Fire Safety Journal, 13 (1988) 55 - 68 55

Concrete at High Temperatures - - A General Review*

ULRICH SCHNEIDER
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Kassel, M6nchebergstr. 7, D-3500 Kassel (F.R.G.)

SUMMARY --the shapes of the test specimens and the

test e q u i p m e n t used are different.
The use made o f material properties in In this r e p o r t the main features of concrete
theoretical studies may vary. It depends on behaviour at high temperatures are sum-
the individual approach, the objective and the marized and discussed. It is essentially a
quality o f result required. This report gives a survey of existing data with respect t o real
condensed survey o f the present state o f fire situations, i.e., a t e m p e r a t u r e range of
knowledge in the field o f high temperature 20-1000C is considered in which the
properties o f concrete, which may assist in material behaviour under short-time exposure
giving an answer to the problem of estimating periods of 0.5 - 5 hours is discussed.
the fire behaviour o f concrete members. A In t he paper the following particular
new materials model based on recent research properties are identified:
results is developed and discussed. - - thermal properties
The report is divided into three different -- compressive strength
parts. Section 2 contains a brief introduction -- modulus of elasticity
to various concrete test methods. Section 3 - - stress and strain characteristics
comprises the properties o f concrete accord- - - thermal strain and shrinkage
ing to the existing literature and, in Section 4, - - transient state creep and restraint
a description of analytical models for the -- modelling of concrete behaviour.
calculation of fire behaviour o f concrete As the fire exposure normally leads to a
elements is given. comparatively rapid loss of moisture in
concrete elements, the properties m e n t i o n e d
above are usually det erm i ned with unsealed
1. INTRODUCTION concrete specimens. Testing of unsealed
concrete means t hat all properties are more
Many investigations on the effect o f fire or less influenced by the rapid drying of the
o n c o n cr ete and concrete elements have been cem ent gel. Thus, one should strictly speak
r e p o rted during the last f our decades [1 - 4]. rather of drying creep and dry compressive
Nevertheless the thermal and mechanical strength than purely of creep and strength
properties of concrete at high t em pe r at ur e s as stated above. For the sake of simplicity the
are still being considered. This is due to the term drying will be o m i t t e d in the following.
fact th at man y of the r e p o r t e d test results But one has still to keep in mind t hat the
are hard to interpret as drying process is possibly one of t h e main
- - t h e tested ty p es of concretes are di f f er e nt effects determining t he concrete behaviour
and th e descriptions of t he tests are incom- under thermal exposure.
plete;
- - t h e e m p l o y e d test procedures are di f f er e nt
and the test conditions are n o t comparable; 2. DETERMINATION OF CONCRETE PROPER-
TIES BY DIFFERENT TEST METHODS
*This paper is based in part on a p a p e r e n t i t l e d ,
Modelling of c o n c r e t e b e h a v i o u r a t h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e , The concrete properties are closely related
in R. D: Anchor, H. L. Malhotra and J. A. P u r k i s s to the specific test m e t h o d e m p l o y e d [3].
(eds.), Proc. Int. Conf. on Design of Structures
Against Fire, Aston University, Birmingham, U.K., T herefore, the possibility o f conversion o f
April 15-16, 1987, Elsevier Applied Science Pub- such properties into material equations
lishers Ltd., Barking, U.K., 1987, Ch. 5. depends on m any factors. If mechanical prop-

0379-7112/88/$3.50 Elsevier S e q u o i a / P r i n t e d in The Netherlands

56
7% le%tc~rcrati;
J. transienttests ttrtaJ"
Ifofa!forces
restraint
forces
Istea/state tests I quired temperature T* at a constant heating
Isteady state tests I
stress-strain relation- Istms's-strainr~qion-
ship strain-~,~led [ship stress-contro/led
~~ =stress, T=temperature
=strain, (')=first d i ~ i a l
withrespectto time
Fig. 1. Different testing regimes for determining
mechanical properties of concrete at high tempera-
tures.
erties are considered, adequate rheological
models must be developed. In many cases this
is not possible, therefore test methods which
are closely related to practical conditions are
to be preferred. Under fire conditions the
concrete is subjected to transient processes
and therefore there is an urgent need for the
measurement of those properties which are
determined under transient conditions. These
properties should be distinguished from
other properties derived under steady-state
conditions.
The three main test parameters are heating,
the application of the load, and the control
of strain. These can have fixed, i.e., constant
values, or be varied during testing giving
transient conditions. Six practical regimes
which can be used for determining mechanical
properties are illustrated in Fig. 1 and de-
scribed below.
2.1. Steady-state tests
I. Stress-strain relationships, stress-rate
controlled
During the test the specimen is heated to
the desired test temperature (T1, T2 or T,)
starting at time t = 0 with a constant heating
rate T. For practical reasons (size of the
specimen) and taking into account exposure
in fire conditions, the heating rate should be
in the range of 0.1 - 10 K/min. After an initial
preheating period at time t* say, the specimen
is subjected to a constant rate of loading
6 = constant. From the test data the modulus
of elasticity, the compressive strength and the
ultimate strain can be determined.
II. Stress-strain relationship, strain-rate
controlled
This test method is closely related to the
stress-controlled a - e tests previously dis-
cussed. The specimen is heated to the re-
rate T. After the initial heating period when
the specimen has reached constant tempera-
ture it is loaded at a constant strain rate ~.
This procedure yields complete o - e curves
and from this it is possible to determine the
maximum mechanical energy the specimen
dissipates during fracture (ultimate mechani-
cal dissipation energy).
III. Creep
In steady-state creep tests the specimen is
(slowly) heated to the desired temperature
T*. When thermal equilibrium is reached
(t = t*) the load is applied. The temperature
T* and the load a 0 applied are kept constant
during the whole test period. At time t*,
when the load is applied, an instantaneous
elastic deformation occurs and thereafter,
under sustained constant load, creep deforma-
tion takes place. The test has little relevance
with respect to the fire situation as the test
periods are normally far beyond the duration
of building fires.
IV. Relaxation
Initially a heating procedure analogous to
the steady-state creep test is applied. At time
t* when thermal equilibrium is reached, the
load is applied and the instantaneous elastic
strain recorded. The initial strain is kept
constant during the whole test period and the
stress level is recorded. The test has little
relevance with respect to the fire situation
as the test periods are normally far beyond
the duration of building fires.
As this report is devoted to the modelling of
concrete under fire, the results of steady-
state creep and relaxation tests will not be
discussed further.
2.2. Transient tests
V. Total deformation and transient creep
At time t = 0 the specimen is subjected to
a certain constant applied load a0. Thereafter

it is subjected to a constant heating rate. For
practical reasons (size of the specimen) and
taking into account exposure to fire condi-
tions, the heating rate should be in the range
0 . 1 - 10 K/min. Heating is continued until
failure occurs. During the whole test period
the strains eto t of the specimen are recorded.
If a0 = 0, pure thermal expansion occurs.
VI. Total forces and restraint
The concrete specimen is loaded at time
t = 0 up to a given constant load level a. The
initial compressive strain is recorded. There-
after it is subjected to a constant heating
rate. The initial elastic strain is kept constant
during the whole heating period by varying
continuously the applied external load.
Heating is usually continued until the mea-
sured total force drops below the original'load
level at time t = 0.
3. C O N C R E T E PROPERTIES AT HIGH TEMPERA-
TURES
3.1. Thermal properties
Concrete properties which are necessary
to calculate the heat transfer and temperature
distributions in concrete members are the
specific density p, the thermal conductivity,
k, the heat capacity, %, and derived from
those, the thermal diffusivity, a. The density
of concrete shows only a slight temperature
dependence as indicated in Fig. 2, which is
mostly due to moisture losses during heating.
However limestone concretes show a signifi-
cant decrease of density at a b o u t 800 (3 due
to the decomposition of the calcareous
aggregate.
26
2/, . ~ ~
ba~t mna'ete
~..~..____.~
~, 2.0 "----"
quartate concrete ]~
c
>.
o 1.8
i'll
limestoneo ~ = t e k
'~ 1.6
1.2
1.0
-- femperafuceT in o[
Fig. 2. Density of structural concretes at high tem-
peratures.
57
The thermal conductivity of concrete
depends on the conductivities of its con-
stituents. The major factors are the moisture
content, the t y p e of aggregate and the mix
proportions. The conductivity of any given
concrete varies approximately linearly with
the moisture content. Up to 100 C, the
conductivity seems to increase with tempera-
ture. Thereafter a loss of conductivity is
observed. With lightweight concretes the
conductivity may be nearly constant or
slightly increasing up to temperatures of
1000C. In this case the density of the
aggregate is the decisive parameter. Figure 3
shows some typical data for normal and
lightweight concretes.
In the context of thermal properties the
specific heat seems to be that property which
is least understood. The specific heat at
constant pressure is defined as
cp : (1)
where H = enthalpy, T = temperature and
p = pressure. Normally in technical reports,
average values of ~p are used. They are de-
fined b y the equation:
T
~p(T) X ( T - - To) = f cp(T) dT (2)
To
If the heating of the material is accom-
panied by chemical reactions, the enthalpy is
a function of the degree of conversion from
the reactants into the products ~', 0 <~ ~ ~< 1,
as well as of temperature. Thus the first
equation becomes:
3.2
v,
E 2B I I
I me#one concrete
-~ Z~. / m~sl)
2.o
practical design curve
1.6 Lmoist)
~
~ 1.2
OB
l 0.4
0 I-I
- tempe-~ure T in (i
Fig. 3. Thermal conductivity of different structural
concretes.
58
,~ ,T dT
where the second term can clearly be re-
cognized as the latent heat and the first term
as the sensitive heat contribution to the
specific heat. According to Dulong-Petit's
rule, no considerable spread of % of different
concretes is to be expected. Differences may
be caused by the latent heat of the different
reactions during heating (water release, de-
hydration, decarbonization, c~-~/3 quartz
inversion). From the reported test results it
can be stated (see Fig. 4):
- - T h e type of aggregate has little influence
on the heat capacity if temperatures below
800 C are considered. Where temperatures
of 800C are exceeded with calcareous
concrete, cp rises immediately due to de-
carbonization.
- - T h e mix proportions influence the heat
capacity in so far as richer mixes indicate
a higher latent heat due to dehydration
effects.
- - T h e water content is important at tem-
peratures below 200 C. Wet concretes show
an apparent specific heat nearly twice as high
as oven<lried concretes.
The thermal diffusivity of concrete is
determined by the thermal properties of its
constituents or it may be evaluated from
non-steady-state measurements. The varia-
tions of the reported data are comparatively
high and may be attributed to the type of
test method, the type of concrete under
consideration or to the specific treatment of
the specimens prior to the tests. As the
diffusivity values are important for the
temperature calculations in concrete elements
_~ I.L~
1.2
1.0
0.~
0.~
o.~
l 0.2
0 --Original strength and w a t e r - c e m e n t ratio
2if) 400 600 800 100:)
= ~afure T in %
Fig. 4. Heat capacity of different concretes.
0.015,
-< o o l L -
z 0012 __i
practical design curve
nu
. [moisf}
001(
- - ~artzife concrefe
~ 0.00~
__ ~ ~sto~ co~crete
0,002 l i g l ~ h t c0ncrefe
0 ~= 1600kq/m3 (dried)
2~ 400 600 800 1000
~emperafum T in C
Fig. 5. T h e r m a l diffusivity of different concretes.
under fire, there is an urgent need for more
reliable and accurate thermal data. Figure 5
contains some results of measurements and a
proposed empirical correlation for a structural
concrete with quartzite aggregate.
With respect to the cooling period of
fires, it must be mentioned that the thermal
properties of concrete are highly irreversible,
i.e., they do not attain their original values
after a fire attack. Normally it is sufficient
to assume constant properties during the
cooling period, whereby in each case the
maximum temperature attained is important
for the respective thermal property to be
employed during cooling. This approximation
does not hold for temperature levels around
100 C, as the moisture of concrete is of more
importance in this temperature region. In that
case, the estimation of material properties
requires additional sophisticated considera-
tions.
3.2. Compressive strength
The compressive strength of different
concretes has been the subject of many
investigations. Some of the main findings are
summarized in Fig. 6. It should be noted that
the tests under discussion were generally
performed with unsealed concrete specimens.
In most cases the loading rates have not been
stated. However, it seems that within a
normal range the loading rates have negligible
influence on the high temperature strengths.
From the reported data the following general
conclusions can be drawn:
within the practical range of usage for struc-
tural concretes hardly influence the high
temperature-strength characteristics.
 59

100~,~~ ~ ~ --Pradicaldeign r~( TI

fc (20C)
t6 1./~ t2 10 Q8 06 Q#+ Q2 0
quartzite c n c r e t e - - i L/~. 0
f l~C):~ON~--~l . o2
60
0.4

20 i aB

o ~ ,-'- ~ - ~
0 200 400 500 800 1000
1]+ 5lIT)
temperature T in o ,,4 ,/ / /
Fig. 6. High temperature compressive strength of ~'=10 =066 =04 =02
ordinary structural c o n c r e t e . Fig. 7. Biaxial compressive strength of normal con-
crete at high temperatures (after Ehm [5 ]).
--Aggregate-cement ratio has a significant Gz (T}
effect on the strength on concrete exposed to fc ( 200
high temperatures. The reduction being 1.6 1.4 1.2 10 0.8 0.6 0.h 0.2 0
proportionally smaller for lean mixes than for lightweightconcrete
fcI20)=31,5Nlmm2 A ~[2
rich mixes.
- - D i f f e r e n t types of aggregates influence the
strength-temperature characteristics. The de-
crease in strength of calcareous and light-
weight aggregate concretes occurs at higher
temperatures compared to siliceous concretes.
, , 2
-- T y p e of cement has little effect on strength-
temperature characteristics. 1.4 (~1 IT)
--Maximum size of aggregate seems to be
/ ,/ ' / 1.6 f<lml
~=I0 =Q(~ =O4 =02 =O0
a s e c o n d ~ r d e r factor as investigations of Fig. 8. Biaxial compressive strength of lightweight
mortars and various concretes demonstrate. concrete at high temperatures (after Ehm [ 5 ]).
- - Sustained stresses during the heating period
influence the shape of the strength-tempera- biaxial compression. It is clearly indicated
ture relationship significantly. It is evident, that the biaxial compressive strength is
that the "stressed strength" is higher than higher than the uniaxial strength irrespective
"unstressed strength". The stress level itself of the individual stress r a t i o and temperature
has little effect on the ultimate strength as level. Similar results have been obtained with
long as e > 0.20 b u t becomes important if a structural lightweight concrete (Fig. 8).
< 0.20. Further, it was noted that the relative increase
- - R a t e of heating has little effect as long as of strength at high temperatures under a
temperature gradients in the test specimens biaxial state of stresses is significant. Espe-
are limited (<10 C/cm). cially at temperatures above 450 C, the
- - R e s i d u a l compressive strength values are effect of biaxial stresses indicates its increas-
lower than the equivalent high temperature ing importance with respect to the material
strength values. failure.
Often the evaluation of concrete structures
requires data which enable the determination 3.3. Modulus of elasticity
of multiaxial states of stress. Especially if A limited number of publications consider
plates or slabs are to be considered, the the elastic properties of concrete at high
application of uniaxial material properties temperatures. Essential results are sum-
may lead to unexpected errors or incorrect arized in Fig. 9. From the presented data it
results. The biaxial high temperature strength can be stated that:
of concrete has been studied during the last - - O r i g i n a l strength of concrete and w a t e r -
two years [5]. Figure 7 shows the failure cement ratio seem to have little influence on
envelope of a structural concrete under the elasticity-temperature relationship.
 60

110
100 ~ _ --Pradica~ design E2o~='29,6
: KNimm 2 I
cur~es I I i , I|
9C

\ ~concrete ?C

so

w 3C
20 (~)ca'beq~

0
200 z~0 600 800 1000 I0 2O 30 40 5O 6O 7O
temperafure T in
10ad le~et ~: : fb/f~ {20% ) ~ %
Fig. 9. M o d u l e s of elasticity of structural concrete
with different types of aggregate. Fig. 10. Modulus of elasticity of normal concrete
being stressed during heating up.

T y p e of aggregate has in most cases a strong 10 ~-20o[

- -

influence. Lightweight aggregate concretes

indicate the lowest decrease of the modulus ~ 08
of elasticity and siliceous aggregate concretes i
the highest one. The range of data f r om ~- 06
o
/
different workers varies significantly (see
Fig. 9). 0.4 f A . . . .

- T y p e of cemen t has little effect on modulus

-

of e l a s t i c i t y - t e m p e r a t u r e characteristics. ~'- 750%

i 0.~
- Sustained stresses during heating of the test
-

0)
I
specimen significantly affect the elasticity- 02 O.Z, 06 0.8 1.0
t e m per atu r e behaviour. "Stressed elasticities" Ft~sscn ratio ~2/EI
are always higher than "unstressed elasticities". Fig. 11. Poisson ratio of uniaxially loaded concrete
The stress level itself has little effect within a t h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e s ( a f t e r E h m [ 5 ]).
a range of a = 0.1 to 0.3 (see Fig. 10).
Data on the Poisson's ratio p at high tion of p from its original values occurs. In
temperatures are rare. Figure 11 shows the some cases p > 0.5 was observed. These values
results of Ehm [5] derived in 1985. At 20 C indicate material effects which occur far
the Poisson's ratio is constant until the load b e y o n d the elastic range.
level exceeds 70% of the ultimate load. With The p h e n o m e n a m ent i oned above have
increasing temperatures, a significant devia- been summarized in Table 1. It contains a

TABLE 1
Parameters determining the temperature strength of concrete

Type Effect Practical importance

Strong Medium Weak

Class of strength - - + great

w/c r a t i o + great
Aggregate +++ - - medium
Type of cement - ++ -- medium
Aggr./cem. ratio - ++ - medium
Max. aggr. - - + small
Load level +++ -- f < 0.3ful t
Heating rate - + < 4 C/min
Evaporation rate +++ a t T ~ 1 2 0 C
Age of concrete - - + t>28d
Type of curing - ++ medium
Sealing +++ - t i l l T < 2 0 0 C

list of factors influencing concrete behaviour
at high temperatures. The screening has
been done on the basis of existing knowledge
and personal experience. Table 1 is intended
to give a rough survey of the possible concrete
behaviour under fire rather than final con-
clusions. The compilation holds even with
respect to influences on the modulus of
elasticity of concrete at high temperatures.
Generally it was observed that the decrease
of elasticity of concrete with increasing
temperatures exceeds the decrease of its
strength.
3.4. Stress and strain characteristics
Most tests of this t y p e have been per-
formed by stress-rate controlled tests. With
recent developments in the field of modern
hydraulic test equipment it is now possible to
perform strain-rate controlled tests. Typical
o - e curves are indicated in Fig. 12. From
Fig. 12 and the literature reviewed, the
following conclusions can be drawn:
--Original strength and the w a t e r - c e m e n t
ratio within the practical range of concrete
application hardly influence the shape of a - e
curves.
- - A g g r e g a t e - c e m e n t ratio has a significant
effect on the modulus of elasticity and
consequently also on the initial slope of the
o - e curves. Mortars (high cement content!)
indicate a lower initial slope than normal
concretes, o - e curves of concrete indicate
a somewhat greater curvature than those of
mortars.
-- T y p e of aggregate is the main factor affect-
ing the shape of the o - e curves. Concretes
made with hard aggregates (siliceous, basaltic)
1.2
=0.3 %o/m~n
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
C
2 4 6 8 i0
- ~ in [ % o ]
Fig. 12. S t r e s s - s t r a i n r e l a t i o n s h i p for n o r m a l c o n c r e t e
derived in strain-rate c o n t r o l l e d tests.
61
generally have a steeper decrease of the initial
slope with increasing test temperatures than
those with softer aggregates (e.g., lightweight
aggregates).
--Lightweight concretes indicate practically
only little changes in the shape of the o - e
curves for temperatures up to a b o u t 250 C.
--The ultimate strain (strain at the failure
point or maximum strength of a o - e curve)
turned o u t to be nearly independent of the
type of aggregate.
- - T h e temperature-dependent dissipation en-
ergy (i.e., work of fracture in a strain-rate
controlled compressive test) indicates a
maximum in the temperature region 3 0 0 -
600 C. The value of the ultimate dissipation
energy for the low and high temperature
regions lies between 20 and 70 J/kg. Maxi-
m u m values from 60 to 100 J/kg have been
found in the medium temperature region of
300 - 600 C.
- - T y p e of cement seems to be of minor
influence as far as concretes are considered.
Mortars (mix proportion 1:3:0.5) made
with different types of cement showed
significant differences.
--Curing conditions influence the stress-
strain behaviour at relatively low tempera-
tures ( < 3 0 0 C). Usually the initial slopes of
the o - e curves and stress maxima are lower
for specimens cured under water than for
dried or air-cured specimens. However, in
most cases the a - e relationships are nor-
malized to the ultimate strength at 20 C
( f c ( 2 0 C ) = l ) ) . Sometimes, however, this
apparent rise of the high temperature values
of the compressive strength occurs if water-
cured specimen data are taken as reference
values.
- - A sustained load (e.g., prestress) during
heating varies the shape of the o - e curve
significantly. This is independent of the
type of concrete being tested. Specimens
under a sustained load (load level ~) during
the heating period indicate a significant
relative increase of compressive strength and
modulus of elasticity compared to specimens
which were not loaded during heating, b u t
tested under the same conditions. The ulti-
mate strain is also significantly reduced with
12 loaded specimens (see Fig. 13). Up to test
temperatures of a b o u t 450 C, concrete
specimens indicated similar behaviour to
unheated specimens. The a - e curves are
62

8 t8
7 / 0
6 14 quartziteconcrefe~
o~ 12
4 I0 . . . . . .
~o
.g basatt concre~
3 O1
6 c0ncmCe
4 / t -
1 cc=03

0
0 100 200 300 z~ 500 600 700 800
temperature in C o ~ ' ~ n e n t stone
-2
Fig. 13. U l t i m a t e strain eult as a f u n c t i o n o f t e m p e r a - 0 200 400 600 BOO 1000
ture for s p e c i m e n s stressed at d i f f e r e n t load levels temperature T in %
during heating up: ( o - e tests). Fig. 15. T h e r m a l strain of d i f f e r e n t c o n c r e t e s .

GI(T)
f~(2O%) of the composites influence the mechanical
properties of concrete at high temperatures.
14
~ ~ ~' !
fc120~]:41N/mm'14 Some test results of thermal strain measure-
12 L ments are reviewed in Fig. 15. F r o m the
0S~I" 12
Figure it can be stated that:
10 ~J_ ,300~ 10
50% strain is a non-linear funct i on of
018~ ~ ~ I~ 08
- - T h e r m a l

temperature, even at relatively low tempera-

06 ~ E5c
~:? 6 4 2 0 -2 -4 -6 -8 E~:e7
tensionstrain compressive
stun
Fig. 14. Biaxial s t r e s s - s t r a i n relationship o f n o r m a l
c o n c r e t e u n d e r a stress ratio K = 1:1 (after E h m [ 5 ]).
nearly independent of the test temperatures.
The load level during heating itself seems to
have a minor influence.
-- Stress-strain relationships under biaxial
conditions have been derived by Ehm [5].
Figure 14 shows a typical test result for
normal concrete tested with a stress ratio
- - 1 : 1 , i.e., during the tests simultaneous
stress increase of the same order in each axis
was performed. The observed ultimate strains
are somewhat higher than in the uniaxial case.
Especially in the t em pe r at ur e range above
450 C a significant increase in plasticity
occurs.
3.5. Thermal strain and shrinkage
The objectives of thermal expansion
measurements concern the question of how
the thermal strain is effected by single com-
ponents of the composite material and how
the incompatibilities of the thermal strains
06
tures.
-- The main factor affecting the thermal strain
is the t y p e of aggregate; the coarse aggregate
fraction plays a d o m i n a n t role.
-- Pure hydrated cement paste indicates
contraction shrinkage at temperatures above
150 - 400 C.
-- At very high temperatures (600 - 800 C)
most concretes indicate no, or a reduced,
expansion. In some cases the concrete shrinks
due to chemical or physical reactions in the
aggregates.
- - T h e r m a l strain measurements norm al l y
include shrinkage. This is unavoidable as the
tests are perform ed with unsealed specimens.
The thermal strain of concrete may be
partly irreversible, i.e., after cooling one
obtains residual strains which might be
positive (residual dilatation) or negative
{residual shrinkage). The first case occurs
during cooling of most concretes after heating
up to less than 400 C. The second case may
be observed by cooling of concretes being
heated above 400 C. Table 2 shows residual
strain values of quartz and limestone con-
crete after heating to a defined m axi m um
temperature and cooling dow n to ambient
temperatures.
Compared to the thermal expansion,
shrinkage strains are small. Shrinkage has
 63

TABLE 2
R e s i d u a l strains in %o o f q u a r t z a n d l i m e s t o n e c o n c r e t e a f t e r cooling

T y p e of c o n c r e t e M a x i m u m t e m p e r a t u r e (C)
200 300 400 500 600 700 800

Quartz --0.3 --0.5 --0.2 +1.0 +2.0 +6.0 +4.0

Limestone --0.6 +0 +0.5 +1.6 +3.0 +5.5 +6.0

been observed by different workers under 16 heatingrate 2K/rain I f

steady-state conditions even at temperatures
well beyond 100 (7. It is due to delayed fc(2ff~Z) / /=0.0
diffusion, slow crystal growth and phase
.~ 12"__~-~e /,"~
2 . ~ncrete---/--I \
10
changes. Under transient temperature condi- .... L,g g
tions it is difficult to separate thermal strains
and deformations due to shrinkage. According
i 8t
to Bazant [6], shrinkage can be estimated by
es = k, X Aw (4)
whereby k s = 10 -s m3/kg is independent of 0 -
temperatures and Aw comprises the weight
loss of drying cement paste. From Mar~chal
tests [7], we have derived shrinkage data - 4 i- - ,1 - " --~:0:~_~1-t-~_~:015
around 0.8%0 at 400 C. This value is ob- -60 200 400 600 ~O0 1000
-tempecatu~ T in C
tained if Aw = 80 kg/m 3 according to Bazant's
formula which seems to be a reasonable Fig. 16. T o t a l d e f o r m a t i o n o f d i f f e r e n t concretes
being l o a d e d d u r i n g h e a t i n g up.
number if we assume average conditions for
the concrete tested.
- - T h e aggregate-cement ratio has a great
influence on the shape of the strain-tempera-
3.6. Transient state creep and restraint ture curves and on the critical concrete
Transient tests for measuring the total temperature Tcr. The critical concrete tem-
deformation or restraint of concrete have, in peratures of rich mixes are, at higher load
principle, the strongest relation to building levels, lower in comparison to lean mixes.
fires and are supposed to give the most - - T h e harder the aggregate and the lower
realistic data with direct relevance to fire. its thermal expansion, the lower the total
The tests yield strain-temperature relation- deformations of normal concretes in transient
ships (parameter: load level ~) for given tests. Lightweight concretes with expanded
heating rates. Numerous publications in this clay aggregates indicate the lowest total
field of material research have appeared deformations.
recently. Theoretical considerations and ex- - - T h e curing conditions are of great impor-
perimental investigations are reported in tance in the temperature range of 20 - 300 C.
which the main features studied are the mix Air-cured and oven<lried specimens indicate
proportion, the t y p e of aggregate, the curing a significant lower transient creep than
condition and age of concrete and the test water-cured specimens. The influence of
conditions (e.g., heating rate). moisture content on the total deformations
Figure 16 shows the results of a total at higher temperatures is negligible.
deformation test with a normal and a light- - - T h e rate of heating is of minor influence
weight structural concrete. The test results as long as heating rates between 0.2 and
are typical for concrete and the following 5.0 K/min are considered.
conclusions can be derived: Restraint tests have been reported only in
- - T h e w a t e r - c e m e n t ratio and the original a few publications. The restraining and
strength are of little importance. transient creep phenomena are complemen-
64

tary to each other. Therefore, most of the highest restraining forces due to their high
statements regarding the transient creep data thermal expansion. Lightweight or limestone
are {inversely) valid for the restraining data, aggregate concretes attain lower restraining
e.g., if a special type of concrete is supposed forces due to a relatively lower thermal
to have a low thermal expansion and a high expansion.
transient creep, it follows from theoretical The moisture content is a factor which
considerations that relative low restraining determines the maximum value of the re-
forces are to be expected. Restraining forces straining forces in the temperature region
are very sensitive to factors like moisture between 20 to 200 C. With 100 C oven-dried
content, type of aggregate and the curing specimens, a maximum appears between
conditions, etc. Typical restraining force- approximately 100 to 200 C. The restraining
temperature curves are shown in Fig. 17. forces attain values in the range of 60 -80%
The type of aggregate and the restraining of the ultimate strength at 20 C. The peak
force suggest a close relationship. The b e - decreases rapidly. The behaviour of concrete
haviour of concretes made with different with a high moisture content, i.e., after water
types of aggregate is in agreement with storage, is quite different. The moisture
the results of the transient creep tests. At favours higher creep deformations which
temperatures above 200 C, sandstone and result in a much lower restraining peak at
siliceous aggregate concretes attain the 100 C compared with dried specimens. In
the temperature range 100 - 200 C a distinct
minimum occurs in the restraining forces,
which is connected with rapid drying and
- - qu~zife concrefe
I --timestne mncrete
shrinkage effects. In this case the absolute
O~
--4==-~P 0~e maximum restraint appears at about 450 C.
dried 105[ Beyond this temperature the restraining
a6 forces decrease due to increasing plasticity.
The restraint of air-conditioned specimens
~ 0.4 (20 C/65% r.h.) is similar to that of the moist
I specimens.
-iniha[ load The main parameters which influence

To Zo : 3 0 %
200 400 600 800 1000
concrete creep at high temperatures are
summarized in Table 3. Compared to Table 1,
tempe~ure T in % it is obvious that the concrete strains depend
Fig. 17. Restraint forces of different concretes being on different effects than the concrete strength.
totally restrained during heating up. It is important to note that the high tempera-

TABLE 3
Parameters determining the temperature creep of concrete

Type Effect Practical importance

Strong Medium Weak

Class of strength - - + great

w/c r a t i o - - + great
Aggregate - ++ - medium
Type of cement - - + medium
Agg./cem. ratio - ++ - medium
Max. aggr. 0 - - + small
Load level +++ - - f < 0.3fult
Heating rate - - + T < 4 ~3/min
Evaporation rate +++ - - a t T ~ 1 2 0 C
Age of concrete + t>28d
Type of curing ++ medium
Sealing +++ - till T < 2 0 0 C
 65

ture concrete strains are significantly in- 12

fluenced by physical and chemical reactions 11--
10 (Khoury) --Il-l-v
in the cement paste during heating, i.e., the
dehydration of matrix material is an impor-
91]
_ _ c0r~rere
__1#4/__
I ,' i]!
8D
tant factor with respect to p h e n o m e n a like
7.0
transient creep and transitional thermal 60
creep. The dehydration is accompanied b y an 2OO/o4~ ,~p 3OO/o
5.0
intensive development of micro and macro 4D
cracks which allow for further plastic strains. 3.0
Up to now, one has not succeeded in relating 2.0
different strain effects to microstructural 1.0
changes as dehydration and crack develop- C0 "~ 200 ~0 600 800 1(]00
ment. Therefore Table 3 is rather a rough tempe~ure T in C
estimate of the presumed concrete behaviour.
Fig. 18. L o a d - i n d u c e d t h e r m a l s t r a i n curves o f n o r m a l
and lightweight concrete.

4. ANALYTICAL MODELLING OF CONCRETE

BEHAVIOUR
Modelling of concrete behaviour under high
temperatures has been discussed during the
recent 1 0 - 1 5 years. Following the avail-
ability of total deformation measurements,
the debate has concentrated on the question
how the macroscopically measurable strains
could be subdivided into individual strain
elements. It is generally agreed that the total
strain ( e t o t ) comprises three parts:
eto t = e M + e H + 6 T (5)
where e M = mechanical (elastic, plastic) strain,
eH= hygral (shrinkage, swelling) strain and
e w = thermal dilatation [8]. The strains
derived from total deformation tests do n o t
distinguish between eH and eW, i.e.,
6tO t ---- e M + e t h (6)
According to Khoury [9], in this case the
term e M is called "load-induced thermal
strain". It consists of transient creep (transi-
tional thermal creep and drying creep), basic
creep and elastic strains. Within the range of
tested heating rates, the load-induced thermal
strains turned o u t to be nearly independent of
time, t y p e of concrete, moisture and thermal
expansion of concrete. Figure 18 shows the
induced thermal strain curves of a one-year-
old normal concrete and lightweight concrete.
The strains indicate an approximately linear
increase with an increase in the stress level.
This observation is in agreement with earlier
findings of Anderberg [10] and Schneider
[11].
For stresses less than 0.5 of the strength
limit, Bazant [8] proposed for creep at
variable moisture content and temperatures:
e M = o X J ( T , t, t') (7)
in which J ( T , t, t') = compliance function,
which represents the strain at age t caused by
a unit stress that has been acting since age t'
of concrete. The compliance function is
approximated by the double power law,
1 fwXCT
J ( T , t, t') = - - + g ( w ) X - - X f(te)
Eo Eo
X (t- t') l ' s (8)
in which E0 = elastic modulus, g ( w ) = func-
tion for drying rates, fw = function of water
content, CW= function of temperature, f(te) =
function of maturity. The equation comprises
all effects which are relevant for concrete
behaviour under fire with two exceptions:
The modulus of elasticity is not just tempera-
ture- b u t also load<iependent and e M turned
o u t to be nearly time invariant, at least within
a time period of not more than a few hours,
i.e.,
eM(T, t, t', o) = eM(T, O) (9)
It is therefore convenient to write
eM = Eel(T, O) + epl(T, o) + err. or(T, o) (10)
in which Eel represents the elastic strains,
epl accounts for plastic strains due to stresses
b e y o n d 0.5 of the strength limit, and eu,~
comprises all the other strain increments
which occur under rapid heating and drying
66

of loaded concrete and which is called tran- 10.C

sient creep [3]. aJ 9(

It should be noted that transient creep in ~ ac

this sense does not just comprise creep
strains which are due to rapid drying of
capillary water and connected with that ~4c
an internal redistribution of moisture in the
microstructure, but it also accounts for I 2C
the total loss of gel water and chemically 1.C
bounded water. Both effects are usually C
200 ~00 600 830 10~
called dehydration, i.e., transient creep holds temperature T in %
for strains occurring during the change of
Fig. 19. Transient creep function ~) for different
matter until the strength or strain limits are concretes derived from total deformation tests.
exceeded. During the change of matter the
microstructure converts into a solid with a
considerable a m o u n t of internal micro and limit. From the theoretical stress-strain
macro cracks. relationship for concrete
In this connection it should be mentioned
that Anderberg [10] proposed a slightly o(T) e(T) n
- X
different notation for the transient creep fult(T) Cult(T) (n--l)+ / ( e ( T ) \]"
term:
\eult(T)/ (15)
etr, cr ----ear + (Ftr (11)
in which f u l t ( T ) = h i g h temperature com-
in which ecr = creep strain measured under pressive strength according to Fig. 6 and
high (constant) temperatures, it comprises eult(T) = u l t i m a t e strains after Fig. 13 the
drying creep plus basic creep, and etr = following expression can be derived
transient strain, accounting for the effect of 1
the strain increase under increasing tempera- - X (e(T)/eult(T))" (16)
tures. As ecr is small with respect to fire u--1
situations, Anderberg's formula yields no whereby n = 2.5 holds for lightweight concrete
advantages in practical applications. and n = 3.0 for normal concrete. A reasonable
A compliance function which accounts approximation for g is given by
for the three strain elements according to
1
eqn. (10) has the following form: - X (o(T)/fult(T)) s (17)
n--1
1 ~)
J ( T , o) = -~ (1 + ~) + E
-- (12) A descending branch in the o - e diagram
is not taken into account in the proposed
in which eqns. (16) and (17). Creep functions ~b have
E = E o X f(T) X g(o, T) (13) been derived by Schneider [11] and are
shown in Fig. 19. The function (I) is described
whereby f(T) may be a function according by
to Fig. 9 and g(o, T) allows for the increase
of elasticity due to external loads (cf. Fig. o(T) x (T-- 20)
~=g+ (18)
19): fc(20 C) x 100
o(T) whereby o ( T ) / f c ( 2 0 C) ~< 0.3 and
g = 1.0 + X ( T - - 20)/100 (14)
fc(20 C) = C1 tanh 7 w ( T - 20)
whereby the empirical boundary limit is
imposed, such that if o/fc, 2o> 0.3 then + C: tanh 7o(T -- Tg) + C3 (19)
o/fc, :o ~- 0.3 must be considered. The function g is given in eqn. (14) and 7w
The K-function accounts for the plastic accounts for the moisture content w in % by
magnifications in a stress-strain diagram. weight:
It may be neglected within the elastic range,
i.e., load levels less than 0.5 of the strength 7w = (0.3w + 2.2)10 -3 (20)
 67

TABLE 4
P a r a m e t e r s for t r a n s i e n t creep f u n c t i o n s ~ of s t r u c t u r a l c o n c r e t e s

Parameter Dimension Quartzite concrete Limestone concrete L i g h t w e i g h t concrete

C1 1 2.60 2.60 2.60

C2 1 1.40 2.40 3.00
C3 1 1.40 2.40 3.00
~'o C-1 7.5 x 10 - a 7.5 x 10 - a 7.5 x 10 - a
Tg C 700 650 600

Figure 19 is based on a moisture content 3O

of 2%. The overall influence is comparatively
2s
small. Table 4 contains the parameters for the /
~b functions of three structural concretes. The ,~ 2o
normal //
parameters are slightly modified when com- conr_refe
pared to the results of earlier publications
[3, 11]. Values above 800 C are derived by
extrapolation.
It should be mentioned t h a t almost no
transient creep occurs during the cooling of
concrete after temperature exposure. A
T 0 200 zOO 600 800 1000
tempe~t~ T in E
reasonable assumption for the concrete
behaviour under cooling is that the prevalent Fig. 20. U l t i m a t e s t r a i n o f c o n c r e t e derived f r o m
the results o f t o t a l d e f o r m a t i o n tests.
modulus of elasticity is fixed according to
the corresponding previous m a x i m u m tem-
perature and stress states. Furthermore, one have been derived from the results of con-
must consider that the thermal strains may be ventional o - e tests (cf. Fig. 13).
significantly irreversible under cooling con- As far as the tension behaviour of concrete
ditions. This holds especially for temperatures at high temperatures is concerned, it is
higher than 600 C and depends mainly on the c o m m o n to neglect it in structural design.
t y p e of aggregate in the concrete (cf. Section The tensile strength of concrete decreases
3.5). As the proposed concrete model does rapidly with increasing temperatures. Table 5
not account for the crack development in shows a rough estimate of observed pure
thick cross sections, the thermal strain accord- tensile strength values at high temperatures.
ing to Fig. 15 may be reduced by a factor of The ultimate strains under tension are nor-
0.8 if eqn. (6) is applied in a structural maUy less than 1/10 of the ultimate strains
design. under compression (cf. Fig. 13).
The failure of concrete may be determined
by the m a x i m u m of attainable compressive
strains e M ~ eul t which have been established 5. C O N C L U S I O N
in a total deformation test. Figure 20 shows
the results of structural concretes according Different models for determining the
to ref. 3. The strain limits are far b e y o n d the structural fire behaviour of concrete have
values of c o m m o n ultimate strains which been developed. The models use steady-state,

TABLE 5
T e n s i o n s t r e n g t h of c o n c r e t e a t h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e s

T e m p e r a t u r e in C 20 100 200 300 400 500 600

Relative s t r e n g t h in % 100 80 60 40 20 10 0
68

t r a n s i e n t state a n d m i x e d d a t a a n d h a v e stress ( N / m m 2)
d i f f e r e n t degrees o f s o p h i s t i c a t i o n . As to b e stress r a t e ( N / m m 2 p e r m i n )
e x p e c t e d , t r a n s i e n t state m o d e l s c o r r e s p o n d
largely t o fire situations.
According to r e c e n t research results,
c o n c r e t e m o d e l s should consider t r a n s i e n t REFERENCES
creep or at least a p p r o p r i a t e strain effects.
Especially if t h e t h e o r e t i c a l c a l c u l a t i o n o f 1 Z. P. Bazant and J. C. Chern, Normal and Refrac-
tory Concretes for LMFBR Applications, EPRI:
c o n c r e t e m e m b e r s requires t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n NP-2437, Vol. 1, Northwestern University,
o f d e f o r m a t i o n s and r e s t r a i n t , t h e considera- Evanston, 1982.
t i o n o f t r a n s i e n t e f f e c t s is m o s t necessary. 2 K. Kordina, The Behaviour o f Structural Ele-
T h e p r o p o s e d c o n c r e t e m o d e l covers m o s t ments and Buildings under Fire (in German),
t e m p e r a t u r e e f f e c t s w h i c h have b e e n o b s e r v e d Rheinisch-Westf~lische Akademie der Wissen-
schaften, Nr. 281, Westdeutscher Verlag, Opladen,
w i t h c o n c r e t e u n d e r fire a n d t h e r e f o r e can be 1979.
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Temperatures -- Concrete, RILEM 44-PHT,
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4 U. Schneider, Behaviour o f Concrete at High
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heron, Heft 337, Verlag W. Ernst und Sohn,
Berlin, 1982.
a t h e r m a l d i f f u s i v i t y (cm2/s) 5 C. Ehm, Experimental Investigations of the
cv heat capacity (kJ/kgK) Biaxial Strength and Deformation of Concrete at
E m o d u l u s o f elasticity ( N / m m 2) High Temperatures (in German), Dissertation,
fc c o m p r e s s i v e s t r e n g t h ( N / m m 2) Technical University of Braunschweig, 1985.
6 Z. P. Bazant, Mathematical Model for Creep and
H enthalpy (kJ/kg)
Thermal Shrinkage o f Concrete at High Tem-
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T t e m p e r a t u r e (K or C) Inst., Northwestern University, Evanston, 1982.
r a t e o f t e m p e r a t u r e increase ( K / m i n ) 7 J. C. Mar~chal, Le Fluage du B4ton en Fonction
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Constr., 2 (8) (1969) 111 - 115.
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e strain (%0) variable humidity: constructive law and mecha-
strain r a t e (%0 p e r m i n ) nism, Mater. Constr., 18 (103) (1985) 1 - 20.
eth t h e r m a l strain (%0) 9 G. A. Khoury, B. N. Grainger and P. J. E. Sullivan,
es shrinkage (%o) Strain of concrete during first heating to 600 C
under load, Mag. Concr. Res., 37 (133) (1985)
etot t o t a l d e f o r m a t i o n u n d e r load (%0) 195 - 215.
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~b creep f u n c t i o n f o r t r a n s i e n t creep f l o w Structures -- An Experimental and Theoretical
stress r a t i o o1:o~ o r plastic strain Study, Div. of Struct. Mechn. and Concrete
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