where A, ., v are scalars.
(3).

If e11: is zero at x,, the displacement has the same form

EXAMPLE
as that due to a general displacement u., together with a.
Provo thnt
... ..
S,tS 1110, - 8,,.,,w",
rotation exp resse d by the tensor e," . Also, if e,t is every
where zero,

i.. o ou,)
(8;,,.Skp + 8,118,t,,.) w111: w,,.,, + 1""m '
=!
- ex.,. (ax, - ox,,,

a"'
CXm
(S.,,. 8tp - S,pStm) Wtk - wm,, - Wpm

! ( + )
ou,,. ! ! (t"' + 11... )
ox, CX111 OX.t
= _

ox,.. OXm o.c,

- cxk

= ?el'm ae,,,.
= 0 (4).
ax,
72 ELAST ICITY ELAS TICIT Y 73
all the e1t vanish except
Hence the git are constants and the rotation is the same = e3t = e. Similarly e.J1 and e19
everywhere. The vanishing of the ea, is therefre tho neces- can be assigned independently.
sary and sufficient condition for a. pure rotation. Jn an elastic solid the internal force across an element of
Now consider the part of v, due to the ea:. If we consider
.
surface is in general inclined to the surface. If the area. of
the quadrio surface the element is dS, the force across it must be specilled by
ta:Y1Y1c = rt (S), three components of the form p"1d8 parallel to the axes;
where r is a constant chosen so as to make the surface pass where n may be regarded as indicating the normal to tho
through y,, the normal at y, has direction cosines pro surface. If wo consider a small parallelepiped with edges
portional to e,,.y" and therefore to v,. The displacemct clx1 , dx, , dx,, centred at (xt> :ti, Xa), the force across the face
due to e,,. is therefore parallel to the normal at y, to t of area dXa centred at Xi + !d4 is (p11,
where the Pu Pn. p13) dxsdXa ,
are evaluated at x1 + !dz,.. Tho force on the
quadric. This coincides with the direction of the radius
vector to y1 if y, is on a principal axis. There are therefore
0Pa.
opposite face is

0PXu1
- (p11, p13) dx,dXa evaluated at
three directions such that the relative disp1aoement due X1 idxi, and the total is dz,. dx2dx3 In general the
to the e," is in the direction of y,, and these directions are
-

mutually perpendicular. If we take new axes e1. e2 . ea

along them, the quadric reduces to
2
eu'e12 + e.n.'e22 + ea:s'ea'1 = r (6),
and all terms e11' with j :p l are zero. The displacement in
the e1 direction is now eu'e, , so :bat all distances in t is
direction are increased in the ratio 1 to 1 + ti1 . The dis
, force acting has components X, per unit mass, tho equa
placement due to the e0: is then the resultant of three
homogeneous strains parallel to three orthogonal axes.
We see therefore that the displacement in any small
neighbourhood can be represented as the combination of
a rotation with three extensions at right angles. The latter
express the changes of size and shape of a element of the
solid. l!,or this reason e,k is called the stram tensor and e(I:
the rotation tensor. Evidently e," has six independent
components. For we can have
V1 = ey, , 1'2 = '113 = 0 (7),
ing all tho e,,. zero except ti1 = e; similar!! tu and ta3
force in the x, direction due to the stress a.cross the faces
of xk constant is :-;
dx1 dx2dx3, and we take account of
all faces by using the summation convention. If the
acceleration of the element has components /, and the
density is p, the mass is pdx1dxidXa ; while if the bodily
tions of motion are
(9).
The system of quantities pi); constitutes a symmetrical
tensor of the second order. To prove this, consider first a
plane whose normal has direction cosines a", intersecting
lines through x, parallel to the coordinate axes at short
distances from x,; thus a small tetrahedron is formed
whose sides are of order l, say. Let the area of the slopin
face be dS; then those of the others are audS. Consider
now the rate of change of momentum of the matter within

may exist independently of the others. Also, if

mak this tetrahedron. Evidently the contributions from the ac
celeration and X, a.re of the order of the volume that s
of l3 The force across dS has magnitude p11d8. That across
i ,
v1 = 0, v2 = ez, v8
'

= ey (8),
JC1
b
74 ELASTICITY
-
ELASTICITY 75
the faco of xft constant is Pt1 times the area of the
face, that is, - pft,ak1dS. But clS is of order l'. Hence we
Now consider the energy interchange between the small
parallelepiped and its surroundings. The stresses across the
have face of area dx!dx, centred at x,. + {cl:ti are doing work on
(P11 - a.1:1P,,1) 0 W> = 0 (L3) (1 O), the element at a rate <Puu..) dXtdXa, and the contribution
and hence if l is indefinitely small we have for tho stress from tho two opposite faces is
across a. plane normal to a.11 at x,,
1'11 = auP1:' (11). 0 CP1:1 tik) d
x1 d.x2 ax, .
Now consider three perpendiculnr directions with direction
Thus in all the stresses are doing work at a rate
cosines au (j = 1 , 2, 3). The force per unit area. a.cross a
plane perpendicular to one of these axes, in th
of x,, is given by p11 Resolving this along the di
ction
rection of
,.,
a_ (Pft1ti1) d-r.
crxft
one of the new axes x1 we have, therefore, Tho external forces are doing work at a rate pX,1i,d-r.
The
kinetic energy of the element is !pti12d-r, nnd is increasing
P11 = a>:1a11Pu = a11ai:1P1Tt (12)
at a rate pud,d-r. (We consider the actual specim
by interchanging i and k; which is precisely the law of en of
matter occupying the element of volume d-r at time t ;
its mass is pd-r, and if we keep to the same piece of
transformation of a second order tensor. thus
Consider again a. small parallelepiped centred at x,, with matter
at time t + dt the mass is unaltered. If wo considered
edges parallel to tho coordinate axes, and form he equa tho
. variation of energy within a. given element of volum
tion of moments abont its centre. The contr1butions from e wo
fft and X ft are of order i at most, where the edges have
should have to allow for the variation of p and the fact
that
lenhs of order l. The moment about an axis parallel to X3
tho matter moving out of the element is taking its
energy
--
of the stress p21 in the face Xi constant and parallel to Xi
.
with it.) The rate of performance of work on the
element
is the product of Pn into the area of the fa-0e and the dis
therefore exceeds the rate of increase of kinetic energ
y by
tance of the face from the centre; that is, to order l3,
j Pnd:ti dx2dXa. The opposite face ma.kes an equal contribu
}_ CP.ulf,) + pX,u., - pii,J,} d-r
{GXt
= {a (pk,it,) + pX,1i, - 1i, (t' )}
tion. The stress p12 in tho face x, = constant and parallel
to x,. tends to turn in the opposite direction. We have, + p:x, &r.
therefore,
CPn - Pu) <h1 d.X2 = 0 (l')
by tho equations of motion,
(l3),
and therefore when we make l indefinitely small wo must
(16).
have
( 14), This work si stored up as internal energy of tho clement of
and in general volume. Evidently from its form it is a scalar.
p,ft = P1:1 (15),
In any elastic solid the internal energy is a. defini
so that the tensor p11, is syrometricnl. te
function o( the state of tho solid. In any chang
e of state
7G ELASTICITY ELASTlCfTY i7

tbe increase of internal energy therefore depends only on a.nd SQ/O are perfect differentials. Hence if we replace the
the initial and final states and not on the method of passage six independent by , we can wriLo
e,,, e
from one to the other. Now we ha.ve seen that six of the
a.re independent, and if the element acquires displace
e,,, (21),
ments 8u, in time 8t tho corresponding increase of internal
(22),
energy is p,,, S (;;) d:r. There is an apparent asymmetry and
according as i and k are equal or unequal. Thus p1 1 d-r has a a a a
coefficient S ("'1/cx1) = Seu, but i ... 1, k = 2 contributes oe, (p. + q,) - ae, (p, + q,); cO (p, + q,) - ae: (pc) (23),
Pu S (ou.i/ox2), and i = 2, k = 1 contributes Pu 8 (ou2/ax1).
a (q') a (q') a (q') a pc
the two together giving 2p12Se1,. But this is the same as
p12Se12 + Pu8en, and the whole contribution from the ae, iJ - oe, 8 '. 08 8 = oe, (0) (24).
changes of strain is Pa Se,,,d-r. Also during tho process an It follows at once that if 8 is kept constant Zp, Se, and
amount of heat SQd-r may be absorbed. II then Ed-r is the l:q,Se, are ifferentials. Also
perfect d
internal energy of the element,

SE = p,,,Se,,, + 8Q (17 ).
;8 (p, + q,) = 8 a:, (c) = o ;8 C,;) = - qo (25),
Since E is a. definite function of the state of the system, and Lhcrcforo
and six of the 8e,,,
a.re independent and determine the
q, - - 0 % (26).
other three, SE depends on the changes of the temperature
and of tho six independent e,,,
and has a definite value in I! SO = 0 we can write
whatever order these changes come about. But
- SW
Zp,Se, (27),
( aE) = Pu; (aeaE
-u)
where

ceu io-o io-o

::s
2pu ( ) 8). 2 JV = Co 2c,e, + c.,e,e, + 0 (e8) (28).
T-

The eo, c,., c,, may be functions of 8. Then if we retain

If the absolute temperature is 8, and a certain amount of 2
only terms in lV up to order e ,
heat SQis a.bsorbed without change of any Uncar dimen
sion, the rise of temperature is related to SQ
by the rule p, - c, + c,.e, (29).
SQ = pcS8 ()9), The c, represent the stresses that would remain if the
strains e, were removed without change of temperature.
c
where is the specific hea.t at constant strain. If there is In most practical cases the original state is one of uniform
also a change of stra.in, since SQ
and 88 arc scalars, we must temperature and no stress, so that c, ... 0. If there is a rise
hae of temperature 8' under no stress, an clement will acquire
(20), clispla.ccmeots
where the qk constituto a tensor of the second order. But SE (30 ),
78 ELASTICITY ELASTICITY 79

where a,,. is a second order tensor expressing tho thermal simply ; then a is the coefficient of linear expansion and
expansion. Thus p,,, = aS,,. (36) .
e;,. l (;t + a,.,) O' = {1,,. 8' (31), Tho second order terms in lV, constitute a scalar; and
we have
where {1,,, is a symmetrical tensor; and
(3 i),
(32),
where c t n t<-nor of order 4. If it is isotropic it mut be of the
, "' P is a. fourth order tensor.
y
But b hypothesis this deformation takes place under no form (20) of Chapter VII. Then the linear terms in p,. givo
stress and therefore p," 0. This determines ca:, an<l our Pit .... C1t.m11e,,.,. (38)
formula. for the stress is - ;\8,"8,,.pemp -i- . (S;,,.Su + 8,P S,.,,.) e,,.p

P11t (33). + v ( s,... skp - s,,, skn,) e,,.,,

The coefficient c,,.. ,,.,. is the coefficient of e0,emp in JV. - ;\8,,,e.,,,,. 4- . (8,,,.e.,,,. + 8,,,ekp) + v (8,me,,.,,- s,,,e1r.>
Since there arc si independent e,. there are twenty-one = ;\S,te,,.,,. + . (e,,. + et,) + v (eu- et,)
possible terms in a. quadratic form c,., e,. e. , and therefore
= ;\ s,temm + 2.e,,, (39).
tho last term vanishing since e," is symmotricul.
there aro twenty-one coefficients c,,. mp . They clearly form
a tensor of order 4; such a tensor in general would have
oighty-one components, but this satisfies the symmetry Then
is unaltered if we interchange i and k, or
relations that it 2 lVi = p,,.e," (40)
m and p, or i and k together with m and p together.
= ;\e11e,,.,,. .J.. 2.e11,e,t
l!'rom (26) and (33),
... ,;\6'+ 2. (ei,2+ 2 +-e:i.,2+ 22+ 2e:,, 2 f 2e122) (41),
q," - - Be.,.,, 0 (C11t,mp) + 8

8
le (C11t,m1>f3m,.O') where 6. = eu = outfox, (42).
/3 Tho scalars ;\ and represent properties of the material.
- - Oe,,.p -;;00 (c11t,mp) + Oc,,.,mp ,,., (31) Both are positive.
\\'c can also write
if
2 IV2 = (;\ + 2.) .i2 + 4. (' +- e;i, 2 + e,!!2
8' is small. The second term does not involve the e,";
i small of the first order in the e,,..
the fir1:1t s
.Many solids aro isotropic ; tha.t is, they have the same - eue33 - ell - eueu) (43)
properties in all directions. This applies to vitreous (glassy)

This appears to differ from the form in Love's Elasticity,

solids and to mixtures of crystals oriented a.t random. In I 906, p. l 00, but the present e,,. differ from Love's strain
that case a uniform rise of temperature in an element components. My eii is the same as bis, namely ou1.'cx1 ; but
gives an equal expansion in all directions and my eu is only half his, so that hi::! assemblage of strain

(35) components is not a tensor.

80 EJ.ASTICIT Y ELASTICITY 81
If all tho e11 woro equal to one another and therefore to Jf 8Q = 0, so that no heat is lost or gained by conduction,
?J. wo should havo pcM = - q,kae,k = - 3ko.88.k8e,k
211'2 = (.\ + .) '12 (44), - 3ko.8Sa (51),
if
=

(.\ + (i = k); p,,, = 0

and therefore, the strain takes place adiabatically,

8' = - 3ka8
p,,, i1.1.} (i :fo I:) (4.;).
In general wo write
.\ + 51" = k ('Hi),
pc 6 (52),
and call k
tho bulk-modulus.
and P<t = (.\ 9k2a28
pc-) 81.1eu + 2.e,,,
...1- (53).
211', = (>i + s.)Ll2 Thus in an adiabatic disturbance the constant A is in
creased above its value for a. standard disturbance to A',
+ 2p. (ti1i + e.n_2 + t + 2e:!32 + 2e:i,: -1- 2eu:)
- iJ.4 (tut + eu2 + e"332 2e.n_ + 2ei 1 T 2eu tu)
-r
whero
A' = .\ + kta28
pc (54),
.... (.\ + p.) Ll2 while p. is unaltered. The bulk-modulus k is therefore al.so

+ !P. (eu2 en" + 2 - e::e:i:i - e-.,:ieu - eu tz2) increased to k', where

9k2a20
k, = k + -- (55).
+ 4p. ( + El:i12 + )
t>

2
ti
2 pc
In a simple thermal expansion at zero stress tho absorp
2

.. (.\ + 1.1.) 61 tion of heat 8Q is equal to pc1180, whore c,, is called the
+ ffp. {(t:?2- )2 + ( - eu)2 + (e11 - e)2 specific heat a.t zero stress, and is tho specific heat mea
+ 6eza2 + 6e312 I- 6ei22} (4i). sured in ordinary experiments. Then

Tho coefficient of I" vanishes if and only if the strain is pc,,88 = 8Q = pc88 + q,"Se,,,
a. symmetrical expansion, and may therefore be called the = pcSO + 3ka88",8e11,
distortional strain energy. = pc88 + 3ka8. 3a80.
II we allow for variations in temperature, k'c
Cp=C ( 1 + -9ka.28
p c ) = k (56).
Pit .\ ( - 3a8') 81.1e + 2p. (e,,,- a8'8,,,)
Thus

The equations of motion at constant temperature, if the

{.\..l - (3.\ t 2p.) a8'} 8,,, + 2.e "' (48) properties .\ and J.L are uniform, can be written

and (49). pf, = a (.\8ll<6 + 2p.e11.1 ) + pX,

<iX.t
(57)
Every term in p0, is of tho first ordor in the displacements;
but c8'/o8 1 nnd therefore gives rise to a constant term.
u') + pX
.].._ (1.1x,ut + ux"
= '='1.1x,G_ (All) + p. ex,, t

-=ct{(.\ + p.) 6} + 'V2u, + pX, (58).

Thia term is
q,,, = 8.37.-a8,,, (50).
.,
JCT
82 ELASTICITY
II the chnngcs aro adiabatic .\ must be replaced by
.\'.
If there is any heat conduction, the absorption of heat CHAPTER IX
per unit time by tho element of volume dr is
0
'!I
( 08) dr,
K .,_-
H Y D R O D Y N A l\I I C S

ux, ox,
In comparison with a typical elastic solid, a real fluid shows
where K is the thermal conductivity. Then the equation a great resemblance and a. fundamental difference. Tho
of heat conduction is force per unit area a.cross an element of surface parallel to
oe0,
oO a coordinate plane again constitutes a symmetrical tensor
pc ot +q,,. o( = xn4o
v
(59). of order 2, and for the same reasons. Tho equations of
If we write motion are still (9) of Chapter vm, and also the rate of
e,,. = a811,8' + e,/ (60), performance of work on an element of volume dtr still has
'
so that e11; is the strain duo to the stresses, tho form (16). The difference is that the intomal energy in

..., -
Oelk
a fluid docs not depend directly on how much it has been
q1k at - Ok, a.20co
a
J, cw
"'t + 31 _D
o/),.'
a
t (61), deformed. However the fluid is moved a.bout and stirred
up, provided it returns to its initial position, density, and
and tho equation becomes temperature, the initial and final internal energies a.re

ao a'
equal. 1'he deformation, however great it may be, makes
pc,, ot t- 3ka8 1JT = K'V28 (62). no contribution ; the stresses do work on each element, and
thereby supply energy, but this is removed in restoring tho
Tho element <lr originally had volume
original temperature. If energy of deformation existed in
O (X1 - 11,, Xi - . X, - U3) d a fluid, all particles of it would have a. tendency to return
-r
0 (X1 1 Xt, X,) spontaneously to their original positions when stresses are

... {1 - ( :: + ::)
+ }
+ 0 (etk)2 dr (63},
removed, and thoy have none. Accordingly, while tho rate
of performance of work on the element of volume d-r n
i time
dt is still p,.,ou,/ox,.dtr, where the symbols have the same
so that its density was p (1 + 6.). Hence
meanings asin elasticity, wecan no longer assert from this the
a 1 dp equation (18) of Cha.ptervm, because the ehango of internal
dt = - -p dt
(64).
energy is not determinate when the changes of the e01 are
This is the equation of continuity. given. The e,1; may be as great as we like, but the energy
does not increase indefinitely a.pa.rt from changes in density
and temperature ; and the fluid moves in the same wa.y under
the same external forces whatever its previous history. We
may say that an elastic solid has a memory ; a. fluid has none.
84 IlYDRODYN AMI CS HYDROD YXA:\IICS 85

are energy change in a symmetrical expansion. If the density

rease
The stresses in a 6uid related, not to the total de
formation, but to the rate of inc of deformation. In increases by 8p, there is a contraction in all dimensions in
the ratio !8p/p and the stresses do work

o,1c ! (cM, + 01i,.).

the former notation these have components

ot ox1c ox,
or
"'
- !P Spp = p 8pp
" (7 )
.

The velocities now appear, instead of the displacements At the same time there may an absorption or generation

from an initial configuration, and we now denote the of heat ; then the energy change s
i

vel.ocities, instead of the displ.acements, u,. by

SE Sp + SQ
p (8),
-=

p
e,1c - 1 (au, ouk) . 1:.s i1c _- 1 (OU1c - au,)
We also write

SQ = MSp + pcSO
and the heat absorbed ma.y be written
_
+
ox1c ox, ' ax ox1c (l),
(9),
so that e," now denotes the rate of increase or strain and where M is unknown and c is the specific heat at constant
en the local
:Kow we say that P1: is
angular velocity, usually called the
linearly related to the new
vorticity.
e11c;and
volume. Then
8E = (: ) 8p + pc80
+ Jf (10),
therefore
Pu = Ptk C11c, ms> em,. (2), SQ = M8p + p7Je 88
P,1c
+
2
8 8 (11),

and the condition that these quantities are perfect differen

where is a symmetrical tensor or order that possibly
does not vanish with the e,1c , cu,.,.,,is
and a tensor of order 4.
tials gives

- 8 :o(:) (12),
Further, in a fluid at rest the stress is an isotropic tensor.
Hence P," is isotropic and must be of the form - p8,1:, M =

where p is a scalar, and c,k,mJ> must be of the form (20) o as ( 'P)

of Chapter vn. On carrying out the summation with regard op (pc) = - 8 002 p {13).
to m and p the term in 11 disa.ppea1'8 and wo have It appears also that p must be a. function ot p 8 and
p,,, ..,. - p8,1c + >.8,"e"'"' + 2.e,k (3), alono, for a. given material ; it does not involve op/at.* We
where >. and . are scalars, at present undetermined. may call p the pressure.
Evidently p and ,\ are not both necessary to preserve the 'I'his amounts to saying that there is no dissipation of onergy in a.

form, and we may introduce the further convention symmotrioal compreuion or expansion. 'l'b.ia is true in a gas on tbe older

Pu = 3p - (4),
kinetio theory; but Enskog hru1 t1hown (Kungl. Sr:en,kc. Akad. Ilandlingar,
63, no. 4, 1922, p. 18) that p cnn with greater accuracy be given by
so that - p is the mean of the three Pit witb equal suffixes. R 11 dp
P=M ,,O+;, ili '
This gives
- 3p - 3p + 3..\e,,.,,. + 2e" (5), whero 'I s
=
i a "second" ooefficient of visoos.ity. But 'l/P. is only of tho order

,\
=

of the 11quare of the ratio of the volume of the molecules themselves to the
and therefore - i. (6).
If we consider the internal energy as a function of the
whole volume of tho gru1.
In a liquid the coofficient of dp/lit, if it oxists, ia within the oxporimentol
density p and temperature 8 alone, we may con.sider the error; an analogou1 statement it true for w
i per!ectly elastic solids.
 87
86 IIYDRODYX AIICS H Y D R O D YNAJ\IICS
The stress components may now be written notation for total differentials, since this particular one
P11. = - (p + .emm) S," + 2,e,t (14), is the only total differential that occurs in hydrodynamics.
The acceleration components are given similarly by
p is a. function of the density and temperature and
= ddtu, = ou,
where
. expresses a property of the fluid. We call . the coefficient fi
t OU1 (2l).
of viscosity. For a uniform fluid we have the equations of ot + U oxlt
motion Consider now the circulation n about a. closed contour.
pf, - 01: {- (p + f.emm) S,t + . (: + ;)} We have

a:: = L u,<k, = Lt ck, + L 1i,du,

-:.0 eu
= - 0x' (p + f.emm) + .'i/2u, + . ox,
- -:.a (p - !fl) + .'i/2u, = L (X, + -;) dx, + Ia u,du, (22).
-=
(15),
Jr X,dx,
CIXt

whore wo now write the scalar The integral Lu,du, always vanishes; vanishes

tmm = fl (16). for bodily forces derived from a potential. Then

In time dt the outflow from a volume element ck1 ck2 dx, d.Q = f 1 0 {- (p + .!l) 81k + 2.e,k} dx,
{o (pu,)/ox,} d-rdt. dt p oxk 0

{o (pu,)/ox,} d-r,
is The mass within the element therefore

1 0
decreases at a rate
of continuity
and we have the equation
-J p 1
c vX1
J
} (p + i ) dx, + Jop vXi.
.ll -:. (2.eu,) dx,
op - a (pu,)
....

ot = ox,
dp - p ou, = - p
(l?),
= - f3 d (p + j.) + f3 a!k {11- (-2g'" + 2 :;)} dx,
or
dt ... ox, !l {lS).
,.,. - Jo P1 d (p + .\) - Jc P2 -:.v,(;,. (.gtTt) dx,
Here :t denotes differentiation with regard to the time
o
+ J . du,, +
following a given particle of the fluid, so that dt
dx,
are cP oxi. fo P.dA (23).
given by If . 0 this reduces to the circulation theorem of classical
dx, = u, In many problems of real fluids . is
=

hydrodynamics.
dt small and constant, and fl small. Then the integrals
(19),

d a + cZx, a = a + u, a (20) . t1Xk du,,, and JcP

fcP1d (i.\). JcP !!:. .dll arezeroor products
ai = ot di ax, at ox,
and

In most works on hydrodynamics this operator is denoted of two small quantities, and can ho ignored. Jc P! dp is zero

by D/Dt, but I see no reason for departing from the usual if p is a function of p, which is truo i n many cases, though
88 HYDRODYX AMICS HYDROD YNAMICS 89
exceptions arise when tho temperature or tho composition change is an actual one, the term (27)
contributes the p8p/p,
varies from place to place. In the commonest case, to while (28) contributes to 8Q. So long as tho initial and final
considerable accuracy, states arc given, it is immaterial whether 8Q represents

- JoOX11:
heat conducted into the element, absorbed from radiation,
d
Q
dt. = ;. (21-Lf,,,) dx, (24), or generated chemically within it, or mechanical energy
dissipated into heat by viscosity.
We notice that cI> can vanish if, and only if,
and circulation arises only from variations of vorticity in
the neighbourhood of the contour. It follows that in a.
fluid originally at rest or in irrotational motion circulation eu = = ea.,,
can arise only through tho diffusion of vorticity inwards
from a boundary. = est = eii = 0 (29),
The work done on the element dT per unit time exceeds so that the deformation represents a symmetrical expres
the rate of inereaso of kinetic energy by sion or contraction.

Ott, dT = P11,e1kwr
If we consider any finite volume, the rate of dissipation
P11:1
UX11:
_
.1 (25), within it is

and P11.eu, = - ( p + !.6.) 8,ketk + 2.e,ke0, (30) .

... - (p + !.6.) 6. + 2.e,ke,11: (26).
But (31),
p
But = dp
- p6. p dt
(27),
and
and if p is a function of p (including a. constant as a par
ticular case) this is a. differentia.I with regard to the time
and yields on the whole zero if tho original density is ever
recovered. This term may therefore be considered to give
the increase of interns.I energy due to compression. The where l11 is a direction cosine of the outward normal to the
remainder may be written boundary. But
<I> =
- i.6.' + 2#-LeiJ,eu, JJ z11: u, dS = fJ111u, (2g,11 + ::) as
... !. {(eu - ea.,)2 + (ea., - tu)2 + (eu - eit)!}
+ 4. (' + . + ei22) (28). = fJ 2l"u,f,11:dS + ! Jf 0:2 dS
Thus <I> is analogous in form to tho distortional strajn

= ff 2eo.m u, lkfmdS + t JJ dS
energy of elasticity ((47) of Chapter vm). It is essontia11y
(33),
positive, and therefore represents work done on the fluid and
continually stored as internal energy. In ( 8), therefore, if the whore o/on denotes differentiation along the outward
00 HYDRODYNAMICS
HYDRODYN Al!ICS 01
change of pressure we define a. coefficient of volume
normal, q is the resultant velocity, and em is tho vorticity
e1 1c .
expansion a by
-a
vector associated with Also
1 op
= (37).
Hfu, 0:k (::) = Hfu, ' dT = JJJ ( - 7) dT
dT
-;; ao
Then for small changes of temperature and pres.sure

(l - aSO)
(34),
and in all Sp = p (38).

Also in a free expansion under constant pressure

Hf <l>d7 = P. ff dS +4p. ff E11cmu,ltemdS SQ = MSp + pcS8
+ 2p. Hf (- l!\' + eo1e,1c + - ) dT (35).
{ 0 () . ap + pe} so
= o (39),

This form is useful in such a problem as that of waves where the partial differentiation is to be carried out at
on deep water, where tho viscosity is small; if it were constant density. But this makes
absent we should have a. permanent oscillation in a normal
mode. The vorticity is negligible except within a distance (40),
from the bottom of order (v/y)t, where p. = vp and 21T/y is
the poriod of the motion. Then in the second integral
is zero at the free surface and u, is zero at the bottom, so
em and therefore (41 ),
that this integral vanishes. 6 is negligible everywhere. so that c,., the specific heat at constant pressure, is given by
Near the bottom e,1c contains a fa-0tor proportional to the a2k8
velocity that would exist there on the classical theory, and c,. = c + (42).
thus can bo made indefinitely small for deep water. Ilence
p
(56)
resen
This form is analogous to that of of Chapter vm, the
the important term in (35) is
p t a being the coefficient of volume expansion, and

p. H ; dS ; tho previous one that of linear expansion.

In an adiabatic change SQ = 0 ; then
and even this vanishes at the bottom, so that it need only
- alt9
Sp
be estimated at tho free surface.
+ pe88 = O (43),
p
If a portion of the fluid is compressed without change of and therefore a9Sp = (pe + a2k8) 88
temperature, we define the bulk-modulus

i 1
k by
= ( i
+ )
a2 k(J al.:O
Sp,
op
(36), pc P
P op = k
so that Sp = k 1 ) Sp
( + a2k(J
and if it expands under change of temperature without
pc P (44).
92 RYDROD YNAI\1108 INDEX

Thus the built-modulus for adiabatic changes is

At'cel('ration, 2i Lagrange's equations, 28

k' = k (1 +
)
a2 k9 = kc"
(45). Area, plauo, as vector, 20
Au'llfar momentum, 35

pc
Magnetism, 53
c Axes, change of, 1 Moment of force, 43
dynamical, 24 of vector, 35
The equation of heat conduction needs to be modified
to allow for heat generated internally. In time St, per
rotating, 40
Axil, central, 45 Null planes and points, 16

volume cbr, we have

a (
SQ = <l>St + ax, K o St
ao ) Centroid, 33
Change of uca, l
Circulation, 5G, 87
Parallel, 17
Potential, 49
x, Rigid bodice, 29
Couple, 43
pcSO + ak96.St (46), Curl, 14, 58 Rotating axes, 40

)
=

Rotation, 21, 30

whence pc ot +
a9 o o9
akO6. = + ox, K ox, ( (47).
D'Alembert' principle, 32
Dielectrics, 52
Diroction cosines, l, lG
&-alar product, 7
ScalanJ, 3
Dissipation, 88 Specillo heat, 81, 91
D1vorgonce, 8, 58 Stokes's theorem, 48
SlraiJl tensor, 72
EXAllPLES Elllllticity, 71 Stress tensor, 73
Suffixes, dummy, 5
1. Obtain tho equations of motion in terms or the stro!<s
Elootromagnetism, 61
EfootrosLatics, 50 Summation convention. 3
oompononts by conRidoring tho momentum of a. finite volume or Energy, kinetic, 25
any form and n.pplyin OrC'on's theorem. potential, 26 Tc11sora, 2
Equation of continuity, 58, CZ aotisymmetrical, 5, 8
2. Similarly obtain equation (25). s
i otropic, 66
Forco, 25 symmetrical, 5
lino of action of, 42 bit 6
'fl:m 12

Vector product, 7, 14
Gauss' theorem. 49
Ora\itation, 49
Groon'a theorem, 48 Vectors, 2
with given divergence and curl,
liamilton'a principle, 28 58
Hea conduction, 82 Velocity, 24
Hydrodynamics, 83 Virtual work, 34
Hydrostatics and classical hydro- Viscosity, 86
dynamics, 56 Vorticity, 60

Inertia, moment.sand product.so, 37 Work function, 26, CO

Lsotropic solids, 7d Work, irtual, 34
Wrench, 45
Kinetic energy, 25