CVEN2401

Sustainable Transport and Highway Engineering

Week 8: Horizontal Alignment (Part 1)

Kasun P. Wijayaratna
 Review
Content and Course Structure (L7 (1))
Assignment Progress Check
What is Geometric Design? (L7(1))
If you answer No to any of these
Design Standards (L7(1)) questions, you need to catch up and get
Road Characteristics (L7(1)) organised!!!
Design Characteristics (L7(1)) - Do you know what design group you
Basic Kinematics (L7(1)) are in? Have you spoken to others in
your design group?
Speed Parameters (L7(2))
- Have you or members in your group
Terminology
downloaded and installed
Operating speeds on urban roads Infraworks360?
Operating speeds on rural roads - Has your group developed a base
Sight Distance (L7(2)) model of the study area?

Parameters - Has your group initiated an analysis of

the existing road conditions using
Stopping Sight Distance (L7(2))
Infraworks360?
Overtaking Sight Distance (L7(2))

CVEN 2401: Sustainable Transport and Highway Engineering 2

 Overview

Horizontal Alignment: Why do we need it?

Horizontal Alignment Design Procedure
Horizontal Alignment: Key Definitions
Stations and Chainage
Design Controls for Horizontal Alignment
Critical components.
Circular Curves and Superelevation
Horizontal Curve Equation
Stopping Sight Distance: Horizontal Curves Captain Cook Highway, Queensland, Australia
http://www.traveller.com.au/australias-most-scenic-routes-10-road-tips-
with-the-best-views-gothju

Reference: Austroads Guide to Road Design Part

3: Geometric Design (Section 7)

CVEN 2401: Sustainable Transport and Highway Engineering 3

 Horizontal Alignment: Why do we need it?

A straight
line
alignment!

Not very
efficient in
terms of
earth works

Also a bit
boring to
travel on

Horizontal alignment is the collection of straight and curved road sections used to
connect two points

CVEN 2401: Sustainable Transport and Highway Engineering 4

 Horizontal Alignment: Why do we need it?

Lets do a
design with
straights
and curves.
R2

R1

R4

R3

Horizontal alignment is the collection of straight and curved road sections used to
connect two points

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 Horizontal Alignment: Why do we need it?

Lets do a
design with
straights and
curves.

Reduces the
amount of
earthworks
(Economical)

Aesthetically
pleasing

Horizontal alignment is the collection of straight and curved road sections used to
connect two points

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 Horizontal Alignment Procedure
Step 1: Identify all major controls on the alignment and categorise them as
mandatory or discretionary
Normally bridge crossings/intersections are mandatory controls.
Step 2: Decide upon an operating speed/ design speed
The speed of a vehicle significantly affects the design of horizontal curves (see
Horizontal Curve Equation slides)
Step 3: Prepare a trial alignment
Based on speed and terrain controls, use a series of straights and curves to
develop a horizontal alignment between the points of interest.
Step 4: Prepare a trial grade line taking into account vertical controls and
drainage
This is a part of vertical alignment (we will learn more in Week 9)
Step 5: Ensure all radii used satisfy the operating speed requirements
Step 6: Adjust the alignment to optimise the design
Ensure mandatory controls are met and most discretionary controls are also met.
Minimise earthworks and maintain aesthetics.

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 Horizontal Alignment: Key Definitions
Elevation, Chainage and Stations
Construction of roads require points of reference within the design to the natural
terrain
Elevation: The height of the natural or design terrain relative to a benchmark
(sea level is commonly used)
Chainage: The distance of any point along the road (measured in metres along
the centreline from a chosen origin/start point of the road). Chainage refers to the
technique of measurement where steel changes of 100 links were once used to
measure distances.
Stations: Convention used to describe the chainage along a road section;
o A station is signified by every 1000m of road: The origin is set at 0+000,
signifying zero stations and zero additional metres away from the station.
o Example: The station of a point on a road that is 1493.678 metres from
the origin has a station of 1 + 493.678 (1 station and a further
493.678m)

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 Horizontal Alignment: Key Definitions
Design Controls
The primary design controls for Horizontal alignment are:
o Design Speed: The horizontal alignment should allow drivers to maintain the
design speed along each defined road section.
o Stopping Sight Distance: Horizontal alignment should provide sufficient sight
distance to allow drivers to stop before hitting obstacles.
These controls govern what we should include in the road design.
o Is it possible to fit a curve for a driver to maintain the design speed?
o Should I remove the obstacle to ensure adequate sight while taking the corner?

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 Horizontal Alignment: Key Definitions
Critical Components
Tangent: Straight sections of roads (most common element) visually uninteresting
but useful for high speed roads which require overtaking sections.
Circular Curves: Curved road sections used to change direction and to engage
drivers. Types of circular curves include: Compound Curves, Broken Back Curves,
Reverse Curves.
Transition Curves: (Spiral curves) are used to join straights and circular curves
to smooth the travel of vehicles within the traffic lane (based on the clothoid spiral)

Alignment with only Circular Curves.

Circular
Alignment with Transition Curves.
Curve

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 Horizontal Alignment: Key Definitions
Critical Components: Circular Curve Types

Compound Curves Broken Back Curves

Reverse Curves

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 Horizontal Alignment: Key Definitions
Circular Curves and Superelevation
Determining the location and design of circular curves and transition curves are the
most critical aspects of preparing a horizontal alignment
Requirements for designing a circular curve:
o Radius,
o Superelevation, : The amount by which the outer edge of a curve on a road is
banked above the inner edge, i.e. the cross-sectional slop at a certain point on
a road.

Radius

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 Horizontal Alignment: Key Definitions
Circular Curves: Critical points and Field Layout

: Start of curve (Tangent to Curve)

: Point of tangent Intersection
: End of curve (Curve to Tangent)
: Tangent Length
: Radius of circular curve (to centre line)
: Length of circular curve
: Central angle (deflection angle)
: Middle ordinate
: External distance

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 Horizontal Alignment: Key Definitions
Circular Curves: Critical points and Field Layout

tan = =
2

cos = =
2

cos = =
2 +

Arc length: = (where is measured in degrees) =

2 2

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 Horizontal Alignment: Key Definitions
Circular Curves: Critical points and Field Layout
Circular curves are usually laid out in the field by occupying the tangent-to-curve
point TC with a transit and then establishing successive points by turning
deflection angles and measuring chords
The deflection angle in radians to a point on the curve at a distance from
TC is given by

= ( )
2
The chord to this point is given by
= 2 sin

1
1

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 Horizontal Alignment: Key Definitions
Example
A horizontal curve is designed with a 610 metre radius. The curve has a tangent length of
120m and the PI station is at 3+140.
3+140
Determine the station of CT.
= 610m 120m

= 120m
= 3 + 140
= 3 + 140 0 + 120 = 3 + 020
610
= = Need to estimate theta
180 180
610m
120
= tan = 2 tan1 = 22.258
2 610
610
= 22.258 = 236.974
180
= 3 + 020 + 0 + 236.974 = + .

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 Horizontal Curve Equation
Forces on a vehicle when traversing a curved
Curve on Level Terrain
road section:
Turning in a circle requires a vehicle to have a Fc Fcf
centripetal acceleration (towards the centre of
the circle). Ff

Centripetal Force ( ): The force that produces R

centripetal acceleration that is derived from the
friction between the pavement and tires.
Curve on Superelevated Terrain
Centrifugal Force ( ): The force that arises
from the vehicles inertia as it travels on the Fc Fcf
circular path (acting away from the centre of the
circle) Ff

Balance forces along the plane of the road
surface to maintain stable motion along the W = angle of
inclination
curve. Superelevation
R rate =
More information about superelevation/banking: http://dynref.engr.illinois.edu/avb.html

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 Horizontal Curve Equation
Forces on a vehicle when traversing a curved
road section: Fcf

Calculating the centripetal force:

2 2

= =

Calculating the frictional force:

= + = ( + ) R

m
Where = coefficient of side friction = Radius, = speed (m/s), = 9.81s2

Consider forces along the road surface: = angle of inclination

+ = = Superelevation rate = =
= (vehicle weight normal to the road
2 2 surface)
+ + =
= (vehicle weight parallel to the road
surface)
2 2
+ 1 + = = (centripetal force acting normal to the
road surface)
= (centripetal force acting parallel to the

+ = Note: 0 road surface)

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 Horizontal Curve Equation
Forces on a vehicle when traversing a curved road section:
2
Knowing that + = the minimum radius of the curve that will generate

centripetal forces that can be supported by the superelevation and frictional forces
can be calculated by re-arranging the equation:

=
+
Equation (5) from Austroads Guide to Road Design Part 3:

=
( + )
Where = speed (km/h) Unit conversion (km/hr) (m/s)

= curve radius (m) 2

106 2 2 10000002
=
= superelevation (%) 2 36002 2 12960000 2

= coefficient of side friction

Multiply the denominator by = 9.81/ 2
10000002 1 1000000 1
2 = = /
12960000 9.81 2 127137600 127.1376

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 Horizontal Curve Equation
Coefficient of Side Friction (, )
Centripetal acceleration is provided through the friction between the tyres and
pavement important parameter to estimate.
Depends on type and condition of the road surface, driver behaviour, and type
and condition of the tyres a variable value.

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 Horizontal Curve Equation
The balance between superelevation and the coefficient of side friction
2
As + = , both the superelevation and the coefficient of side friction can

provide the centripetal acceleration.
o Superelevation supplements the frictional force: If we have a banked
component of the road (develop superelevation), less frictional force is
necessary to obtain the centripetal force necessary to turn the vehicle.
o Why cant we service the force using superelevation alone?
Maximum values are recommended to prevent slow-moving
vehicles from toppling (or sliding to the inside of the curve) as these
vehicles complete the turning movement.
Superelevation values range between 4% and 12%

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 Horizontal Curve Equation
Example
A road is being designed for a speed of 110km/h. At a horizontal curve, it is known that
the superelevation is 8.0% and coefficient of side friction is 0.11. Determine the minimum
radius of the curve that will ensure safe vehicle operation.

First principles approach: Austroads Road Design Guide Approach:

= =
+ ( + )

1000
= 110
= 110 = 30.556
3600
= 8.0% = 0.08
= 8.0% = 0.08 = 0.11
= 0.11

.
= = . = = .
. (. + . ) (. + . )
The Austroads estimate is conservative!
Thus a radius of 502m or greater would be considered for this curve.

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 Horizontal Curve Equation
Minimum Radius of Horizontal Curves
Table 7.6, Austroads Guide to Road Design: Part 3
Provides minimum radii values for given speed, maximum superelevation and
coefficient of side friction values.

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 Sight Distance: Horizontal Curves
Sight obstructions on Curves
When there are sight obstructions (walls, buildings, etc.) on the inside edge of
the curve the designer has to check that adequate sight distance is provided for
the vehicle to stop prior to colliding with an object ahead.

v v

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 Sight Distance: Horizontal Curves
Calculating sight distance and clearance
Consider the centerline of the inner lane to be a circular path of radius ".
(Note this is NOT the radius to the centreline of the road as presented in
previous slides), for sight distance calculations let the radius of the curve to the
centreline of the road be . A tall obstacle is at distance from the centerline
of the inner lane.

Determine the deflection angle:

cos = =
2

Determine stopping sight distance (length of an arc):

= = 2cos1
180 180

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 Sight Distance: Horizontal Curves
Calculating sight distance and clearance
Consider the centerline of the inner lane to be a circular path of radius ".
(Note this is NOT the radius to the centreline of the road as presented in
previous slides, for sight distance calculations let the radius of the curve to the
centreline of the road be . A tall obstacle is at distance from the centerline
of the inner lane.

= cos1
90

Determine distance to obstacle ():

90
cos =


= (

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 Stopping Sight Distance: Horizontal Curves
Example
A horizontal curve for a two-lane two-way road, laying on level terrain, is designed with a
radius of 400m (to the centreline of the road) considering a design speed of 60km/h.
Each lane is 3.6m wide, and the road contains a shoulder of 3m. What is the sight
distance along the curve? Also if a tall tree were to be planted near the side of the road
(next to the shoulder), would it be a safety concern for vehicles travelling along the
curve?
km
= 400m = 60
h
Assume that the reaction time is 2.5s and coefficient of deceleration is 0.36
2.560 602
= + = 41.667 + 39.370 = .
3.6 254 0.36+0.01 0
3.6
= 400 = 398.2m
2
3.6
= + 3 = 4.8m
2
398.2 398.24.8
= cos = cos1 = .
90 398.2
As > , a tree can be planted close to the shoulder of the curve.

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 Consolidated Example
Example 2
A horizontal curve on a 4-lane highway (two lanes in each direction and no median) has a
superelevation of 6% and a central angle of 40. The CT of the curve is at station
9+830.000 and the PI is at 9+756.000. The road has 3.1m lanes and a 2.8m shoulder on
both sides with high retaining walls going up immediately next to the shoulders.
What is the highest safe speed of this curve (highest in 10km/h increments) and what is
the station of the TC?

Hints:
- Determine the location of station TC using the relationship between the radius,
tangent length and length of the circular curve.
- Determine the radius used, assess what maximum speed is feasible for the radius.
- Check sight distance and adjust maximum speed if necessary.

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