Hydraulic and Pneumatic

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CODE: D - 215
IIAE
TECHNICAL RESEARCH CELL Aircraft structures II
Lesson 1
OVERVIEW OF AIRCRAFT SYSTEM
Introduction
Since the invention of the aircraft, research and development work is always in progress. As you
can also compare the earlier aircraft with the modern aircraft there are numerous changes. Due to these
changes, the various systems of the aircraft are keep on changing as per requirement of the modern
aircraft. The layout of the earlier aircraft system was very simple as the means of the operation was only
mechanical. As various power systems were introduced in the modern aircraft the operation of the
various services are become typical.
Earlier major systems like controls, brake etc. were operated mechanically as the aircraft were
very light in weight and also their speed was also very low. Now due to increase of speed of the aircraft,
it is very difficult to operate the aircraft controls by mechanical means. So the operation of the controls
is taken over by the power systems like electrical system, pneumatic system, hydraulic system etc.
Merits of Mechanical, Hydraulic, Pneumatic and Electrical system
1. Mechanical System: Mechanical system means, operation of various services of the aircraft by
mechanical means like push-pull rods, cables, chains etc. Some of the merits of mechanical system are
as follows:
No electrical or any other type of power is required to operate the services, so the power failure
does not effect the operation of services.
Less risk of the failure of the mechanical system.
Any snags can be easily detected and rectified.
No artificial feel is required to the pilot
There is no risk of fire
Due to the use of light weight material, weight is also less
Mechanical system is more reliable
2. Hydraulic System: The transmission of force by the movement of fluid is referred to as fluid power.
The fluid may be either a compressible gas or an incompressible liquid system that use compressible
fluid are pneumatic systems and these using incompressible fluids are called hydraulic pressure.
Hydraulic system means operation of services by means of hydraulic fluid under pressure. As the
mechanical system is suitable for low speed aircraft only, for high speed aircraft the operation of
controls is very difficult by mechanical means as more aerodynamics forces are acting on the control
surfaces. To provide assistance to the pilot source of hydraulic energy is provided to operate the
controls. Some of the merits of the hydraulic system are as follows:
Easy layout of hydraulic pipelines as they can be routed through any part of the aircraft structure
Light in weight as compare to the mechanical system
Easy to detect the leakage of the fluid
No backlash as hydraulic fluid is un-compressible
Required amount of pressure can be obtained.
Instant operation of the services.
No electrical power is required if the pump is coupled with aircraft.
Less risk of fire as hydraulic fluid used in aircraft is flame resistance.
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3. Pneumatic System: Services in some aircraft are operated by the pneumatic pressure
(compressed air). Principle of operation of the pneumatic system is same as the hydraulic system with
some exceptions. Some of the merits of the pneumatic system are as follows:
Light in weight
More economical as air is available free of cost
No return pipelines are required as compared to hydraulic system.
Easy installation of the system.
Less risk of fire as air is un-combustible
4. Electrical System: In some aircraft the services and controls are operated by electrical system with
the help of electrical motor and actuators. Some of the merits of electrical system are as follows:
Lightest in weight
Easy to route the electrical wiring
Less risk of the fire as compare to the hydraulic system
Easy to detect and rectify the snags
5. Fuel System: Fuel system of the aircraft normally deals with storage and positive supply of fuel to
the aircraft engines at all altitude and attitude of flight. The main thing to be kept in mind for storage
or fuel in aircraft fuel tank is that, the fuel should be distributed in all the tanks in such a way so that
the CG of aircraft remains within the limits. Various sub-systems are involved for positive supply of
the fuel to the engines. These sub-systems are Sequence of fuel consumption, pressurization of fuel
tanks, venting of tanks etc.
6. Fire Protection System: Because fire is one of the most dangerous threats to an aircraft, the
potential fire zones of modern multi-engine aircraft are protected by a fixed fire protection system. A
"fire zone" is an area or region of an aircraft designed by the manufacturer to require fire detection or
fire extinguishing equipment and high degree of inherent fire resistance. The term "fixed" describes a
permanently installed system in contrast to any type of portable fire extinguishing equipment, such as
a hand-held CO2 fire extinguisher.
A complete fire protection system on modern aircraft and on many older model aircraft
includes both a fire 'detection and a fire extinguishing system'.
7. Ice and Rain Protection System: Rain, snow, and ice are transportation's ancient enemies. Flying
has added a new dimension, particularly with respect to ice. Under certain atmospheric conditions, ice
can build rapidly on airfoils and air inlets.
The two types of ice encountered during flight are rime and glaze. Rime ice forms a rough
surface on the aircraft leading edges. It is rough because the temperature of the air is very low and
freezes the water before it has time to spread. Glaze ice forms a smooth, thick coating over the leading
edges of the aircraft. When the temperature is just slightly below freezing, the water has more time to
flow before it freezes.
Ice on an aircraft affects its performance and efficiency in many ways. Ice buildup increases
drag and reduces lift. It causes destructive vibration and hampers true instrument readings. Control
surfaces become unbalanced or frozen. Fixed slots are filled and movable slots jammed. Radio
reception is hampered and engine performance is affected.
Two methods are used to protects the effects of ice as said above, one is to prevent formation of
icing (Anti-icing) and the other is to remove the ice from the aircraft surfaces (De-icing)
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8. Cabin Atmosphere Control System: Flight has become such a standard means of transportation; its
easy to forget the importance of the atmosphere control systems that make high altitude flight possible.
Unaided, people cannot survive at the high altitudes where most airliners fly. The air temperature is
about -50F and the atmospheric pressure is so low that the human body cannot get enough oxygen
from the air to survive.
Without heating and pressurizing the air in an aircraft cabin, it would be impossible to fly at the
high altitudes where turbine engines run most efficiently and where most bad weather can be avoided.
A complete cabin atmosphere control system regulates the pressure to force oxygen into our
lungs, and temperature, humidity, and air movement to make the aircraft cabin comfortable.
9. Water and Waste System: All modern airliners are required to incorporate water systems to supply
the needs and comforts of the passengers, and crew. Such systems include potable (drinkable) water for
the galley and drinking fountains, water for the lavatories, and water for the toilet systems. Systems
may include one or more tanks of water with connections to the various units which require a water
supply.
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Lesson 2
HYDRAULIC SYSTEM LAY OUT
Introduction
Hydraulics is that branch of science which deals with the properties of liquids and how they can
be used to do work. In aircraft, hydraulic systems are used to operate landing gears, control
surfaces, flaps, steering mechanisms, and wheel brakes, to name a few.
The word hydraulics is a derivative of the Greek words hydro (meaning water) and aulis
(meaning tube or pipe). Originally, the science of hydraulics covered the physical behaviour of water
at rest and in motion. Use has broadened its meaning to include the physical behaviour of all liquids; this
includes that area of hydraulics in which confined liquids are used under controlled pressure to do work.
This area of hydraulics sometimes referred to as power hydraulics.
Hydraulic and pneumatic systems in aircraft provide a means for the operation of large aircraft
components which could not be operated satisfactorily with human power alone. The operation of
landing gear, flaps, control boost systems and other components is largely accomplished with hydraulic
power systems. Pneumatic systems are used in some aircraft designs to perform the same type of
operations performed by hydraulic systems. However, the majority of aircraft that have pneumatic
systems use them only as backup systems for the operation of hydraulic components when the
hydraulic system has failed.
Working Principle
Hydraulics is a division of the science of fluid mechanics which includes the study of liquids and
their physical characteristics, both at rest and in motion. The type of hydraulics applied to aircraft and
other aerospace-vehicle systems is called power hydraulics because it involves the application of power
through the medium of hydraulics. It works under the Pascal's Law. As per Pascal's Law, when the
volume of liquid is pressed in a closed container, the liquid exerts equal pressure in all direction. This
pressure in aircraft hydraulic system used for operating various services.
Advantages of Hydraulic System:
1. It provides smooth and steady movement

2. The hydraulic power is confined to the pipe lines, components and therefore strengthening of airframe
structure is not required
3. It provides greater transmission of power for heavy equipments.
4. Installation of hydraulic components is easier than other system.
5. Variation in speed of operation can be achieved without the use of gearing etc.
6. Any leakage can be easily detected.
7. Operation is almost 100% efficient negligible loss due to fluid friction.
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Characteristics of Hydraulic Fluid:
1. It must be free flowing at all temperatures

2. It must have low freezing and high boiling point
3. It must not affect or be affected by the materials in the components
4. It must have good lubrication qualities
5. It must not deteriorate or form sludge
6. It must have a high flash point (Flash point is the temperature at which liquid gives off vapour in
sufficient quantity to ignite momentarily or flash where flame is applied)
Note: (1) All fluids do not have these properties. The type of fluid allowed in a specified
hydraulic system is that recommended by the manufacturer of the hydraulic component.
Note: (2) The technical bulletins furnished by fluid manufacture provides information about
compatibility of hydraulic fluid with various materials.
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Lesson 3
PASCAL'S LAW
Introduction
Pascal's law explains the way power is transmitted in a closed hydraulic or pneumatic system.
Stated in simple terms, Pascal's law says that pressure in an enclosed container is transmitted
equally and undiminished to all parts of the container, and it acts at right angles to the walls that
enclose it.
Figure shows an open container that is filled with a liquid. Pressure gages show that the pressure is
determined by the difference between the height of the gage and the top of the liquid.
In Figure, a piston is placed on the top of the liquid and the weight (W) presses down on it. This
creates a pressure inside the container of liquid, and the pressure on each of the gages increases by the
same amount.
Find the amount of pressure increase by multiplying the area of the piston by the force caused by the
weight. It is the same on every
one of the gages regardless of
their position in the system, or
of the shape of the container.
Pascal's law explains why
automobile hydraulic brakes
have equal braking action, for
example. When the brake pedal
is depressed, the pressure is
transmitted equally to each of
the wheels regardless of the
distance between the brake
master cylinder and the wheel
cylinder.
Mechanical Advantage
An application of Pascal's law shows the mechanical advantage in a hydraulic system. To briefly
review the principle of mechanical advantage, look at the balance in Figure.
Figure is a simple hydraulic jack. The small piston has an area of 1 square inch, and the large
piston has an area of 10 square inches. When a force of 10 pounds is applied to the small piston, a
pressure of 10 psi is built up in the fluid. According to Pascal's law, this pressure is the same throughout
the system, and 10 pounds of force acts on each square inch of the large piston. This pressure produces a
force of 100 pounds on the large piston that lifts the weight.
When the small piston moves down 1 inch, 1 cubic inch of fluid is forced out of the small cylinder
into the large cylinder. This fluid spreads out over the entire large piston and it raises it only 0.1 inch.
The small piston must move down 10 inches to raise the large piston 1 inch.
The work done by the small piston is 10 inches times 10 pounds, or 100 inch-pounds. The work done
by the large piston is also 100 inch-pounds (l inch x 100 pounds).
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Hydraulic systems are quite efficient, and we do not usually consider system losses in the study of
practical hydraulic systems.
Hydraulic cylinders produce a mechanical advantage. The work done by the small piston is
exactly the same as that done by the large piston. A small force on the small piston will produce a
large force on the large piston, but the small piston must travel farther than the large one.
Hydrostatic Paradox
Before we get into the application of Pascal's Law, we should consider the pressures of static
hydraulic fluids. The pressure produced by a column of liquid is directly proportional to the height of the
column, and does not depend on the shape of the container. The pressure exerted by a column of
liquid is determined by the height of the column and is independent of its volume.
It makes no difference as to the size or shape of the container holding the liquid. The volume of the
container, likewise, has no effect on the pressure on the bottom. Only the height of the column of liquid
has this effect.
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Lesson 4
BASIC HYDRAULIC SYSTEM
Introduction
Regardless of its function and design, every hydraulic system has a minimum number of basic
components in addition to a means through which the fluid is transmitted.
Hand Pump System
The first of the basic components, the

reservoir, stores the supply of hydraulic
fluid for operation of the system. It
replenishes the system fluid when needed,
provides room for thermal expansion, and
in some systems provides a means for
bleeding air from the system.
A pump is necessary to create a flow

of fluid. The pump shown in figure is
hand operated; however, aircraft
systems are, in most instances equipped
with engine-driven or electric motor -
driven pumps.
The selector valve is used to direct the

flow of fluid. These valves are normally
actuated by solenoids or manually
operated, either directly or indirectly
through use of mechanical linkage. An
actuating cylinder converts fluid pressure
into use full work by linear or reciprocating mechanical motion, whereas a motor converts fluid pressure
into useful work by rotary mechanical motion.
Operation of Basic Hydraulic System
The flow of hydraulic fluid can be traced from the reservoir through the pump to the selector valve in
figure. With the selector valve in the position shown, the hydraulic fluid flows through the selector valve
to the right-hand end of the actuating cylinder. Fluid pressure then forces the piston to the left, and at the
same time the fluid which is left side of the piston (figure) is forced out, up through the selector valve,
and back to the reservoir through the return line.
When the selector valve is moved to the opposite position, the fluid from the pump flows to the left
side of the actuating cylinder, thus reversing the process. Movement of the piston can be stopped at any
time by moving the selector valve to neutral. In this position, all four ports are closed and pressure is
trapped in both working lines.
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CODE: D - 215
IIAE
Lesson 5
TYPICAL HYDRAULIC SYSTEM
Introduction
Some additional components are added to basic
hydraulic system to form a typical hydraulic system.
This is for better reliability and control over
hydraulic pressure and direction of flow. The
components in addition to basic hydraulic system
are as follows
1) Reservoir
2) Engine Driven pump (EDP),
3) Filter
4) Pressure Regulator
5) Accumulator
6) Check Valve or NRV
7) Hand Pump
8) Pressure Gauge
9) Relief Valve
10) Selector Valve
11) Actuating Cylinder
Operation
Figure shows a basic system with the addition of
a power-driven pump and filter, pressure
regulator, accumulator, pressure gage, relief
valve, and two check valves. The function of each
of these components is described in the following
paragraphs.
The filter removes foreign particles from the
hydraulic fluid, preventing dust, grit, or other
undesirable matter from entering the system.
The pressure regulator unloads or relives the

power-driven pump when the desired pressure in the
system is reached. Thus, it is often referred to as an
unloading valve. When one of the actuating units is
being operated and pressure in the line between the
pump and selector valve builds up to the desired
point, a valve in the is bypass back to the reservoir.
This bypass line is shown in figure leading from the
pressure regulator to the return line.
Many hydraulic systems do not use a

pressure regulator, but have other means of
unloading the pump and maintaining the desired
pressure in the system.
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The accumulator serves a two fold purpose: (1) It acts as a cushion or shock absorber by
maintaining an even pressure in the system, (2) It stores enough fluid under pressure to provide for
emergency operation of certain actuating units. Accumulators are designed with a compressed air
chamber which is separated from the fluid by a flexible diaphragm or moveable piston.
The pressure gage indicates the amount of hydraulic pressure in the system. The relief valve is a
safety valve installed in the system to bypass fluid through the valve back to the reservoir in case
excessive pressure is built up in the system.
The check valves allow the flow of fluid in one direction only. Check valves are installed at
various points in the lines of all aircraft hydraulic systems. In figure, one check valve prevents power-
pump pressure from entering the hand-pimp lines; the other prevents hand-pump pressure from being
directed to the accumulator.
The units of a typical hydraulic system used most commonly are discussed in detail in the
following paragraphs. Not all modes or types are included, but examples of typical components are used
in all cases.
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Lesson 6
HYDRAULIC FLUIDS
Introduction
Correct fluid must be used to assure proper system operation and to avoid damage to non-
metallic components of the hydraulic system. When adding fluid to a system, use the type specified in
the aircraft manufacturers maintenance manual or on the instruction plate affixed to the reservoir
or unit being serviced. There are three types of hydraulic fluids currently being used in civil aircraft i.e.
vegetable base, mineral base and phosphate-ester base.
(1) VEGETABLE BASE HYDRAULIC FLUID: Vegetable base hydraulic fluid (MIL-H-7644) is
composed of castor oil and alcohol. It has a pungent alcoholic odor and is generally dyed blue.
Although it has a similar composition to automotive type hydraulic fluid, it is not interchangeable. This
fluid used primarily in older aircrafts. Natural rubber seals are used with vegetable base hydraulic
fluid. It is flammable. . The system used with vegetable base hydraulic fluid can be flushed with
alcohol.
NOTE: If vegetable base fluid gets contaminated with petroleum base or phosphate ester base
fluids, the seals will swell break down and block the system.
(2) MINERAL BASE HYDRAULIC FLUID: Mineral base hydraulic fluid (MIL-H-5606) is
processed from petroleum. It has an odor similar to penetrating oil and is dyed red. Synthetic rubber
seals are used with petroleum base fluids. Buna-N and Neoprene seals are used. It is also flammable.
Naptha or Varsol can be used to flush the system.
NOTE: Do not mix it with vegetable base or phosphate-ester base hydraulic fluids.
(3) PHOSPHATE-ESTER BASE HYDRAULIC FLUID: It is a synthetic, fire resistant hydraulic

fluid which was introduced in 1948 for high performance piston engines and turbo-prop aircraft. Its
development started from TYPE- I and continued to TYPE- IV. Its trade mark is SKYDROL. Several
types of phosphate ester base hydraulic fluids have been discontinued. Currently used in aircraft are
SKYDROL 500B (clear purple liquid having low temperature operating characteristics and low
corrosive side effects) and SKYDROL LD (low density, clear purple fluid formulated for use in large
and jumbo jet transport aircraft where reduced weight of aircraft is a prime factor. Butyl and Teflon
seals are used. Seals of Butyl rubber or ethylene propylene elastomers are used with this type of
fluid. It is non petroleum base hydraulic fluid. This type of fluid is fire resistance. The system can be
flushed with Stoddard solvent, MEK or isopropyl alcohol. This fluid is highly effected by moisture or
water.
NOTE: Skydrol 500B and Skydrol-LD are TYPE- IV fluid.
Two distinct classes of TYPE-IV hydraulic fluid exist. The class definition is according to the
airframe manufactures hydraulic fluid specification. The classes are: class1, low density (skydrol LD-4)
and class 2, high density (skydrol 500B). Class 1 fluids are less dense and offer a weight saving,
whereas class 2 fluids posses handling characteristics that are beneficial in some aircraft hydraulic
systems.
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NOTE: Silicone ointments, rubber gloves, and careful washing procedures should be utilized to
avoid excessive repeated contact with skydrol in order to avoid solvent effect on skin.
Due to the difference in composition, vegetable base, petroleum base and phosphate ester fluids will not
mix.
Characteristics of Hydraulic Fluid
Manufacturers of hydraulic devices usually specify the type of liquid best suited for use with
their equipment in view of the working conditions, the service required, temperatures expected inside
and outside the systems, pressures the liquid must withstand, the possibilities of corrosion and other
conditions that must be considered. Some of the properties and characteristics that must be considered
when selecting a satisfactory liquid for a particular system are as follows:
Viscosity: Viscosity is the internal resistance to the flow of fluid. A satisfactory liquid for a
given hydraulic system must have enough body to give a good seal at pumps, valves, and
pistons; but it must not be so thick that it offers resistance to flow, leading to power loss and
higher operating temperatures. A fluid that is too thin will also lead to rapid wear of moving
parts, or the parts which have heavy loads.
Chemical Stability: It is the liquid's ability to resist oxidation and deterioration for long periods.
All liquids tend to undergo unfavorable chemical changes under severe operating conditions.
Excessive temperatures have a great effect on the life of a liquid. Due to high temperature the
chemical properties of the liquid may change. Liquids may break down if exposed to air, water,
salt or other impurities, especially if they are in constant motion or subject to heat. So the
hydraulic fluid should posses such chemical stability which can withstand the high temperature
and other factors responsible for changing chemical properties of the liquid.
Flash Point: Flash point is the temperature at which a liquid gives of vapor in sufficient
quantity to ignite momentarily or flash when a flame is applied. A high flash point is desirable
for hydraulic liquids because it indicates good resistance to combustion and a low degree of
evaporation at normal temperatures.
Fire Point: Fire point is the temperature at which a substance gives of vapour in sufficient
quantity to ignite and continue to burn when exposed to a spark or flame. Like flash point, a high
fire point is required of desirable hydraulic liquids
Note: All fluids do not have these properties. The type of fluid allowed in a specified
hydraulic system is that recommended by the manufacturer of the hydraulic component.
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Lesson 7
HYDRAULIC SYSTEM SEALS
Seals
Seals are used to prevent fluid leakage from a certain point, as well as to keep air and dirt out of the
system in which they are used. The increased use of hydraulic and pneumatics in aircraft systems has
created a need for packing and gaskets of varying characteristics and design to meet the many variations
of operating speeds and temperatures to which they are subjected. Seals are divided into three main
classes: (a) Packing (b) Gaskets (c) Wipers. Gaskets are used when there is no relative motion
between the parts that are being sealed, and packing are used where relative motion does exist between
the parts.
Different types of packing used in aircraft systems are as follows:
1. O-Ring: - O-ring packing are used to prevent both internal and external leakage. This type of packing
ring seals effectively in both directions and is the type most commonly used. In installations subject to
pressures above1500p.s.i backup rings are used with O-rings to prevent extrusion. Marking is used on
O-ring seals, usually to indicate the type of fluid they are compatible with.
2. Back-up Ring: - Back-up rings are used in conjunction with seals where seals are subjected to high
pressure. Back-up ring prevent the seals from extrusion at high pressure. Back ring made of Teflon do
not deteriorate with age are unaffected by any system fluid or vapour and can tolerate temperature
extremes in excess of those encountered in high pressure hydraulic systems.
3. V-Ring: - V-ring packing is one-way seals and is always installed with the open end of the "V" facing
the pressure. V-ring packing must have a male and female adapter to hold them in the proper position
after installation. It is also known as Chevron seal.
4. U-Ring: - U-ring packing and U-cup packing are used in brake assemblies and brake master
cylinders. The U-ring and U-cup will seal pressure in only one direction; therefore, the lip of the
packing must face toward the pressure. U-ring packing is primarily low-pressure packing to be used with
pressure of less than 1000 p.s.i.
Wipers: - Wipers are used, to clean and lubricate the exposed portions of piston shafts. They prevent
dirt from entering the system and help protect the piston shaft against scoring,
Wipers may be either the metallic or the felt type. They are sometimes used together, with the felt
wiper installed behind the metallic wiper.
MARKING OF O-RING SEAL
COLOUR USE
Blue dot or stripe MIL-5606 Hydraulic Fluid
Red dot or stripe Fuel
Yellow dot Synthetic Engine Oil
Green dash Skydrol Hydraulic Fluid
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Lesson 8
RESERVOIRS (HYDRAULIC)
Introduction
The reservoir is used to store the hydraulic fluid for the operation of the system. It supplies the
hydraulic fluid for the operation of the system and also receives the return fluid from system. In an in-
line reservoir, a space is provided in the reservoir, above the normal level of the fluid, for fluid
expansion and the escape of entrapped air. In some basic hydraulic system, the reservoir is built in
major component like accumulator and in other it is a separate unit.
There is a tendency to envision a reservoir as an individual component; however, this is not
always true. There are two types of reservoirs and they are:
1. In-line this type has its own housing, is complete within itself, and is connected with other
components in a system by tubing or hose.
2. Integral-this type has no housing of its
own but is merely a space set aside
within some major components to hold
a supply of operational fluid. A familiar
example of this type is the reserve fluid
space found within most automobile
brake master cylinders.
Description
Reservoirs are never intentionally filled to
the top with fluid. Most reservoirs are
designed so the rim of the filler neck is
somewhat below the top of the reservoir to
prevent over filling during servicing. Most
reservoirs are equipped with a dipstick or a
glass sight gage by which fluid level can be
conveniently and accurately checked. Baffles
and fins are used in the reservoirs to prevent
the fluid within the reservoir from swirling
and surging. These conditions could cause
fluid to foam and air to enter the pump along
with the fluid. Many reservoirs have strainers
in the filler neck to keep foreign matter from
entering the reservoir when the filler cap is off.
These strainers are made of fine gauge and are
called finger strainers because of their shape
Reservoirs are either vented to the atmosphere or closed to the atmosphere and pressurized. In
vented reservoirs, atmospheric pressure and gravity are the forces which cause fluid to flow from the
reservoir into the pump intake. On many aircraft, atmospheric pressure is the principal forces causing
fluid to flow to the pump intake. However, for some aircraft, atmospheric pressure becomes too low to
supply the pump with adequate fluid, and the reservoir must be pressurized.
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There are several methods of pressurizing a reservoir. Some systems use air pressure directly
from the aircraft cabin pressurization system; or from the engine compressor in the case of
turbine-powered aircraft. Another method used is an aspirator or venture-tee.
In other systems an additional hydraulic pump is installed in
the supply line at the reservoir outlet to supply fluid under
pressure to the main hydraulic pump.
Pressurizing with is accomplished by forcing air into the reservoir
above the level of the fluid. In most cases, the initial source of the air
pressure is the aircraft engine from which it is bled. Usually, air
coming directly from the engine is at a pressure of approximately 100
p.s.i. This pressure is reduced to between 5 and 15 p.s.i., depending
upon the type of hydraulic system, by using an air pressure regulator.
HYDRAULIC SYSTEM ACCUMULATOR
Accumulator
The accumulator is a steel sphere divided into two chambers

by a synthetic rubber diaphragm. The upper chamber contains fluid at
system pressure, while the lower chamber is charged with air.
The function of an accumulator is to:
1. Dampen pressure surges in the hydraulic system caused by
actuation of a unit and the effort of the pump to maintain
pressure at a preset level.
2. Aid or supplement the power pump when several units are
operating at once by supplying extra power from its
accumulated or stored power.
3. Store power for the limited operation of a hydraulic unit when
the pump is not operating.
4. Supply fluid under pressure to compensate for small internal
or external (not desired) leaks which would cause the system
to cycle continually kicking in.
Diaphragm Accumulator
Diaphragm type accumulators consist of two hollow half-ball

metal sections fastened together at the centreline. One of these halves
has a fitting for attaching the unit to the system; the other half is
equipped with an air. Mounted between the two halves is a synthetic
rubber diaphragm which divides the tank into two compartments. A
screen covers the outlet on the fluid side of the accumulator. This
prevents a part of the diaphragm from being pushed up in to the
system pressure port and being damaged. This could happen
whenever there is an air charge in the unit and no balancing fluid
pressure. In some units, a metal attached to the centre of the
diaphragm is used in place of screen.
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Bladder Type Accumulator
The bladder-type accumulator operates on the same

principal as the diaphragm type. It serves the same purpose,
but varies in construction. This consists of a one-piece metal
sphere with a fluid pressure inlet at the top. There is an
opening at the bottom for inserting the bladder. A large
screw type plug at the bottom of the accumulator retains the
bladder and also seals the unit. The high pressure air valve
is also mounted in the retainer plug. A round metal disc
attached to the top of the bladder prevents air pressure
from forcing the bladder out through the pressure port.
As fluid pressure rises it forces the bladder downward
against the air charge, filling the upper chamber with fluid
pressure.
Piston Type Accumulator
The piston type accumulator also serves the same purpose

and operates much like the diaphragm and bladder
accumulators. Piston type accumulator consists of a steel
or aluminium cylinder and a free floating piston
assembly. The internal piston separates the fluid chamber
from air or nitrogen. when there is no system pressure, the
piston touches the cylinder head at the top. As the fluid is
pushed into the chamber by the pump, it forces the piston
down against me compressed air until a predetermined
pressure is reached. This pressure is then maintained in the
system by the action of accumulator As shown in fig this
unit is a cylinder (B) and piston assembly (E) with opening
on each end. System fluid pressure enters the top port (A),
and forces the piston down against the air charge in the
bottom chamber (D). A high-pressure air valve (C) is located
at the bottom of the cylinder for servicing the unit. There are two rubber seals (represented by the black
dots) which prevents leakage between the two chambers (D and G). A passage (F) is drilled from the
fluid side of the piston to the space between the seals. This provides lubrication between the cylinder
walls and the piston accumulators. Therefore proper precaution must be strictly observed to prevents
injury and damage. BEFORE DISASSEMBLING ANY ACCUMULATOR. MAKE SURE THAT ALL
PRELODE AIR (OR NITROGEN) PRESSURE HAS BEEN DISCHARGED. Failure to release the air
could result in serious injury to the mechanic. (Before making this check, however, be certain you know
the type of high-pressure air valve used.) When you that all air pressure has been removed, go ahead and
take the unit apart. Be sure, though, that you follow manufacturers instruction for the specific unit you
have.
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Lesson 9
FILTERS
Introduction
A filter is a screening or straining device used to clean the hydraulic fluid, thus preventing
foreign particles and contaminating substances from remaining in the system. If such objectionable
material is not removed, it may cause the entire hydraulic system of the aircraft to fail through the
breakdown or malfunctioning of a single unit of the system.
The hydraulic fluid holds in suspension tiny particles of metal that are deposited during the
normal wear of selector valves, pumps, and other system components. Such minute particles of metal
may injure the units and parts through which they pass if they are not removed by a filter. Since
tolerances within the hydraulic system components are quit small, it is apparent that the reliability and
efficiency of the entire system depends upon adequate
filtering.
Filters may be located within the reservoir, in the
pressure line, in the return line, or in any other location
where the designer of the system decides that they are
needed to safeguard the hydraulic system against
impurities
There are many models and styles of filters. Their
position in the aircraft and design requirement determine
their shape and size.
Most filters used in modern aircraft are of the inline
type. The inline filter assembly is comprised of three
basic units: head assembly, bowl, and element. The head
assembly is that part which is secured to the aircraft structure
and connecting lines. Within the head there is a bypass valve
which routes the hydraulic fluid directly from the inlet to the
outlet port if the filter element becomes clogged with foreign
matter. The bowl is the housing which holds the element to
the filter head and is that part which is removed when
element removal is required.
The element may be either a micronic, porous
metal, or magnetic type. The micronic element is made of a
specially treated paper and is normally thrown away when
removed. The porous metal and magnetic filter elements are
designed to be cleaned by various methods and replaced in
the system
Micronic Type Filters
A typical micronic type filter is shown in figure. This

filter utilizes an element made of specially treated paper
which is formed in vertical convolution (wrinkles). An
internal spring holds the elements in shape.
The micronic element is designed to prevent the
passage of solids greater than 10 microns (0.000394 inch) in
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size. In the event that the filter element becomes clogged, the spring loaded relief valve in the filter head
will bypass the fluid after a differential pressure of 50 p.s.i. has been built up.
Hydraulic fluid enters the filter through the inlet port in the filter body and flows around the element
inside the bowl. Filtering takes place as the fluid passes through the element into the hollow core,
leaving the foreign material on the outside of the element.
Maintenance Of Filters
Maintenance of filters is relatively easy. It mainly involves cleaning the filter and element or
cleaning the filter and replacing the element. Filter using the micronic element should have the element
replaced periodically according to applicable instruction. Since reservoir filters are of the micronic type,
they must also be periodically changed or cleaned. Filters using other than the micronic-type element,
cleaning the filter and element is usually all that is necessary. However, the element should be inspected
very closely to insure that it is completely undamaged. The methods and material used in cleaning all
filters are too numerous to mention. Consult the manufactures instruction for this information.
Some hydraulic filters have been equipped with an indicator pin that will visually indicate
a clogged element. When this pin protrudes from the filter housing, the element should be removed and
cleaned; also, the fluid downstream of the filter should be checked for contamination and flushed if
required. All remaining filters should be checked for contamination and cleaned (if required) to
determine the cause of contamination.
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Lesson 10
PRESSURE GENERATION
Power Driven Pumps
As previously mentioned, power pumps are generally driven by the aircraft engine, but may also
be electric motor driven, such as the light airplane power pack type system. Power pumps are classified
according to the type of pumping action utilized, and may be either the gear type, or piston type. Power
pumps may be further classified according to whether they are designed for constant displacement or
variable displacement.
A constant displacement pump is one that displaces or delivers a constant fluid output for any
rotational speed. For example, a pump might be designed to deliver 3 gallons of fluid per minute at a
speed of 2,800 revolutions per minute. As long as it runs at that speed, it will continue to deliver at that
rate, regardless of the pressure in the system. For this reason, when a constant displacement pump is
used in a system, a pressure regulator or unloading valve must also be incorporated in he system to
unload the pump.
A variable displacement pump has a fluid output that varies to meet the demands of the
system. . The pump output is changed automatically by the pump compensator within pump. The
regulator assembly of these type of' pump regulate the delivery of the' fluid as per system requirement.
For example, a pump might be designed to maintain system pressure at 3,000 psi by varying its fluid
output from 0 to 7 gallons per minute. When this type of pump is used, no pressure regulator or
unloading valve is needed, since no pumping action takes place except when pressure (fluid flow)
is required by the system.
Pumping Mechanisms
Various types of pumping mechanisms are used in hydraulic pumps, such as gears, gerotors, vanes,
and pistons. The piston-type mechanism is commonly used in power-driven pumps because of its
durability and capability to develop high pressure. In 3,000 p.s.i. hydraulic systems, piston-type pumps
are nearly always used.
Gear Type Pump
A gear type pump consists of two meshed gears

which revolve in housing. The drive gear in the
installation is turned by a drive shaft which is driven by
the engine accessory section, or an electric motor. The
clearance between the gear teeth is very small between the
teeth and the pump housing minimizes slippage of fluid
from the discharge side back to the suction side.
The inlet port is connected to the reservoir lines
and the outlet port is connected to the pressure line.-In the
illustration, the drive gear is turning in a counter
clockwise direction, and the driven (idle) gear is turning in
a clockwise direction. As the teeth pass the inlet port, fluid
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is trapped between the teeth and the housing. This fluid is carried around the housing to the outlet port.
As the teeth mesh again, the fluid between the teeth is displaced into the outlet port. This action
produces a positive flow of fluid under pressure into the pressure line. A shear pin or shear section
that will break under excessive loads is incorporated in the drive shaft. This is to protect the engine
accessory drive if pump failure is caused by excessive loads or jamming of parts.
All gear type pumps are constant displacements commonly used in systems with operating
pressures in the low to medium pressure range, that is, normally below 1500 psi, and with
relatively low fluid flow.
Gerotor Pumps
A gerotor-type power
pump consists essentially of a
housing containing an eccentric-
shaped stationary liner, an internal
gear rotor having five wide teeth of
short height, a spur driving gear
having four narrow teeth, and a
pump cover which contains two
crescent-shaped openings. One
opening extends into an inlet port,
and the other extends into an outlet
port. When the cover is turned
over and properly installed on the pump housing, it will have its inlet port on the left and the outlet port
on the right.
During the operation of the pump, the gears turn clockwise. As the pockets on the left side of the
pump move from a lowermost position toward a topmost position, the pockets increase in size resulting
in the production of a partial vacuum within these pockets. As the pockets open at the inlet port, fluid is
drawn into them. As these same pockets (now full of fluid) rotate over to the right side of the pump,
moving from the top most position toward the
lowermost position, they decrease in size. This results in
the fluid being expelled from the pockets through the
outlet port.
Vane type pump
Vane-type pumps are used in some aircraft hydraulic

systems, but they are more often used as fuel pumps and
as air pumps to supply air for gyroscopic instruments
and pneumatic deicer boots.
The vane pump is one of the simpler types of
constant-displacement pumps used to move a large
volume of fluid with a pressure of up to about 300 psi.
When a large volume of fluid is required but system
pressure is relatively low,' a common pump used is the
simple vane type. It is also classed as a positive or
constant displacement pump because of its positive
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action in moving fluid. This pump uses a rotor which is attached to the drive shaft and is rotated by the
power source.
The four steel vanes are free-floating in slots cut in the rotor. They are held against the wall of
the steel sleeve by a steel pin spacer. These vanes, to some extent, are free to move outward in their
respective slots. The rotor and vanes are enclosed in a housing, the inner surface of which is offset with
the drive axis.
As the rotor turns, centrifugal force keeps the vanes snug against the wall of the housing. The
vanes divide the area between the rotor and housing into a series of chambers. The chambers vary in size
according to their respective positions around the shaft. The inlet port is located in that part of the pump
where the chambers are expanding in size so that the partial vacuum formed by this expansion allows
fluid to flow into the pump. The fluid is trapped between the vanes and is carried to the outlet side of the
pump. The chambers contract in size on the outlet side, and this section forces the fluid through the
outlet port and into the system.
Although some rotary (vane) pumps are capable of operating in high-pressure systems (above
1500 psi), their use is usually limited to systems which operate at pressures of 1500 psi or below.
Piston Pumps
Aircraft hydraulic systems that require a relatively small volume of fluid under a pressure of 2,500 psi
or more often use fixed-angle, multiple-piston
pumps
There are usually seven or nine axially-
drilled holes in the rotating cylinder block of
this type of pump, and each hole contains a
close-fitting piston attached to a drive plate
by a ball-jointed rod. The cylinder block and
the pistons are rotated as a unit by a shaft that
is driven from an engine accessory drive.
The housing is angled so that the pistons
on one side of the cylinder block are at the
bottom of their stroke while the pistons on the
other side of the block are at the top of their
stroke. As the pump rotates one half of a turn,
half of the pistons move from the top of their
stroke to the bottom, and the pistons on the
other side of the block move from the bottom
of their stroke to the top.
A valve plate that has two crescent-shaped openings covers the ends of the cylinders. The pump
outlet port is above the pistons that are moving up, and the inlet port is above the pistons that are
moving down.
As the pistons move down in the cylinder block, they pull fluid into the pump, and as they move up,
they force this fluid out of the pump into the system.
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Lesson 11
EMERGENCY PRESSURE GENERATION (HAND PUMP)
Introduction
All aircraft hydraulic systems have one or more power-driven pumps and may have a hand pump as
an additional source of power. Fluid power is available in an aircraft hydraulic system when fluid is
moved under pressure. Pumps are simply fluid movers; they generate the flow of fluid. Pressure will
only be generated when there is a restriction to the flow.
Power driven pumps are the primary source of energy and may be either engine driven or electric
motor driven. As a general rule, motor driven pumps are installed for use in emergencies, that is, for
operation of actuating units when the engine driven pump is inoperative. Hand pumps are generally
installed for testing purposes as well as for use in emergencies.
Hand Pumps
Hand pumps are used in hydraulic systems to supply fluid under pressure to subsystems such as
landing gear, flaps, and to charge system accumulators.
Most hand pumps used in aircraft hydraulic systems are of the double-action type. Double action
means that a flow of fluid is created on each stroke of the pump handle instead of every other stroke, as
in the single-action type, commonly used in jacks
and maintenance stands. There are several
versions of the double-action hand pump, but all
utilize the reciprocating piston principle,
This pump consists of a cylinder, a
piston containing a built in check valve (A), a
piston rod, an operating handle, and a check
valve (B) at the inlet port.
When the piston is moved to the left in the illus-
tration, check valve (A) closes and check valve
(B) opens. Fluid from the reservoir then flows
into the cylinder through the inlet port (C).
When the piston is moved to the right, check
valve (B) closes. The pressure created in the fluid
then opens check valve (A), and fluid is admitted
behind the piston. Because of the space occupied
by the piston rod, there is room for only part of
the fluid; therefore, the remainder is forced out port (D) into the pressure line. If the piston is again
moved to the left, check valve (A) again closes. The fluid behind the piston is then forced through outlet
port (D). At the same time, fluid from the reservoir flows into the cylinder through check valve (B).
Thus, a pressure (flow) stroke is produced with each stroke of the pump handle.
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Lesson 12
PRESSURE CONTROL
Introduction
Hydraulic pressure must be regulated in order to use it to perform the desired task. Pressure
regulating systems will always use three elemental devices; a pressure relief valve, a pressure
regulator, pressure reducing valve and a pressure gage.
Pressure Relief Valves
A pressure relief valve is used to limit the amount of

pressure being exerted on a confined liquid. This is necessary to
prevent failure of components or rupture of hydraulic lines under
excessive pressures. The pressure relief valve is, in effect, a system
safety valve.
The design of pressure relief valves incorporates adjustable
spring-loaded valves. They are installed in such a manner as to
discharge fluid from the pressure line into a reservoir return line
when the pressure exceeds the predetermined maximum for
which the valve is adjusted. Various makes and designs of
pressure relief valves are in use, but, in general, they all employ a
spring-loaded valving device operated by hydraulic pressure and
spring tension. Pressure relief valves are adjusted by increasing
or decreasing the tension on the spring to determine the
pressure required to open the valve.
Pressure relief valves may he classified as to their type of
construction or uses in the system. However, the general purpose
and operation of all pressure relief valve are the same. The basic
difference in construction of pressure relief valves is in the design of the valving.
The most common types of valve are:
(1) Ball type: In pressure relief valves with a ball- type valving device, the ball rests on a contoured
seat. Pressure acting on the bottom of the ball pushes it off its seat, allowing the fluid to bypass.
(2) Sleeve type: In pressure relief valves with a sleeve type valving device, the ball remains stationary
and a sleeve type seat is moved up by the fluid pressure. This allows the fluid to bypass between the ball
and the sliding sleeve-type seat.
(3) Poppet type: In pressure relief valves with a poppet type valving device, a cone shaped poppet may
have any of several design configurations; however, it is basically a cone and seat machined at matched
angles to prevent leakage. As the pressure rises to its predetermined setting, the pop pet is lifted off its
seat, as in the ball-type device. This allows the fluid to pass through the opening created and out the
return port.
Pressure relief valves may be used as:
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(1) System relief valve: The most common use of the pressure relief valve is as a safety device against
the possible failure of a pump compensator or other pressure regulating device. All hydraulic systems
which have hydraulic pumps incorporate pressure relief valves as safety devices.
(2) Thermal relief valve: The pressure relief valve is used to relieve excessive pressures that may exist
due to thermal expansion of the fluid. Thermal relief valve in a hydraulic system relieves pressure that
builds up in an isolated part of the system due to heat. It is usually smaller than the main system relief
valve. Thermal relief valve normally are set to crack at a pressure slightly above main system relief
valve cracking settings.
Note: When several relief valves are installed in a hydraulic system, they should be adjusted in a
sequence which will permit each valve to reach its cracking pressure. Therefore, the valve with the
highest setting should be adjusted first, the others in descending order according to the pressure setting
of each valve.
Pressure Gage
The purpose of this gage is to measure the pressure in the hydraulic system, used to operate hy-
draulic units on the aircraft. The gage uses a Bourdon tube and a mechanical arrangement to transmit the
tube expansion to the indicator on the face of the gage. A vent in the bottom of the case maintains
atmospheric pressure around the Bourdon tube. It also provides a drain for any accumulated moisture.
There are several ranges of pressure used in hydraulic systems and gages are calibrated to match the
system they accommodate.
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Lesson 13
PRESSURE CONTROL VALVES (PRESSURE REGULATORS)
Introduction
As the term implies, pressure regulators are used in fluid power systems to regulate the system
pressure. Pressure regulators, often referred to as unloading valves, are used in hydraulic systems to
unload the pump and to maintain and regulate system pressure between the maximum and minimum. All
systems do not require pressure regulators. The open-center system, with its "return to neutral" selector
valves, does not require a pressure regulator. Many systems are equipped with variable displacement
pumps which contain a built in pressure or flow regulating device.
Description
Although manufacturers are leaning more toward the use of variable displacement pumps,
especially, in larger aircraft, there are many closed-center hydraulic systems that utilize constant
displacement pumps and, therefore, require a pressure regulator.
Pressure regulators (unloading valves) are made in a variety of types by various manufacturers;
however, the basic operating principles of all regulators are similar to the one illustrated in Figure. View
A shows the regulator in the kicked-in (or cut-in) position and view B in the kicked-out (cut-out)
position.
A regulator is said to be in the

kicked-in position when it is directing
fluid under pressure into the system.
In the kicked-out position, the fluid in
the system downstream of the
regulator is trapped at the desired
pressure, and the fluid from the pump
is bypassed into the return line and
back to the reservoir.
Referring to Figure assume

that the piston (5) has an area of 1
square inch, the steel ball of the
bypass valve (1) has a cross sectional
area of one fourth square inch, and the
piston spring (6) provides 600 pounds
of force pushing the piston down. When the system pressure is less than 600 psi, fluid from the pump
enters the in port (2), flows to the top of the regulator, and to the check valve (3). When the pressure of
this input fluid increases, the check valve opens and fluid flows into the system and to the bottom of the
regulator against the piston (5), until the pressure is great enough to force the piston upward and unseat
the ball, directing the fluid through the system port (4) to the system. The regulator is then in kicked-in
position.
When the pressure on the piston builds up to 600 psi, the force applied on the piston builds up to
600 psi; the force applied on the piston face will be 600 pounds (force equals pressure times area = F = P
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x A). In this case, the pressure is 600 and the area of the piston is 1 square inch; therefore, the force is
600 pounds. Since the spring pushes down on the piston with a force of 600 pounds, the two forces on
either side of the piston are balanced. However, the force holding the ball in place must be considered.
This force, 600 x 1/4 square inch, equals 150 pounds. This force allows the fluid to continue to build up
pressure in the system.
When the pressure in the system increases to 800 psi, there is 800 pounds of force pushing
upward on the piston; spring force is constant (600 pounds); therefore, the resultant force is 200 pounds
pushing the piston upward (800 pounds minus 600 pounds). However, the force applied to the steel ball
will also be 200 pounds (800 x 1/4). At this point the regulator is in a balanced state as both the upward
and downward forces are equal. Any pressure in excess of 800 psi will move the piston up and push the
ball off its seat. Since the fluid will always follow the path of least resistance, it will pass through the
regulator and back to the reservoir through line.
When the fluid from the pump is suddenly allowed a free path to return, the pressure on the input
side of the check valve (3) drops and the check valve closes. The fluid in the system is then trapped
under pressure. The regulator is now in the kick-out position, as shown in Fig. This fluid will remain
pressurized until a unit is actuated, or until pressure is slowly lost through normal internal leakage in the
system
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Lesson 14
PRESSURE REDUCING VALVE
Introduction
Requirements of some parts of the system may demand that the designer utilize a lower pressure than
the normal system operating pressure. It may be desirable to have a reduced operating pressure to
prevent overloading some structures. A pressure reducing valve will fill this need. The proper valve will
reduce system pressure to the desired level. It will also relieve thermal expansion in the section of the
system that isolates. In figure PRV is positioned to bring about a lower pressure for operation of the
actuating cylinder.
TYPICAL PRESSURE REDUCING VALVE INSTALLATION
PURPOSE
Pressure reducing valve is often used to reduce main system pressure to a value suitable for operation of
a service such as the wheel brakes. It acts as a relief valve for the service operating at reduced pressure.
OPERATION
Fluid enters the inlet port, and flows through the valve
to the sub-system; when the fluid pressure exceeds the
spring-loading on the valve, the valve is lifted and
gradually covers the inlet port until sub-system pressure
reaches the specified value. If sub-system pressure
increases for any reason, the valve is lifted further and
uncovers the return port to relieve excess pressure.
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PRESSURE REDUCING VALVE
DETAILED OPERATION OF PRV
The pressure reducing valve (PRV) has three ports. One is connected to system pressure, one is
connected to the system return line, and the third port is reduced pressure port. The pressure reducing
spring (A) is holding the reservoir return
valve (B) and the poppet(D) to the left.
Fluid under system pressure enters the
system pressure port (C), where it passes
around the unseated poppet and out the
reduced pressure port (E). As the fluid
going out port (E) builds pressure,
hydraulic force is transmitted back
through the hollow poppet (D) and exerts
a force on the reservoir return valve (B).
When this force overcomes spring force,
the reservoir return valve is pushed to
the right, allowing the poppet spring (F)
to seat the poppet. This prevents system
fluid from going out the reduced
pressure port (E) to build up a further
pressure. The inlet pressure (C) has no
effect on the poppet itself because the
areas on each end of the poppet exposed
to the pressure are same; therefore, the
forces exerted on the poppet are
balanced. The pressure exerts an
unbalanced force only on the area of the
reservoir return valve (B).
In actual operation, this pressure-reducing valve will close when the desired pressure is reached.
When the actuator is in operation under reduced pressure, the valve will vary its opening to meter the
fluid at the speed required to maintain the desired pressure.
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Lesson 15
Hydraulic Flow Control Valves
Introduction
Fluid power systems are much like electrical systems in that the object of the system is to control
a flow so it can perform work. In hydraulic systems there are two types of valves, those that control flow
and those that control pressure.
Flow Control Valves

Flow control valves are much like switches in an electrical
system. Some allow fluid to flow or prevent it from flowing.
Others direct flow from one device to another, and still others
regulate the rate of flow.
Check Valves
Aircraft hydraulic systems include many situations where
the fluid must flow in one direction and not flow in the opposite
direction. Reverse flow can be prevented by the use of check
valves.
The most common check valves are the ball-type, the cone-
type, and the flapper, or swing-type, check valve.
Fluid enters the ball-type check valve from the left side,
forces the ball off of its seat, and flows through the valve. Fluid
cannot flow through the valve in the opposite direction because the
ball is held tightly against its seat by the spring force and by the
fluid.
A cone-type check valve works in the same way as the ball-type valve, except the ball is replaced
with a hollow cone. Fluid flows through the valve from left to right, forcing the cone off of its seat and
passing through the holes in the surface of the cone. Reverse flow is prevented by the fluid and the
spring holding the cone tight in its seat.
Large volumes of low-pressure fluid are often controlled by a flapper, or swing-type, check
valve. Fluid flows through this valve from left to right, forcing the flapper off of its seat. Fluid flow in
the reverse direction is prevented by the spring and the fluid hold the flapper tight against its seat.
Orifice Check Valve

Certain applications require full flow of fluid in one direction,
but rather than blocking all of the fluid flowing in the opposite
direction, these allow fluid to flow through the valve at a
restricted rate. For these applications, an orifice check valve is
used.
An orifice check valve may be used in a landing gear system
to slow the extension of the gear and yet allow it to retract as
quickly as possible. When used for .this application, it is installed
in the landing gear actuator gear-up line. When the landing gear
selector valve is placed in the GEAR-DOWN position, the up
locks release the landing gear and it falls out of the wheel well.
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The weight of the gear and the force of air blowing against the
wheel as it drop down try to speed up the extension. The check
valve restricts the flow of the fluid coming out of the actuator
and prevents the landing gear from dropping too quickly. When
the selector valve is placed in the GEAR-UP position, the fluid
flows into the actuator gear-up line through the check valve in
its unrestricted direction, and full flow raises the landing gear.
Metering Check Valve

A metering check valve, sometimes called a one-way restrictor,
serves the same purpose as an orifice check valve. However,
the metering check valve is adjustable, whereas an orifice
check valve is not adjustable.
A metering check valve is shown in Fig. This unit has housing,
a metering pin, and a check-valve assembly. The pin is adjusted
to hold the ball slightly off its seat. When fluid enters port B, it
forces the ball away from Its seat and then flows out through port A to the actuating cylinder. When the
flow of fluid is reversed, the fluid entering from the actuating cylinder flows through the tiny opening
between the ball and its seal, thus restricting the flow. By adjusting the metering pin in or out with a
'screwdriver, the rate at which the fluid can return from the actuating cylinder is controlled, because the
position of the metering pin changes the width of the opening between the ball and its seat.
Selector Valves
One common type of flow control valve is the selector valve, which controls the direction of
flow of the fluid used to actuate some hydraulic
component.
Two types of selector valves are open-center
valves and closed-center valve. An open-center valve
directs fluid through the center of the valve back to the
reservoir when no units are being actuated. A closed-center
valve stops the flow of fluid when it is in its neutral
position.
Both types of selector valves direct fluid under
pressure to one side of the actuator, and vent the opposite
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side of the actuator to the reservoir.

Close centre selector valves are connected in parallel between the pressure line and the return
line. Four way close centre selector valves are most commonly used in aircraft hydraulic systems.
An open centre selector valve directs fluid through the centre of the valve back to the hydraulic
reservoir when no unit is being actuated or when it is off. Open centre selector valves are connected in
series with each other. Like Close centre selector valve, four way open centre selector valves have four
ports. The difference between the two are in the off position operation of the valves. In the close centre
type, none of the ports are open to each other when the valve is in off position. In the open centre type,
the pressure and return ports are open to each other when the valve is in off position.
Both the valves direct the fluid under
pressure to one side of the actuator and vent
the opposite side to the reservoir
Sequence Valves
Some modern aircraft with retractable

landing gear have doors that close in flight to cover
the wheel-wells and make the airplane more
streamlined.
Sequence valves are often used to ensure
that the landing gear does not extend or retract
while the doors are closed. Sequence valves are
check valves that allow fluid to flow in one
direction but prevent it from flowing in the
opposite direction until the valve is opened
manually, so the fluid can flow in either direction.
Figure shows the location of the sequence
valves in a landing gear retraction system. When
the landing gear selector handle is placed in the
GEAR-DOWN position, fluid flows to the wheel-
well door actuator, but cannot flow to the landing
gear actuator because it is blocked by the sequence
valve. When the wheel-well doors are fully open, a
part of the door depresses the plunger in the
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sequence valve, and fluid flows into the landing gear actuator cylinder to lower the landing gear
Priority Valve
A priority valve is similar to a sequence valve except that it is opened by hydraulic pressure rather
than by mechanical contact. This valve is used to allow one actuator to operate and complete its
operation before allowing a second component to operate. This gives the first component (primary
services) a priority over the secondary services, resulting in the name priority valve.
Priority valves get their name from the fact that they control the sequence of operation of landing gear
retraction and wheel-well door actuation by allowing the units that require the least pressure to have
priority, or to actuate first.
Figure shows the landing gear selector valve in the GEAR-DOWN position. Fluid flows to the wheel-
well door actuator to open the doors, but it cannot flow to the main landing gear actuator, because it is
shut off by the main landing gear priority valve. Figure shows the principle on which the priority valve
operates.
Figure A shows the valve in the position it

is in before the wheel-well doors are fully
open.
As soon as the doors are fully open,

pressure builds up in the gear-down line
and moves the poppet inside the priority
valve to the right, as seen in Figure B. A
pin on the poppet forces the spool valve off
its seat and allows fluid to flow to the main
landing gear actuator.
When the landing gear selector valve is

placed in the GEAR-UP position return
fluid from the main landing gear actuator
flows through the priority valve in the
reverse direction as seen in Figure C. The
fluid moves the seat to the left so that it
opens the spool valve and allows fluid to
flow through the selector valve to the
reservoir.
Figure shows a wheel-well door
priority valve in the close-door line to the wheel-well door actuator. When the landing gear
selector is placed in the GEAR-UP position, fluid flows into the main landing gear actuator to
raise the gear. When the gear is up, the pressure builds up high enough to shift the poppet inside
the wheel-weft door priority valve. The poppet opens the spool valve and fluid flows into the
wheel-well door cylinder to close it.
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Hydraulic fuse
The hydraulic fuse is a device de signed to seal off a broken hydraulic line and prevent excessive
loss of fluid. It permits normal flow in a line; but if the flow increases above an established level, the
valve in the use closes the line and prevents further flow.
There are two types of hydraulic fuses; one shuts off the flow after a specific amount of fluid has
flowed through it, and the other shuts off the flow if the pressure drop across the fuse indicates a broken
line.
Figure shows a pressure-drop-type fuse. Fluid flows through the fuse from left to right. When the
flow rate is within the normal operating range, there is not enough pressure drops across the fuse to
move the piston over against the force of the spring, and fluid flows through the fuse to the actuator. But
if a line should break, the pressure at the break will be so low that the piston will be forced to the right
and will shut off the flow of fluid to the actuator.
The fuse has no effect on the return flow of fluid from the actuator in normal action. The return fluid
flowing through the fuse forces the piston to the left and uncovers the ports so fluid can flow through the
fuse with no restriction.
The second type of fuse is shown in Figure. This fuse shuts off the flow of fluid any time a
specific amount of fluid flows through it, and prevents a loss of fluid even though the leak is not severe
enough to cause the large pressure drop required to operate the other type of fuse.
In normal operation, (view A), fluid has forced the sleeve valve over to the right and fluid flows
through the valve with a minimum of opposition. As the fluid flows through the fuse, some of it flows
through the metering orifice and pushes the piston to the right. By the time a specified amount of fluid
passes through the fuse, the piston is
forced all the way to the right, where it
covers the ports and shuts off the flow
of fluid through the fuse (view B).
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Lesson 16
Power distribution
Introduction
The control and application of fluid power would be impossible without a suitable means of
conveying the fluid from the power source to the point of application. Fluid lines used for this purpose
must be designed and installed with the same care applicable to the other components of the system. An
improperly piped system can lead to serious power loss and/or harmful fluid contamination. The
following is a list of some of the most important requirements which must be considered.
1) The lines must be sufficient strength to contain the fluid at the required pressure and, in addition,
must be strong enough to withstand the surges of pressure that may develop in the system.
2) The lines must be of sufficient strength to support components which may be mounted in or on
them.
3) Terminal fittings (unions, flanges, etc.) must be provided at all junctions with parts or
components that require removal or replacement.
4) Line supports must be capable of dampening shock waves caused by surges of pressure and
changes in direction of fluid flow.
5) The lines should have a smooth interior surface to reduce turbulent flow of fluid.
6) The lines must be of the correct size to ensure the required volume and velocity of flow with the
least amount of turbulence during all demands of the system. Lines which provide return flow in
hydraulic systems must be large enough so as not to build up excessive back pressure.
7) The interior surface of the fluid lines must be clean upon installation. After installation, lines
must be kept clean by flushing or purging the system regularly. Any source of contamination
must be eliminated.
Plumbing material for rigid pipeline
Many of the fluid lines used in older aircraft and some special installations were made of copper
tubing. In flight vibration hardens copper and causes it to crystallize and eventually break. In some
cases, these lines are periodically removed from the aircraft, heat treated, quenched in water and
returned to service.
As a result of this problem with copper tubing, aluminium alloys and stainless steel have almost
completely replaced the copper tubing.
The aluminium-alloy tubing, usually used in low pressure systems, are generally made of alloys such
as 1100-HI4 half-hard, or aluminium having a small percentage of manganese, 3003-H-14, 2024- T3
and T4, 5052-0 and 6061- T4 and T6. The maximum pressure for these systems is 1500 psi with the
exception of 6061- T4 and T6 which can be used in systems where the pressure may reach 3000 psi.
Stainless steel is often used for high pressure hydraulic and pneumatic lines and for exposed
hydraulic brake lines on the landing gear.
Most of the (corrosion-resistant) stainless steel tubing used for high pressure systems is of the 18-8
chrome nickel type.
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Attachment to Components
There are two basic methods to attach a fluid line to a component by tapered pipe threads and by
universal bulkhead fittings. Tapered pipe threads seal by the wedging between the tapered male thread
and the tapered female threads. These threads are sometimes wrapped with a thin strip of teflon tape or
some thread lubricant, to form a complete seal.
Universal bulkhead fittings are installed with an AN 6289 nut which accommodates a back-up ring
of either Teflon or leather, and an 0ring seal. The AN 6289 nut is screwed above the cut-out portion of
the threads; a back-up ring (if required) and an o-ring are slipped over the first set of threads. The fitting
is then screwed into the boss of the housing until the o ring contacts the motion is not available, and the
technician must be able to determine whether the tube is suitable for the system involved. The hose must
be selected on the basis of size, pressure rating, temperature rating, and material.
Flexible hoses
Flexible hose is used in fluid power systems where there is a necessity for flexibility, such as
connections to actuating units that move while in operation, or to units attached to a hinged portion of
the equipment. It is also used in locations that are subjected to serve vibrations. For example, flexible
hose is often used for connection to and from the pump. The vibration that is set up by an operating
pump would ultimately cause rigid lines to fail.
Types of Flexible Hose
There are two basic types of flexible hose used in fluid power systems. These two types of material
are rubber and teflon. Although flexible hose made of rubber is the type most commonly used, teflon has
many of the desired characteristics for certain applications. The two types of material are described in
the following paragraphs.
Flexible rubber hose consists of a seamless synthetic rubber tube covered with layers of cotton braid
and, in higher pressure hoses, wire braid, and an outer layer of rubber-impregnated cotton braid.
In designing the inner tube, certain requirements must be met if the inner tube is to perform
satisfactorily. Some of these requirements are:
It must be flexible.
It must retain its characteristics when exposed to specific high and low temperature ranges.
It must be impermeable to the substance or agent that it has to carry. (Must have minimum porosity).
It must be smooth and offer minimum resistance to flow.
It must be made of a material which is chemically compatible with the substance which it is to carry.
There are several different materials which are used in the manufacture of inner tubes. The four most
commonly used in aircraft hydraulic systems are:
Buna-N
Neoprene
Butyl
Teflon
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Some of the characteristics of these are as follows:
Buna-N is a synthetic rubber compound which has an excellent resistance to petroleum based oils.
Neoprene is a synthetic rubber compound which has an acetylene base and is also used for its
resistance to petroleum products although not quite as good as Buna-N.
Butyl is a synthetic rubber compound made from petroleum raw material, and as such, is not
suitable for use with petroleum based fluids; however, it is an excellent material for phosphate ester
base hydraulic fluid (Skydrol).
Teflon is the Dupont trade name for tetra fluoro-ethylene resin. When compounded and extruded
into an inner tube, it provides certain features which are unexcelled in many ways. It is capable of
operating under a very wide temperature range (-65F to 450F). It is compatible with nearly every
substance or agent used. Its surface is wax-like and this provides minimum resistance to flow, and
sticky, viscous materials will not cling to it. It has less volumetric expansion than rubber tubes and
its service and shelf life are practically unlimited.
Care must be taken In the selection of hose for a particular application. Usually the type of hose
will be specified in the maintenance manual. However, there may be instances in which the exact
information IS not available, and the technician must be able to determine whether the tube is
suitable for the system involved. The hose must be selected on the basis of size, pressure rating,
temperature rating and material.
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Lesson 17
INDICATORS AND WARNING
Introduction
Man - machine interface is a must for flying an aircraft. Pilot acts and reacts with machine
(aircraft) through indicators and warning lights provided in cockpit of aircraft. Indicators are gauges on
instrument panel. Warning may be audio or visual in the form of horn or bulb respectively. Different
systems are monitored by pilot through indicators and warning lamps.
Description
Gauges used for hydraulic system are hydraulic pressure gauge and brake pressure gauge. Brake
pressure may be of inboard brake and outboard brake. Inboard brake and outboard brake systems have
separate needles. All these needles (hands) are operated by BOURDEN TUBE which is a flexible metal
tube whose one end is free and closed. Hydraulic
pressure is applied at the other end to uncoil the
bourdon tube.
Warnings are generally given by lamps

which glow by either low pressure than requirement
or by more pressure than requirement. The switches
which operate by pressure of hydraulic fluid are
called pressure switches.
Electrically operated pressure switches are

used in hydraulic systems with electrically driven
pumps to maintain system pressure within set
limits. The pressure switch is set to open the
electrical circuit to the pump motor when system
pressure builds up to correct values, causing the
pump to stop. As pressure drops to a lower value,
the pressure switch closes the circuit to start the
pump operating again. Pressure switches are also
used in hydraulic systems to control the
operation of warning and protective devices. The
switch may turn on a light to warn the pilot of
insufficient pressure, or it may turn off a pump to avoid exhausting reservoir fluid through a broken line.
Pressure switches come in various types. For example, there are three types of pressure switches
Bourdon-tube type, piston type, and the diaphragm type.
The Bourdon-tube type pressure switch illustrated in Figure. It is frequently used to control
pressure within a hydraulic system. The flexible steel finger attached to the small end of the Bourdon
tube moves outward as the tube (a) begins to uncoil. This finger presses against the toggle plate (b) until
the desired system pressure is reached, at which time it will cause the toggle to pivot rapidly, thereby
opening the contact points and breaking the electrical circuit to the motor.
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Pressure instruments are used to monitor many aircraft flight situations, such as altitude and airspeed,
as well as the condition of systems such as hydraulic pressure and engine oil pressure. There are two
basic types of mechanical pressure-measuring instruments: bourdon tubes and diaphragms/bellows.
Instruments that measure pressures in relatively high-pressure fluid systems are usually operated
through a mechanism known as a bourdon tube. Among the indicators requiring this type of instrument
are hydraulic pressure, engine oil pressure, oxygen pressure, and any
other indicator of comparatively high pressures. The bourdon tube is
constructed of metal and is oval or flattened in cross-sectional
shape, with the tube itself formed into a crescent or part circle.
Figure indicates the general construction of a bourdon tube. One of
the ends of the tube is open, and the other end is closed. The open end is
attached to a casting that is anchored to the case of the instrument, thus
making the open end of the tube stationary. The closed end of the tube is
free to move and is attached to a series of linkages such as levers and
gears. When fluid under pressure enters the open end of the bourdon
tube, it causes a pressure against the closed end, and this tends to
straighten the tube. The principle involved here is well illustrated by a
familiar party novelty-the rolled-up paper tube that uncoils when you
blow into it. The pressure on the closed end of the paper causes it to
uncoil, and the springs inside cause it to coil up again when the pressure is released. The bourdon tube is
constructed of a metal such as spring-tempered brass, bronze, or beryllium copper. These metals
have a strong spring effect that causes the bourdon tube to return to its
original position when pressure is released.
In Figure, a simplified diagram of a bourdon-tube-instrument mechanism
is shown. When pressure enters the bourdon tube, the tube tends to
straighten out; as it does so, it moves the mechanical linkage connected to
the sector gear. The movement of the sector gear causes the spur gear to
rotate, and this, in turn, moves the indicating needle along the scale to give a
reading of the pressure. The indicating needle is mounted on the hand staff,
which is rotated by the spur gear. Instruments such as this one are ruggedly
constructed, with little maintenance required. BOURDEN TUBE
Pressure gauges designed to provide readings of comparatively low pressures are usually of the
diaphragm or bellows type. In some cases, both a diaphragm and a bellows are used in the same
instrument. A drawing of the cross section of a typical instrument diaphragm is shown in Figure. The
diaphragm consists of two disks of thin metal corrugated concentrically and
sealed together at the edges to form a cavity or capsule. The diaphragm in
Figure is designed with an opening through one of the disks to admit the
pressure to be measured. The opposite side is provided with a bridge that can
bear against a rocking shaft lever, through which the movement is
transmitted to the indicating needle. DIAPHRAGM
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Lesson 18
FLY-BY-WIRE SYSTEM (FBW)
Introduction
Another system which may be considered under the heading of powered flight controls, is the
one referred to as a 'fly-by-wire' (FBW) control system. Although not new in concept, complete re-
development of the system was seen to be necessary in recent years, as a means of controlling some
highly sophisticated types of aircraft coming into service. The problem associated with such aircraft has
been one of designing conventional forms of mechanical linkage to suit the complex flight control
systems adopted. Thus, an FBW system, is one in which wires carrying electrical signals from the pilot's
controls, replace mechanical linkages entirely. In operation, movements of the control column and
rudder pedals, and the force exerted by the pilot are measured by electrical transducers, and the signals
produced are then amplified and relayed to operate the hydraulic actuator units which connected to the
flight control surfaces.
Description
In some current types of aircraft, the application of the FBW principle is limited to the control of
only certain of the flight control surfaces; for example, wing spoiler panels in the case of the Boeing
767.
For lateral control, the deployment of the panels is initiated by movement of the pilot's control
wheels to the left or right as appropriate. This movement operates Position transducers, in the form of
rotary variable differential transformers (RVDTs) via mechanical gear drive from the control wheels.
The RVDTs produce command voltage signals proportional to control wheel position and these signals
are fed into a signal control module for processing and amplifying.
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The spoiler control module output signals are then supplied to a solenoid valve forming an integral part
of a hydraulic power control actuator. The valve directs hydraulic fluid under pressure to one or other -
side of the actuator piston which then raises or lowers the spoiler panel connected to the piston rod. The
actuator is mounted so that it pivots to allow for the required angular movement of the spoiler panel. As
the actuator piston rod moves, it also actuates a position transducer of the linear variable differential
transformer (LVDT) type, and this produces a voltage feedback signal proportional to spoiler panel
position. When the feedback signal equals the command signal, a 'null' condition is reached and spoiler
panel movement stops.
Deployment of spoiler panels for the purpose of acting as speed brakes is initiated by movement
of a speed brake lever. The lever operates an LVDT type of transducer which produces a command
voltage signal for processing by the signal control module. The output signal operates the actuator in the
same way as for lateral control except that the spoiler panels are deployed to their fullest extent.
Advantage of Fly by Wire (FBW)
Weight saving
The elimination of the conventional connecting rods, cables and pulleys, together with the
mechanical adjustment, feel and interconnection units, saves considerable weight even after allowing for
the weight of the computers and cable systems which are introduced as replacements.
Reduced maintenance times
Conventional control systems are very manpower consuming as the maintenance need many
adjustments to the mechanical control runs in situ. Some control systems take numerous flight tests to
correct the adjustments. But FBW system reduces down time by eliminating mechanical linkages by line
replaceable units (LRUs) and digital flight control system should need little or no physical maintenance
action.
Gust Load alleviation.
Another advantage of the use of FBW, which has been utilized for some years, is that it may be used to
control the ailerons in a manner which will alleviate the effects of wind gusts. Normally, when an
aircraft encounters an up-gust of wind the immediate effect is for the lift generated by the wing to
increase, causing the aircraft to climb, often quite violently. This has the effect not only of causing
discomfort to the passengers but also of putting considerable stress on the aircraft structure. Fast-acting
computers can sense the initial increase in lift and deflect the ailerons on both sides of the aircraft
upwards, reducing the wing-generated lift and opposing the effects of the gust. This reduces the
discomfort of the passengers, reduces the strength requirements of the wings and reduces the fatigue
endured by the structure.
Automatic maneuver envelope protection
In some commercial types of aircrafts, the control systems are such that maneuvers can be initiated
which would be beyond the flight maneuver limits. With FBW controlled-aircraft, however, the pilot
demands requisite control surface deflections from computers that are programmed such that the
command signals generated and distributed are tailored to match the flight criteria established for the
particular type of aircraft. In other words, the computers limit the response of the controls and thereby
ensure that flight maneuvers envelope limits of bank, pitch, yaw, speed, angle of attack and 'g' forces are
not exceeded.
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Fuel savings
Fuel savings can be made if the aircraft could be flown at the centre of gravity (CG) positions which
normally have made the aircraft unacceptably unstable. With FBW the aircraft with relaxed stability is
possible resulting to weight saving due to smaller tail surfaces saving up to10% on a typical airliner type
aircraft.
Fly-By-Light Systems
While fly-by-wire systems offer the significant benefits of reduced aircraft weight, simplified control
routing, and improved control consistency, they do have one significant drawback-they are susceptible
to electromagnetic interference (EMI). Fly-by-light systems use fiber optic cables rather than wires to
transmit the control signals. Digital electrical signals from the computer are converted into light signals
and sent through the aircraft via fiber optic cables to electro-optic converters. Here the light signals are
changed back to electrical signals for the actuation of the hydraulic control valves.
The weight saving, freedom from EMI and capability of high-speed data transmission ensure that
fly-by-light systems will be found on an increasing number of aircraft in the future control Actuation
Systems for Large Airplanes
The control forces required by large transport airplanes are too great for a pilot to fly them
manually, so the control surfaces are actually moved by hydraulic servos, or actuators. The primary
flight controls of this airplane consist of inboard and outboard ailerons, elevators, and upper and lower
rudders. These controls are operated hydraulically from two independent hydraulic systems, the A sys-
tem and the B system.
Fly-by-wire: A method of control used by some modern aircraft in which control movement or
pressures exerted by the pilot are directed into a digital computer where they are input into a program
tailored to the flight characteristics of the aircraft. The computer output signal is sent to actuators at the
control surfaces to move them the optimum amount for the desired maneuver.
Side stick controller: A cockpit flight control used on some of the fly-by-wire equipped airplanes. The
stick is mounted rigidly on the side console of the cockpit, and pressures exerted on the stick by the pilot
produce electrical signals that are sent to the computer that flies the airplane.
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Lesson 19
AIRCRAFT PNEUMATIC SYSTEM LAYOUT
Introduction
Some aircraft manufacturers equip their aircraft with a pneumatic system. Pneumatic system operates
like hydraulic system except they employ compressed air instead of hydraulic fluid for transmission
power.
Pneumatic systems are sometimes used for:

(1) Brakes
(2) Opening and closing door
(3) Driving, hydraulic pumps, alternators, starters, water injection pumps, etc.
(4) Operating emergency devices.
(5) Propeller brake
(6) Nose wheel braking
Pneumatic System
In pneumatic system, gases are highly compressible; a quart

of air can be compressed into a thimbleful of space. Theses
gases can be confined and made to transmit power. In
pneumatic system, there are three types of system used.
(1) High Pressure System
(2) Medium Pressure System
(3) Low Pressure System
High Pressure System: For high pressure

systems, air is usually stored in metal bottles at pressure
ranging from 1000 to 3000 p.s.i depending on the particular
system. This type of air bottle has two valves, one of which is a
charging valve. Aground operated compressor can be
connected to this valve to add air to the bottle. The other valve
is a control valve and act as a shutoff valve, keeping air trapped
inside the bottle until the system is operated.
High pressure storage cylinder is light in weight, it has
a definite disadvantage. Since the system can not be charged
during flight, operation is limited by the small supply of bottle
air. This system can not be used for continuous operation of a system. Supply of bottle air is reserved for
emergency operation of such system as the landing gear or brakes.
The usefulness of this system can be increased, if other pressurization units are added to the
aircraft. On some aircraft, permanently installed air compressors have been added to re-charge air
bottles, whenever pressure is used for operating a unit.
On some aircraft, permanently installed air compressors have been added to re-charge air bottles
whenever pressure is used for operating a unit. Several types of compressors are used for this purpose.
Some have two stages of compression while others have three. Figures shows a Simplified schematic of
a two-stage compressor; the pressure of the incoming air is boosted first by cylinder No.1 and again by
cylinder No.2.
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The compressor in figure has three check valves. Like the check valves in a hydraulic hand pump,
these units allow fluid to flow in only one direction. Some
source of power, such as an electric motor or aircraft engine,
operates a drive shaft. As the shaft turns, it drives the pistons
in and out of their cylinders. When piston No. 1 moves to the
right, the' chamber in cylinder No. 1 becomes larger, and
outside air flows through the filter and check valve into the
cylinder. As the drive shaft continues to turn, it reverses the
direction of piston movement. Piston No.1 now moves deeper
into its cylinder; forcing air through the pressure line and into
cylinder No.2. Meanwhile piston No. 2 is moving out of
cylinder No.2 so that cylinder No.2 can receive the incoming
air. But cylinder No.2 is smaller than cylinder No.1; thus, the
air must be highly compressed to fit into cylinder No.2.
Because of the difference in cylinder size, piston No. 1
gives the air its first stage of compression. The second stage
occurs as piston No. 2 moves deeper into its cylinder, forcing
high-pressure air to flow through the pressure line and into
the air storage bottle.
Medium Pressure System: - A medium pressure

pneumatic system (100 150 p.s.i.) usually does not
include an air bottle. Instead, it generally draws air
from a jet engine compressor section. In this case, air
leaves the engine through a takeoff and flows into
tubing, carrying air first to the pressure controlling
units and then to the operating units.
Low Pressure System: Many aircraft equipped with

reciprocating engines obtain a supply of low
pressure air from vane type pumps. These pumps are
driven by electric motors or by the aircraft engine.
Pump delivers to the pneumatic system a continuous supply of
compressed air at from 1 to 10 P.S.I. Figure shows a schematic
view of one of these pumps, which consists of a housing with
two ports, a drive shaft, and two vanes. The drive shaft and the
vanes contain slots so the vanes can slide back and forth through
the drive shaft. The shaft is eccentrically mounted in the
housing, causing the vanes to force four different sizes of
chambers (A, B, C, and D). In the position shown, B is the
largest chamber and is connected to the supply port. As depicted
in the illustration, outside air can enter chamber B of the pump.
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Lesson 20
PNEUMATIC SYSTEM COMPONENTS
Introduction
Pneumatic systems are often compared to hydraulic systems, but such comparisons can only
hold true in general terms. Pneumatic systems do not utilize reservoirs, hand pumps, accumulators,
regulators or engine driven pump or electrically-driven power pumps for building normal pressure. But
similarities do exit in some components. The following components generally used in pneumatic system:
Relief Valves
Relief valve are used in pneumatic system to prevent

damage. They act as pressure limiting units and prevent
excessive pressures from bursting line and blowing out seals.
At normal pressure, a spring holds the valve closed, and air
remains in the pressure line. If pressure grows too high, the
force it opens the relief valve. Then, excess air flows into the
atmosphere. The valve remains open until the pressure drops
to normal.
Control Valves
Control valves are also a necessary part of a typical pneumatic system.

The control valve consists three port housing, two poppet valves, and a control lever.
In OFF position, a spring holds the left poppet closed so that compressed air entering the
pressure port cannot flow to the system. When control valve has been placed in ON position, one
lobe of the lever holds the left poppet open, and a spring closes the right poppet. Compressed air now
flows around the opened left poppet, through a drilled passage, and into a chamber below the right
poppet. Since the poppet is closed, the high pressure air flows to the system.
Control Valve OFF Position Control Valve ON Position
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Check Valves:
Check valves are used in both hydraulic and pneumatic systems. Pneumatic check valve is a one-
direction flow control valve. In check valve, air enters in the one port of the check valve, compresses a light
spring, forcing the check valve open and allowing air to flow out the another port.
Restrictors
Restrictors are a type of control valve used in pneumatic systems. It is an orifice type restrictor
with a large inlet port and small outlet port. The small outlet port reduces the rate of airflow and speed
of operation of an actuating unit.
Variable Restrictors:
Variable Restrictor is a speed regulating unit. It

contains an adjustable needle valve, which has
threads around the top and a point on the lower
end. Depending on the direction turned, the needle
valve moves the sharp point either into or out of a
small opening to decrease or increase the size of
the opening.
Filters: - Pneumatic systems are protected against dirt by means of various types of filters.
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Micronic Filter: A micronic filter consists of housing with two ports, a replaceable cartridge, and a
relief valve. Normally, air enters the inlet, circulates around the cellulose cartridge, then flows to the
centre of the cartridge and out the outlet port. If the cartridge becomes clogged with dirt, pressure
forces the relief valve open and allows unfiltered air flow out the outlet port.
Screen type Filter: It is similar to the micronic type filter but contains a permanent wire screen
instead of a replaceable cartridge. In the screen filter a handle extends through the top of the housing
and can be used to clean the screen by rotating it against metal
scrapers.
Air Bottle
Air bottle usually stores enough compressed air for several applications of the brakes. A high pressure
line connects the bottle to an air valve which controls operation of the emergency brakes. If the normal air
brakes system fails. Place the control handle for the air valve in the ON position. The valve then directs
high pressure air into lines leading to the brake assemblies. But before air enters the brake assemblies, it
must first flow through a shuttle valve.
Brake Shuttle Valve
Shuttle valve consists of a shuttle enclosed by a four port housing. The shuttle is a port of flowing
piston that can move up or down in the hollow housing. Normally, the shuttle is down, and in this position
it seals off the lower air port and directs hydraulic fluid from the upper port into the two side ports, each of
which leads to brake assembly. But when the emergency pneumatic brakes are applied, high pressure air
raises the shuttle, seals off the hydraulic line, and connects air pressure to the side ports of the shuttle
valve. This action sends high pressure air into the brake cylinder to apply the brakes
Lines and Tubing: Lines for pneumatic systems consist of rigid metal tubing and flexible rubber
hose.
46

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TRAINING NOTES

Merits of Mechanical, Hydraulic, Pneumatic and Electrical system

Advantages of Hydraulic System:

1. It provides smooth and steady movement

Characteristics of Hydraulic Fluid:

1. It must be free flowing at all temperatures

Hand Pump System

The first of the basic components, the

A pump is necessary to create a flow

The selector valve is used to direct the

Operation of Basic Hydraulic System

The pressure regulator unloads or relives the

Many hydraulic systems do not use a

(3) PHOSPHATE-ESTER BASE HYDRAULIC FLUID: It is a synthetic, fire resistant hydraulic

NOTE: Skydrol 500B and Skydrol-LD are TYPE- IV fluid.

Characteristics of Hydraulic Fluid

MARKING OF O-RING SEAL

Blue dot or stripe MIL-5606 Hydraulic Fluid

Red dot or stripe Fuel

Yellow dot Synthetic Engine Oil

Green dash Skydrol Hydraulic Fluid

HYDRAULIC SYSTEM ACCUMULATOR

The accumulator is a steel sphere divided into two chambers

Diaphragm type accumulators consist of two hollow half-ball

Bladder Type Accumulator

The bladder-type accumulator operates on the same

Piston Type Accumulator

The piston type accumulator also serves the same purpose

Micronic Type Filters

A typical micronic type filter is shown in figure. This

Power Driven Pumps

Gear Type Pump

A gear type pump consists of two meshed gears

Vane type pump

Vane-type pumps are used in some aircraft hydraulic

Pressure Relief Valves

A pressure relief valve is used to limit the amount of

The most common types of valve are:

Pressure relief valves may be used as:

A regulator is said to be in the

Referring to Figure assume

TYPICAL PRESSURE REDUCING VALVE INSTALLATION

PRESSURE REDUCING VALVE

DETAILED OPERATION OF PRV

Hydraulic Flow Control Valves

Flow Control Valves

Orifice Check Valve

Metering Check Valve

side of the actuator to the reservoir.

Some modern aircraft with retractable

Figure A shows the valve in the position it

As soon as the doors are fully open,

When the landing gear selector valve is

Plumbing material for rigid pipeline

Types of Flexible Hose

Some of the characteristics of these are as follows:

Warnings are generally given by lamps

Electrically operated pressure switches are

Advantage of Fly by Wire (FBW)

Gust Load alleviation.

Automatic maneuver envelope protection

Pneumatic systems are sometimes used for:

In pneumatic system, gases are highly compressible; a quart

High Pressure System: For high pressure