Aspect Definition/Content

Log Continuous recording of a geophysical parameter along a borehole. An indirect

measurement of formation properties exposed by the well-bore acquired by
lowering a device or a combination of devices in the well bore.
Wireline Logging Conventional form of logging that employs a measurement tool suspended on a
cable or wire that suspends the tool and carries the data back to the surface.
Well logging A graphical representation of the physical properties against depth.
Formation The process of using borehole measurements to evaluate the characteristics of
evaluation subsurface formations.
Well logging Transformation of measured physical property into desired petrophysical or
interpretation geological parameter or model.
Identification of the reservoir
Estimating hydrocarbon in place and reserves (recoverable fraction of
hydrocarbon in place)
Reservoir properties
o Shape
o Thickness
Quantitative analysis includes: -
o Type of reservoir (lithology)
o Storage capacity (porosity)
o Hydrocarbon type and content (Saturation So,Shc)
o Producibility (permeability)
Mapping reservoir parameters
o Well-to-well correlation
o Facies analysis
o Regional structures, formation dip and sedimentary history
Surface seismic well tie (generating synthetic seismic)
Advantages Easily integrated with other forms of ground survey
Different measurements to solve variety of problems
Non-destructive
Continuous measurements
Easy and quick to work with
Short time acquisition
Better resolution compared to seismic data
Economical
Disadvantages Indirect measurements
Limited by tool specification
Affected by environment
Varying resolution
Types of logging According to casing operation
o Open-hole logging refers to logging operations that are
performed on a well before the wellbore has been cased and
cemented. Best data quality. Affected by borehole size, shape,
fluid and temperature.
Electrical
Radioactive
Sonic
 Caliper
Dipmeter
o Cased-hole logging involves retrieving logging measurements
through the well casing, or the metal piping that is inserted into
the well during completion operations. Not applicable for all
measurements. Deals with casing integrity, cement quality. More
difficult for measurements.
Gamma ray
Neutron
Temperature
Chlorine
Pulsed Neutron
Cement Bond
Tracer
According to conductivity of the borehole
o Conductive (water based drilling mud)
o Non-conductive (oil based mud, air drilled or cased holes)
Production logging
o Flowmeter: flow measurement
o Gradiomanometer: fluid density/fluid mix
o Pressure: reservoir, borehole pressure, fluid density
o Temperature: production, temperature, flow measurement,
cement evaluation, channel identification
o Caliper: borehole size, flowmeter correction
Logging while drilling
o A system that provides real-time data measurements made near
the drill bit during the drilling process
o MWD = Measurement while drilling is simple drilling type
measurement. Eg. Hole deviation.
o LWD = Logging while drilling is taken to refer to log-type
measurements. Eg. Resistivity and density.
Used when high rig cost, high drilling risk and high well
placement risk.
Measurements before formation alteration, hole washes
out, invasion and time becomes a factor in interpretation.
Usually rotating such as resistivity, density images and
azimuthal formation evaluation.
Mechanical,
passive
(spontaneous)
and induced
(active)
 1. Natural phenomena
o GR/SP/T/Caliper/Azimuth/etc.
2. Physical properties measured by inducing responses from the formation
o Electric
o Radioactive
o Acoustic

Lithology Reservoir Properties Reservoir Structure Image logging

(FMI/FMS)
Porosity Vshl Saturation Permeability
Caliper, Neutron, SP, Resistivity Repeat
SP, GR, Density, GR, Logging Formation
Fracture/ Sedimentary
NGS, Sonic NGT, Tester (RFT) Dip/Azimuth
Vug analysis Analysis
Neutron, etc.
Density,
etc.
Production logging tools are run in
completed wells to ascertain the nature
and behavior of fluids in or around the
borehole during production or injection.
These logs are used to analyze dynamic
well performance and the productivity or
injectivity of different zones, to diagnose
problem wells, or to monitor results of a
stimulation or completion. This discipline
deals with a variety of techniques used to
measure well performance, with terms
ranging from annular flow to basket
flowmeter, from holdup to water-cut meter.
All terms have been defined by experts in
the production logging domain, and many
definitions include high-quality illustrations
or photographs. (Schlumberger)
Aspect Definition/Content
Mud One of the first direct evaluation methods available during the drilling of an exploration
Logging well. During drilling operations, the fluid is continuously circulated down the inside of
the drill pipe, through the bottom of the bit, and back up the annular space. The drilling
mud carries broken rock fragments (drill cuttings) to the surface. Mudlogging examples
are: -
Weight on Bit (WOB)
Drill string rotation speed (RPM)
Mud pump speed (SPM)
Mud pump pressure (SSP)
Drilling rate of Rate of Penetration (ROP)
Lithology and texture of cutting
Percentage of gas in air and/or gas composition
Hydrocarbon staining on the cuttings
Bit diameter (D)
Drill-string configuration
Gamma. Temperature
Hot wire recording
Chromatography data
Geologists interpretation
Limitations 1. Depth accuracy of 5 meters
of Mud a. The cuttings are transported to surface by mud flow which varies
Logging depending upon the volume of annulus and circulation rate
2. Rock fragments from various depths are mixed when they reach the surface
a. The rate of transportation of rock cuttings also depends upon their size
and density resulting in mixing of cuttings from various depths.
3. Unstable shales contaminate the rock cuttings
a. The caving shales higher up the well-bore contaminate the cuttings
from the lower depths.
Coring The technique where by sample of reservoir materials (cores) are removed
A core is a solid cylinder of rock about 4-5 inches in diameter and a single core
will usually be about 30 feet long
Expensive and the only opportunity to physically view and analyze the reservoir
material
Allow direct measurements of reservoir properties
Used to correlate indirect measurements such as wireline/LWD logs
Used to test compatibility of injection fluids
Used to predict borehole stability
Used to estimate probability of formation failure and sand production

Methods: -
1. Conventional coring; drill string coring
a. Large diameter core, as much as five inches or more, can be obtained in
one operation
b. Drilling operations cannot be resumed without removing the drill pipe
from the hole
c. Expensive and valuable
 d. Done using special drilling bits, with an inner and outer barrel, each
approximately 9 meters in length, can be joined in multiples for an
increased core recovery. In conventional coring methods, the inner
barrel remains stationary, while the outer barrel, on which the bit is
attached, rotated, pushing the rock into the inner barrel. The core
catcher prevents the sample from slipping out.

2. Wireline retrievable coring

a. Bring cores to the surface and proceeding with normal drilling
operations, without removing the drilling tools from the hole
i. Percussion coring uses explosives to shoot barrels into the
rock, some samples are too damaged for porosity and
permeability assessment
ii. Rotary coring undamaged cores for porosity and permeability,
more expensive
 PRESSURE DETECTION
Formation A mean of obtaining information concerning the liquid and pressure in an open-hole
testing formations.

Methods: -
1. Wireline Testing
a. Provide reservoir fluid samples, an indication of fluid mobility and
information on reservoir continuity
b. Two types: Repeat Formation Tester (RFT) and Formation Interval
Tester (FIT)
c. RFT is run into the hold and a continuous digital read out of hydrostatic
pressure is obtained. At any point in the hole the tool may be actuated
to force a rubber pad against the wall of the hole, and a tube in the
center of the pad is forced hard against the formation. The formation
fluid will flow to the chamber through the tube.

d. FIT is a single test - only one pressure reading and one fluid sample for
each run. A tool is actuated (a pad is tightly against the formation to
form a seal against hydrostatic pressure of the fluid in the hole). A
shaped charge is then fired into the formation, an opening a passage
way for formation fluids to flow into a chamber in the tool. At the same
time the formation pressure will be recorded.
2. Drill Stem Test (DST) Well Test Analysis
a. A procedure for isolating and testing the surrounding geological
formation through the drill stem.
b. A measurements of pressure behavior at the drill steam and is a
valuable way to obtain important sampling information on the
formation fluid and to establish the probability of commercial
production.
c. Made by lowering a valve, a packer, and a length of perforated (pierce
and make a hole or holes in) tail pipe to the level of formation.
d. The packer is set against the wall of the borehole so that it seals off the
test interval from the mud column above. The valve is then opened, and
formation fluid will flow to the surface through the drill pipe. The
amount of fluid produced will represent the fluid production can be
expected from the well.
 WELL LOG MEASUREMENTS PROBLEMS
Borehole effects
Drilling mud Salinity ranges between 1000 and 200000 ppm of NaCl. The influence of the drilling
mud on a log response depends on several factors:
1. Hole diameter
a. The larger the hole, the greater the volume of fluid around the
logging tool, and the stronger its effect on the logging reading.
2. Mud-type and mud-density
a. Water based mud fresh or salt saturated
i. Mud salinity affects electrical and induction, hydrogen
index tools in different manners
b. Oil based mud Varying quantities of water
i. Does not allow current to pass so electrical logs will not
work
c. Air and foam
i. Will not transmit sonic signals, neutron tools are affected
d. With additives to increase weight, viscosity and so on
i. Barite affect density, gamma ray and photoelectric effect
measurements
Mud type, salinity and additives must be knows so that the appropriate
corrections can be made.
Invasion In principal, the mud is kept at a slightly higher pressure than the formation pore-
fluids, by careful control of the mud-density. Consequently, there is a tendency for
the mud to infiltrate porous, permeable beds, and this is called invasion. Mud-
filtrate displaces some of the formation fluid. Depth of invasion depends on: -
Porosity and permeability of the formation
Quantity of water which is liberated from the mud
Pressure difference between well-bore and formation
As the well is drilled deeper, further invasion occurs slowly through the mudcake
(mud circulation). The movement of the drill string can remove some mudcake,
causing the process to be restarted. Typical depth of invasion at the time of wireline
logging is 20 inches. The depth can reach 10 ft. or more in certain conditions.

Mudcake - The residue deposited on a permeable medium

when a slurry, such as a drilling fluid, is forced against the
medium under a pressure. Filtrate is the liquid that passes
through the medium, leaving the cake on the medium. Drilling
muds are tested to determine filtration rate and filter-cake
properties. Cake properties such as cake thickness,
toughness, slickness and permeability are important because
the cake that forms on permeable zones in the wellbore can
cause stuck pipe and other drilling problems. Reduced oil and
gas production can result from reservoir damage when a poor
filter cake allows deep filtrate invasion. A certain degree of
cake buildup is desirable to isolate formations from drilling
fluids. In openhole completions in high-angle or horizontal
holes, the formation of an external filter cake is preferable to a
cake that forms partly inside the formation. The latter has a
higher potential for formation damage. (Schlumberger)
 Regions of interest: -
Thickness of mudcake hmc
Resistivity of mudcake Rmc
Diameter of flushed zone di
Resistivity of flushed zone Rxo
Beyond the invaded zone (uninvaded or virgin zone) resistivity Rt
Casing and The presence of casing and cement prevents certain logging measurements
cement (resistivity for instance). Only nuclear (and some acoustic) measurements can be
made through casing.
Fluid mobility Hydrocarbon mobility is its ease of displacement. The difference between the
saturation Sxo and Sw, calculated in the invasion and virgin zones is the quantity of
hydrocarbon displaces by the filtrate. The producible oil index (POI) also called the
moveable oil index equation: -
The effect of tool geometry
Tool diameter, A range of tool diameters appropriate to the common hole-sizes, including special
excentralizatio slim-hole equipment. Logging tool may take any of the three positions relative to
n the hole axis: -
1. Centralized
2. Decentralized against the wall ( = 0)
3. Stood off from the wall by a small amount ( = constant)

Spacing of Logging tools do not take point readings, the signals they measure come from a
sensors finite volume of formation (and borehole) surrounding the sensor. Single-detector
devices (the SP, ES, GR detector) respond to a volume which would be a sphere,
centered on the sensor, if the surrounding medium were homogenous.
(depth of 1. Omni-directional measurements. Some of the signal is in the borehole.
investigation) Most comes from the invaded zone (GR).
/Volume of
investigation
 2. Omni-directional but focused to virgin zone. Also both borehole and
invaded zone effects need corrections. See a few feet into the formation.
Deep resistivity tools.

3. Sensor facing in one direction only (eccentered). See a few inches into the
formation, again measureing invaded zone (neutron and bulk density)

Vertical Depends on several factors, and will be different for different tools: -
resolution 1. Thickness of bed
2. Tool geometry and type of measurement
3. Contrast between readings in the bed in question and its immediate
neighbors
Bed boundaries on logs are not perfectly sharp, but appear as a more or less
gradual transition between a lower and a higher reading. Thin beds are an average
of contributions from all the beds within the volume of investigation, and the true
log value in a thin bed is rarely obtained even after correction. Factors affecting bed
boundary resolution are: -
 1. Accuracy of detection
2. Sensors dimensions
3. Logging speed

Logging speed
Logging speed The same for all types of log. Natural and induced radio-active accumulation or
sampling period corresponds to the time constant of the conventional measuring
equipment. The time constant is chosen according to the count-rate level and
measurement precision desired. Other factors which limit logging speed are
galvanometer inertia and various safety precautions, particularly cable tension and
the risk of damage to pad-type equipment.
Hostile environment
Hostile Well-core temperature and pressure increase with depth as a function of the
environment geothermal gradient, and mud density, respectively. Logging tools must be able to
withstand extreme hole conditions which might be encountered. Increasing
temperature affects thermal neutron devices, affects performance of the
electronics in the tools, affects the mud resistivity (it decreases with increasing
temperature). Temperature is measured during each logging run and most logging
tools are rated at 350-400 F (200 Celcius). High temperature versions electronics are
place in Dewar flask.

Formation pressure is the pressure under which the subsurface formation fluids and
gases are confined. The pressure of the drilling mud is hydrostatic and depends only
on the depth of a well, that is the height of the mud column, and the mud density.
Maintaining the pressure exerted by the colume of drilling mud at just a little above
the pressure of the subsurface formations encountered is one of the necessities for
equilibrium drilling: is a delicate balance.
 CALIPER LOG
Caliper Log Continuous record of the actual borehole diameter versus depth. Simple
mechanical caliper measures a vertical profile of hole diameter. More sophisticated
borehole calipers record two simultaneous calipers to give accurate picture of
borehole shape and orientation. Presented in track 1. Ordinary caliper plot is usually
accompanied by the bit size.

Measurements are made by two articulated arms pushed against the borehole wall.
Arms are linked to a cursor of variable resistance and lateral movements cause
variations in resistance and hence electrical output that are in turn translated in
diameter variations.

The contact pressure varies with the hole diameter: -

1. High pressure will be defined as sufficient pressure to cut through the
mudcake
2. Low pressure as low enough that the contact floats on top if the mudcake
3. Medium where the contact sometimes cuts through the mudcake and other
times does not, depending upon the characteristics of the mudcake
Interpretation Lithological assessment
and uses Good indicator of permeability and porosity zones (reservoir rock) due to
development of mudcake in association with gamma ray log.
Mudcake thickness
Borehole volume
Required cement volume
Indication of hole quality for the assessment of the likely quality of other
logs whose data quality is degraded by holes that are out of gauge (used for
environment correction)
Selection of consolidated formations for wireline pressure tests, fluid
samples, for packer seating for well testing purposes, and for determining
casing settings depths

Four arm Taken from four arm dipmeter tool. Defines borehole
caliper shape better.
interpretation

On gauge and round

Enlarged by key seat
Oval and washed out
Show evidence of breakout

Breakouts analysis can be applied at scales ranging from

an oil field to the whole earth. Large scale outcomes are
typically similar to outcomes of earthquake analysis and
tend to indicate intraplate tectonic stresses. Local scale
studied are important for field development.
 TEMPERATURE LOG
Temperature Measures the borehole temperature. Effective in detection fluid movement and
Log subsurface pressure.

The increase in temperature can be due to radioactive source, igneous intrusion,

percolation of formation waters from lower horizon, cement compaction in cased
holes.

The decrease in temperature can be due to percolation of formation water from

upper horizon, presence of gaseous hydrocarbons (HC).

Accuracy is less approximately 2.5C with resolution around 0.025.

The temperature of subsurface increases with depth. The increase is not linear, it
varies according to lithology depending mainly on their thermal conductivity, also
with heat flow (geothermal conductivity rate of change of temperature with
depth).

Typical geotherms for reservoirs are about 20 to 35 C/km

Tectonically active areas 85C/km
Stable continental platforms 0.05C/km
Measurement Temperature measurements are always made at the bottom of the well (highest
temperature) and sometimes at intervals up the well. In this case, only the highest
temperature (assumes to be at the bottom of the borehole (BHT)) is measured.
Corrections The actual temperature measured is that of the drilling fluid not the formation. The
drilling mud us circulated during drilling and prior to inserting the wireline tool, and
this drilling mud is cold compared to the formation. The cold drilling fluid invades
the formation and cools it down very efficiently via heat convection.

During circulation of drilling fluid, the temperature of the borehole reaches an

equilibrium defined by: -
cooling effect of the drilling fluid
heating effect of the formation
When the circulation stops, the borehole gradually regains the true formation
temperature, because large mass of formation around the borehole heats the
drilling fluid up to its ambient temperature.

The most common method is the Horner plot. The Horner method, plots the
measures (at a given depth) from each of several logging runs, against log(T/(t+T)),
where
T is time since circulation of drilling fluid was stopped (hours)
t is the length of time of circulation of drilling fluid prior to the
measurement
Uses 1. Environmental correction and correlation
a. Tools and sensors are sensitive to temperature
b. Certain tools operate in certain range of temperature (GR)
c. Resistivity are temperature dependent so they need corrections
d. Relationship between temperature and thermal conductivity
correlates the lithology
2. Geochemical modeling and hydrocarbon maturity
a. Interpretation of the relationship between thermal gradient, depth
and hydrocarbon type in terms of HC generation and maturity.
3. Overpressure zones and fluid movement
a. Inflow for formation water into the hole increases the temperature,
vice versa
b. High pressure shale contains hot formation water and causes
increase in temperature when it flows to the borehole.
c. If gaseous HC enter the well, the gas expands and cool the drilling
mud and drop the temperature rapidly
d. This effect can be used to identify hydraulically fractured zones
(production) by comparing pre- and post- fractured gradient