Chapter 1

Catalysts for Change

Organization of Chapter
Introduction
Milestones in computing
Milestones in networking
Milestones in information storage and retrieval
Information technology issues

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Information Age
Definition
Unprecedented access to information

Examples
Cell phones

Email

World Wide Web

Catalysts
Low-cost computers

High-speed communication networks

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Technology and Values
Dynamic between people, technology
People adopt technology

Technology changes society

Effects of technology use

Positive examples

Negative examples

Ultimately, people in control

Decide whether to adopt technology

Influence rate of technological progress

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Milestones in Computing
Mechanical machines (1600s1800s)
Boolean algebra (1850s)
Electronic switching circuits (1930s)
Early computers (1940s)
Commercial computers (1950s )
Transistor (~1950)
Integrated circuit (~1960)
Microprocessor (~1970)

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Mechanical Computing Machines
Arithmetic Machine (Pascal, 1640)
Add, subtract whole numbers

Step Reckoner (von Leibniz, late 1600s)

Multiply, divide through repeated addition, subtraction

Difference Engine prototype (Babbage, 1822)

Compute polynomials through repeated addition

Applications to logarithmic and trigonometric functions

Difference Engine (Babbage, 1820s-1830s)

Never completed by Babbage

Later implementations validated design

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Analytical Engine
Designed by Charles Babbage
Compute mathematical formulas through
repeated addition, subtraction
No instruction set
No conditional execution of instructions
No notion of memory addressing
Never constructed

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Ada Byron
Daughter of poet Lord Byron
Received mathematical training
Engaged in extensive correspondence with
Charles Babbage
Predicted future uses of computing machines
Described how to compute Bernoulli numbers on
Analytical Engine
Sometimes called first programmer

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Boolean Algebra
George Boole (1815-1864)
Lower-class English background

Became math professor in Ireland

Boolean algebra
Formalized logical reasoning

Rules for manipulating two symbols: true, false

Claude Shannon
Ph.D. student at M.I.T. in 1930s

Built switching circuits performing boolean functions

(AND, OR, NOT, etc.)

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Z Series
Konrad Zuse (1910-1995)
German construction engineer

Background in aviation industry

Z1, Z2, Z3 computers

Mechanical and electro-mechanical computers

External programs (punched 35 mm film)

No branch or jump instructions

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Harvard Mark I
Howard Aiken (1900-1973)
IBM sponsored project
Computer built from IBM products
Punched card readers/writers

Electronic typewriters

73 IBM Automatic Accoutning Machines

Programs stored externally on paper tape

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Colossus
Code-breaking machine
Created at Englands Bletchley Park during World
War II
Team included Alan Turing (1912-1954)
Special-purpose electronic computer
Secrecy: little impact on future machines

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Atanasoff-Berry Computer
Built at Iowa State College (1939-1941)
Professor John Atanasoff (1903-1995)

Grad student Clifford Berry (1918-1963)

Solved systems of linear equations

Built with vacuum tubes
Used rotating drum for random-access memory
Stimulated work of Eckert and Mauchley

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ENIAC
Built at University of Pennsylvania during World
War II, completed 1946
Prof. John Mauchley (1907-1980)

J. Presper Eckert (1919-1995)

General-purpose programmable computer

Completely electronic internals
Program wired in from outside not stored in
memory

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Small-Scale Experimental Machine

Built at University of Manchester (England)

F. C. Williams (1911-1977)

Tom Kilburn (1921-2001)

Fully electronic operation

Random-access memory in CRT
Programs and data stored in memory
Jump instruction

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Commercial Computers
Ferranti Mark 1
Introduced February 1951

Based on U. Manchester computer

Remington Rand UNIVAC

Delivered March 1951

Based on ENIAC

Predicted outcome of 1952 Presidential

election

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Transistor
Replacement for vacuum tube
Invented at Bell Labs (1948)
Semiconductor
Faster

Cheaper

More reliable

More energy-efficient

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Integrated Circuit
Semiconductor containing transistors, capacitors,
and resistors
Invented at Fairchild Semiconductor and Texas
Instruments
Advantages over parts they replaced
Smaller

Faster

More reliable

Less expensive

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IBM System/360
Before System/360
IBM dominated mainframe marked in 1960s

IBM computers were incompatible

Switch computers rewrite programs

System/360
Series of 19 computers with varying levels of
power
All computers could run same programs

Upgrade without rewriting programs

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Microprocessor
Computer inside a single semiconductor chip
Invented in 1970 at Intel
Made personal computers practical

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Personal Computers
Hobby computers
Mark-8 (1974)

Altair 8800 (1975)

Commercial PCs (personal computers)

Tandy (TRS-80)

Apple (Apple I, II)

Business PCs
Spreadsheet program (VisiCalc, 1979)

IBM PC (1981)

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Milestones in Networking (1/2)
Electromagnetism (early 1800s)
Telegraph (1844)
Telephone (1876)
Typewriter and teletype (1873, 1908)
Radio (1895)
Television (1927)

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Milestones in Networking (1/2)
Remote computing (1940)
ARPANET (1969)
Email (1972)
Internet (1983)
NSFNET
Broadband

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Electricity and Electromagnetism

Volta invents battery (1799)

Oersted shows electricity creates magnetic field
(1820)
Sturgeon constructs electromagnet (1825)
Henry uses electromagnetism to communicate
(1830)

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Telegraph (1844)
U.S. government funded first line
40 miles from Washington, D.C. to Baltimore

Built by Samuel Morse in 1843-1844

Private networks flourished

12,000 miles of lines in 1850

Transcontinental line in 1861

200,000 miles of lines by 1877

Technology proved versatile

Fire alarm boxes

Police call boxes

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Telephone (1876)
Alexander Graham Bell (1847-1922)
Constructed harmonic telegraph

Leveraged concept into first telephone

Social impact of telephone

Blurred public life / private life boundary

Eroded traditional social hierarchies

Reduced privacy

Enabled first online communities

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Typewriter and Teletype
Typewriter (1873)
Individual production of type set documents

Common in offices by 1890s

Teletype (1908)
Typewriter connected to telegraph line

Popular uses

Transmitting news stories

Sending records of stock transactions

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Radio (1895)
Pioneers
Hertz creates electromagnetic waves

Marconi invents radio

First used in business

Wireless telegraph

Transmit voices

Entertainment uses
Suggested by Sarnoff

Important entertainment medium by 1930s

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Television (1927)
Became popular in 1950s
Price fell dramatically

Number of stations increased

Social effects
Worldwide audiences

Networks strive to be first to deliver news

Impact of incorrect information; e.g., 2000

presidential election

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Remote Computing (1940)
Stibitz and Williams build Complex Number
Calculator at Bell Labs
Bell Labs part of AT&T (phone company)
Teletype chosen for input/output
Allows operator to be distant from machine
Long-distance demonstration between New
Hampshire and New York City

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ARPANET (1969)
DoD creates ARPA in late 1950s
Licklider conceives of Galactic Network
Decentralized design to improve survivability
Packet-switching replaces circuit switching

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Email (1972)
Creation
Tomlinson at BBN writes software to send,

receive email messages

Roberts creates email utility

Current status
One of worlds most important communication

technologies
Billions of messages sent in U.S. every day

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Internet (1983)
Kahn conceives of open architecture networking
Cerf and Kahn design TCP/IP protocol
Internet: network of networks communicating
using TCP/IP

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NSFNET
Created by National Science Foundation
Provided access grants to universities
Encouraged commercial subscribers for regional networks
Banned commercial traffic on NSFNET Backbone
Private companies developed long-distance Internet
connections
After private networks established, NSF shut down
NSFNET Backbone

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Broadband
Broadband
High-speed Internet connection

At least 10x faster than dial-up connection

South Korea
World leader in broadband networking

Three-quarters of homes have broadband

connections

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Codex
Codex
Rectangular pages sewn together on one side

Replaced papyrus scrolls as way of storing books

Advantages of codex over scoll

More durable

Allows quicker access to particular passages

Manufacturing technologies
Copying by hand

Wood engraving

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Gutenbergs Printing Press
Based on movable metal type
Church principal customer of early publishers
Powerful mass communication tool
Printing presss impact on Reformation
More than 300,000 copies of Luthers

publications
Protestants out-published Catholics by

10-to-1 in the middle 16th century

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Newspapers
Newspapers: Stimulated free expression
Governments responded
Licensing

Censorship

Impact on American Revolution

Newspapers helped unify colonies

Swayed public opinion toward independence

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Hypertext
Vannevar Bush envisions Memex (1945)
Ted Nelson
Coined word hypertext

Proposed creation of Xanadu (1967)

Douglas Engelbart
Directed construction of NLS (oNLine System)

Demonstrated windows, email, mouse,

videoconferencing (1968)

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Personal Computers
Xerox PARC (Palo Alto Research Center)
Alan Kays Alto had CRT monitor, keyboard,
and mouse
Ethernet

Apple Computer
Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak

Macintosh (1984)

Microsoft Windows (1990) quickly became

dominant graphical user interface

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Single-Computer Hypertext Systems

Peter Brown at University of Kent

Guide (1982)

Released versions for Macintosh and IBM PC

Apple Computer
HyperCard (1987)

Hypertext system based on stacks of cards

Links represented by buttons

Basis for best-selling games Myst and Riven

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World Wide Web
First browser built at CERN in Switzerland
Tim Berners-Lee: WorldWideWeb (1990)

Berners-Lee created Web protocols

Protocols based on TCP/IP general

Later browsers
Mosaic

Netscape Navigator

Netscape Mozilla

Microsoft Internet Explorer (most popular)

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Search Engines
Crawler-based engines (Google, AltaVista)
Programs called spiders follow hyperlinks and visit

millions of Web pages

System automatically constructs Web page database

Human-assisted engines (Open Directory)

Humans build Web page database

Web page summaries more accurate

Far fewer Web pages in database

Hybrid systems (MSN Search)

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Information Technology
Definition: Devices used in creation, storage,
manipulation, dissemination of data, sound,
and/or images
Examples: Computers, telephones, video
cameras
People making greater use of IT
Costs keep falling

Capabilities keep rising

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IT Issues (1/3)
Email
Easy way to keep in touch

Spam has become a real problem

Web
Free access to huge amounts of information

Harmful consequences of some sites

CDs, MP3s
Free or cheap copies readily available

May be unfair to musicians

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IT Issues (2/3)
Credit cards
Convenience over cash and checks

Increases possibility of identity theft

Who owns information about transactions?

Telecommuting
Saves time, allows more flexible work hours

Can lead to longer work hours

May result in fewer chances for promotion

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IT Issues (3/3)
Improved global communication network
Allow companies to sell to entire world

Allow companies to move jobs out of U.S.

World Wide Web

A conduit for democratic ideas?

Another tool for totalitarian governments?

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Conclusions
Revolutionary discoveries are rare
Information technology has long history
Rate of technological change accelerating
Wrong question: What will the computer do to
us?
Right question: What will we make of the
computer?
(quoting Seymour Papert)

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