Muslim conquests on the Indian subcontinent mainly guard Arabian trade in the Arabian Sea, and not to start
took place from the 12th to the 16th centuries, though the conquest of India.[4][5][6]
earlier Muslim conquests made limited inroads into mod-
ern Afghanistan and Pakistan as early as the time of the
Rajput kingdoms in the 8th century. With the establish- 2 Rashidun Caliphate and the In-
ment of the Delhi Sultanate, Islam spread across large
parts of the subcontinent. In 1204, Bakhtiar Khilji led the dia Frontier
Muslim conquest of Bengal, marking the eastern-most
expansion of Islam at the time.
Prior to the rise of the Maratha Empire, which was fol-
lowed by the conquest of India by the British East India
Company, the Muslim Mughal Empire was able to an-
nex or subjugate most of Indias kings. However, it was
never able to conquer the kingdoms in upper reaches of
the Himalayas such as the regions of todays Himachal
Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, Nepal and Bhutan; the ex-
treme south of India, such as Travancore and Tamil Nadu;
and in the east, such as the Ahom kingdom in Assam.
1
2 5 UMAYYAD EXPANSION IN SINDH
Zabul and Sindh in modern-day Afghanistan and Pak- 3.1 Battles in Makran and Zabulistan
istan. The Arabs levied annual tributes on the newly cap-
tured areas, and leaving 4,000 men garrisons at Merv Arabs launched several campaigns in eastern Balochis-
and Zaranj retired to Iraq instead of pushing on against tan between 661 - 681 AD, four Arab commanders were
the frontier of India.[12] Caliph Uthman b. Aan sanc- killed during the campaigns, but Sinan b. Salma man-
tioned an attack against Makran in 652 AD, and sent a aged to conquer parts of Makran including the Chagai
recon mission to Sindh in 653 AD. The mission described area,[21] and establish a permanent base of operations in
Makran as inhospitable, and Caliph Uthman, probably as- 673 AD.[22] Rashid b. Amr, the next governor of Makran,
suming the country beyond was much worse, forbade any subdued Mashkey in 672 AD,[23] Munzir b. Jarood Al
further incursions into India.[13][14] Abadi managed to garrison Kikan and conquer Buqan
This was the beginning of a prolonged struggle between by 681 AD, while Ibn Harri Al Bahili, conducted sev-
the rulers of Kabul and Zabul against successive Arab eral campaigns to secure the Arab hold on Kikan, Makran
governors of Sistan, Khurasan and Makran in modern- and Buqan by 683 AD.[24][25] Zunbil saw o Arab cam-
day Afghanistan and Pakistan. The Kabul Shahi kings paigns in 668, 672 and 673 AD by paying tribute, al-
and their Zunbil kinsmen blocked access to the Khyber though Arabs occupied the areas south of Helmand in 673
Pass and Gomal Pass routes into India from 653 to 870 AD permanently[22][26] Zunbil defeated Yazid b. Salms
AD,[15] while modern Balochistan, Pakistan, comprising army in 681 AD at Junzah, and Arabs had to pay 500,000
the areas of Kikan or Qiqanan, Nukan, Turan, Buqan, dirhams to ransom their prisoners,[27] but the Arabs de-
Qufs, Mashkey and Makran, would face several Arab ex- feated and killed Zunbil in Sistan in 685. The Arabs were
peditions between 661 - 711 AD.[16] The Arabs launched defeated in Zabul in next invaded Zabul in 693 AD.[28]
several raids against these frontier lands, but repeated re-
bellions in Sistan and Khurasan between 653 - 691 AD
diverted much of their military resources in in order to 4 Al Hajjaj and the East
subdue these provinces and away from expansion into Al
Hind. Muslim control of these areas ebbed and owed Al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf Al Thaqi, who had played a cru-
repeatedly as a result until 870 AD. Arabs troops dis- cial role during the Second Fitna for the Umayyad cause,
liked being stationed in Makran,[17] and were reluctant to was appointed the governor of Iraq in 694 AD, fur-
campaign in the Kabul area and Zabulistan, the dicult ther extended to Khurasan and Sistan in 697 AD. Al-
terrain and underestimation of Zunbils power,[18] Arab Hajjaj also sponsored Muslim expansion in Makran, Sis-
strategy to extract tribute instead of systematic conquest, tan, Transoxiana and Sindh.[29][30]
and the erce resistance of Zunbil and Turki Shah stalled
Arab progress repeatedly in the Frontier Zone.[19][20]
4.1 Campaigns in Makran and Zabul
during in 731 AD. Muslim incursions resumed under later Turkic and Cen-
Al Hakam b. Awana Al Kalbi recovered Sindh, and in tral Asian Mongol dynasties with more local capitals, who
c733 AD, founded the garrison city of Al Mahfuza (The supplanted the Caliphate and expanded their domains
Well Guarded) similar to Kufa, Basra and Wasit, on the both northwards and eastwards and led to the establish-
eastern side of a lake near Brahmanabad.[47] Hakam next ment of the Delhi Sultanate.
attempted to reclaim the conquests of Junaid in Al Hind.
Arab records merely state that he was successful, Indian
records at Navasari[60] details that Arab forces defeated 8.1 Ghaznavid Period
Kacchella, Saindhava, Saurashtra, Cavotaka, Maurya
and Gurjara kings . The city of Al Mansura (The Vic- Main article: Mahmud of Ghazni
torious) was founded near Al Mahfuza to commemorate Under Sabuktigin, Ghazni found itself in conict with
pacication of Sindh by Amr b. Muhammad in c738
AD.[47] Al Hakam next invaded the Deccan in 739 AD
with the intention of permanent conquest, but was deci-
sively defeated at Navsari by the viceroy Avanijanashraya
Pulakesi of the Chalukya Empire serving Vikramaditya
II. Arab rule was restricted to the west of Thar desert.
Kurdistan in the west to Samarkand in the Northeast, and Within a year, Mu'izz al-Din controlled Northern Ra-
from the Caspian Sea to the Punjab. Although his raids jasthan and Northern Ganges-Yamuna Doab. After these
carried his forces across Northern and Western India, victories in India, and Mu'izz al-Dins establishment of a
only Punjab came under his permanent rule; Kashmir, capital in Delhi, Multan was also incorporated into his
the Doab, Rajasthan, and Gujarat remained under the empire. Mu'izz al-Din then returned east to Ghazni to
control of the local Indian dynasties. In 1030, Mahmud deal with the threat on his eastern frontiers from the Turks
fell gravely ill and died at age 59. As with the invaders and Mongols, whiles his armies continued to advance
of three centuries ago, Mahmuds armies looted temples through Northern India, raiding as far east as Bengal.
in Varanasi, Mathura, Ujjain, Maheshwar, Jwalamukhi,
Mu'izz al-Din returned to Lahore after 1200. In 1206,
Somnath and Dwarka. Mu'izz al-Din had to travel to Lahore to crush a revolt.
On his way back to Ghazni, his caravan rested at Damik
near Sohawa (which is near the city of Jhelum in the
8.2 Mu'izz al-Din Punjab province of modern-day Pakistan). He was as-
sassinated on 15 March 1206, while oering his evening
Main article: Mu'izz al-Din prayers. The identity of Ghoris assassins is disputed,
Mu'izz al-Din better known as Shahb-ud-Din Muham- with some claiming that he was assassinated by local
Hindu Gakhars and others claiming he was assassinated
by Hindu Khokhars, both being dierent tribes.
(however, the Delhi Sultanate is traditionally held to have nasty survived until 1857 as the Mughal dynasty of India.
been founded in 1206) seized the reins of the empire.
Mamluk means slave and referred to the Turkic slave
soldiers who became rulers. The territory under control
of the Muslim rulers in Delhi expanded rapidly. By mid-
century, Bengal and much of central India was under the
Delhi Sultanate. Several Turko-Afghan dynasties ruled
from Delhi: the Mamluk (12061290), the Khalji (1290
1320), the Tughlaq (13201414), the Sayyid (141451),
and the Lodhi (14511526). During the time of Delhi
Sultanate, the Vijayanagara Empire resisted successfully
attempts of Delhi Sultanate to establish dominion in the
Southern India, serving as a barrier against invasion by the
Muslims.[73] Certain kingdoms remained independent of
Delhi such as the larger kingdoms of Punjab, Rajasthan,
parts of the Deccan, Gujarat, Malwa (central India), and
Bengal, nevertheless all of the area in present-day Pak-
istan came under the rule of Delhi.
The Sultans of Delhi enjoyed cordial, if supercial, rela-
tions with Muslim rulers in the Near East but owed them
no allegiance. They based their laws on the Quran and
the sharia and permitted non-Muslim subjects to prac-
tice their religion only if they paid the jizya (poll tax).
They ruled from urban centres, while military camps and
trading posts provided the nuclei for towns that sprang up
in the countryside.
Perhaps the most signicant contribution of the Sultanate
was its temporary success in insulating the subcontinent
from the potential devastation of the Mongol invasion
from Central Asia in the 13th century, which nonetheless
led to the capture of Afghanistan and western Pakistan by
the Mongols (see the Ilkhanate Dynasty). The Sultanate
Timur defeats the Sultan of Delhi, Nasir-u Din Mehmud, in the
ushered in a period of Indian cultural renaissance, The
winter of 13971398
resulting Indo-Muslim fusion left lasting monuments in
architecture, music, literature, and religion. In addition it
Informed about civil war in South Asia, Timur began a
is surmised that the language of Urdu (literally meaning
trek starting in 1398 to invade the reigning Sultan Nasir-u
horde or camp in various Turkic dialects) was born
Din Mehmud of the Tughlaq Dynasty in the north Indian
during the Delhi Sultanate period as a result of the min-
city of Delhi.[78] His campaign was politically pretexted
gling of Sanskritic Hindi and the Persian, Turkish, Arabic
that the Muslim Delhi Sultanate was too tolerant toward
favoured by the Muslim invaders of India.
its Hindu subjects, but that could not mask the real rea-
The Sultanate suered signicantly from the sacking of son being to amass the wealth of the Delhi Sultanate.[79]
Delhi in 1398 by Timur, but revived briey under the
Timur crossed the Indus River at Attock (now Pakistan)
Lodi Dynasty, the nal dynasty of the Sultanate before
on 24 September. In Haryana, his soldiers each killed 50
it was conquered by Zahiruddin Babur in 1526, who sub-
to 100 Hindus.[80]
sequently founded the Mughal Dynasty that ruled from
the 16th to the 18th centuries. Timurs invasion did not go unopposed and he did meet
some resistance during his march to Delhi, most notably
with the Sarv Khap coalition in northern India, and the
8.4 Timur Governor of Meerut. Although impressed and momen-
tarily stalled by the valour of Ilyaas Awan, Timur was
Main article: Timur able to continue his relentless approach to Delhi, arriving
in 1398 to combat the armies of Sultan Mehmud, already
Tmr bin Taraghay Barlas, known in the West as Tamer- weakened by an internal battle for ascension within the
lane or Timur the lame, was a 14th-century warlord of royal family.
Turco-Mongol descent,[74][75][76][77] conqueror of much The Sultans army was easily defeated on 17 Decem-
of western and central Asia, and founder of the Timurid ber 1398. Timur entered Delhi and the city was
Empire (13701507) in Central Asia; the Timurid dy- sacked, destroyed, and left in ruins. Before the battle
8.5 The Mughal Empire 7
for Delhi, Timur executed more than 100,000 Hindu Hindustan (Greater India). It gives details of how vil-
captives.[74][78] lages, towns and entire cities were rid of their Hindu
Timur himself recorded the invasions in his mem- male population through systematic mass slaughters and
oirs, collectively known as Tuzk-i-Timuri.[74][74][78][81][82] genocide.
Timurs purported autobiography, the Tuzk-e-Taimuri Timur left Delhi in approximately January 1399. In April
(Memoirs of Temur) is a later fabrication, although he had returned to his own capital beyond the Oxus (Amu
most of the historical facts are accurate.[83] Darya). Immense quantities of spoils were taken from
Muslim historian Irfan Habib writes in Timur in the Po- India. According to Ruy Gonzles de Clavijo, 90 cap-
litical Tradition and Historiography of Mughal India that tured elephants were employed merely to carry precious
in the 14th century, the word Hindu (people of Al- stones looted from his conquest, so as to erect a mosque at
Hind, Hind being India) included both Hindus and Samarkand what historians today believe is the enor-
Muslims in religious connotations.[84] mous Bibi-Khanym Mosque. Ironically, the mosque was
constructed too quickly and suered greatly from disre-
pair within a few decades of its construction.
When Timur entered Delhi after defeat-
ing Mahmud Toghloqs forces, he granted an
amnesty in return for protection money (ml-
e amni). But on the fourth day he ordered 8.5 The Mughal Empire
that all the people of the city be enslaved;
and so they were. Thus reports Yahya, who Main article: Mughal Empire
here inserts a pious prayer in Arabic for the See also: AhomMughal conicts
victims consolation (To God we return, and
everything happens by His will). Yazdi, on India in the 16th century presented a fragmented picture
the other hand, does not have any sympathy of rulers, both Muslim and Hindu, who lacked concern
to waste on these wretches. He records that for their subjects and failed to create a common body of
Timur had granted protection to the people laws or institutions. Outside developments also played a
of Delhi on the 18th of December 1398, and role in shaping events. The circumnavigation of Africa
the collectors had begun collecting the protec- by the Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama in 1498 al-
tion money. But large groups of Timurs sol- lowed Europeans to challenge Muslim control of the trad-
diers began to enter the city and, like birds of ing routes between Europe and Asia. In Central Asia and
prey, attacked its citizens. The pagan Hindus Afghanistan, shifts in power pushed Babur of Ferghana
(Hendun-e gabr) having had the temerity to (in present-day Uzbekistan) southward, rst to Kabul and
begin immolating their women and themselves, then to India. The dynasty he founded endured for more
the three cities of Delhi were put to sack by than three centuries.
Timurs soldiers. Faithless Hindus, he adds,
had gathered in the Congregation Mosque of
Old Delhi and Timurs ocers put them ruth-
lessly to slaughter there on the 29th of Decem-
ber. Clearly, Yazdis Hindus included Mus-
lims as well.[85]
The Mughal Emperor Akbar ghts Babur and the Mughal Army at the Urvah valley in Gwalior.
Pehlwani with his Hindu general Raja Man Singh I.
A War elephant executing the oppo- Babur was followed by his great-grandson, Shah Jahan (r.
nents of the Mughal Emperor Akbar. 162858), builder of the Taj Mahal and other magni-
cent buildings. Two other towering gures of the Mughal
era were Akbar (r. 15561605) and Aurangzeb (r. 1658
1707). Both rulers expanded the empire greatly and were
8.5.1 Babur able administrators. However, Akbar was known for his
religious tolerance and administrative genius while Au-
Main article: Babur rangzeb was a pious Muslim and erce advocate of more
Claiming descent from both Genghis Khan and Timur, orthodox Islam.
9
8.5.2 Aurangzeb
1759, remained in Afghan rule before ascension of Sikh Afghanistan Zaman Shah Durrani was defeated by pow-
power.[102] Mahadji ruled the Punjab as it used to be a erful Barakzai chief Fateh Khan who appointed Mahmud
Mughal territory and Sikh sardars and other Rajas of the Shah Durrani as the new ruler of Afghanistan and ap-
cis-Sutlej region paid tributes to him.[103] A considerable pointed himself as Wazir of Afghanistan.[106] Sikhs how-
portion of the Indian subcontinent came under the sway ever were now superior to the Afghans and started to
of the British Empire after the Third Anglo-Maratha annex Afghan provinces. The biggest victory of the
War, which ended the Maratha Empire in 1818. Sikh Empire over the Durrani Empire came in the Battle
of Attock fought in 1813 between Sikh and Wazir of
Afghanistan Fateh Khan and his younger brother Dost
Mohammad Khan. The Afghans were routed by the Sikh
army and the Afghans lost over 9,000 soldiers in this
battle. Dost Mohammad was seriously injured whereas
his brother Wazir Fateh Khan ed back to Kabul fear-
ing that his brother was dead.[107] In 1818 they slaugh-
tered Afghans and Muslims in trading city of Multan
killing Afghan governor Nawab Muzzafar Khan and ve
of his sons in the Siege of Multan.[108] In 1819 the last In-
dian Province of Kashmir was conquered by Sikhs who
registered another crushing victory over weak Afghan
General Jabbar Khan.[109] The Koh-i-Noor diamond was
also taken by Maharaja Ranjit Singh in 1814. In 1823
a Sikh Army routed Dost Mohammad Khan the Sultan
of Afghanistan and his brother Azim Khan at Naushera
Sikh Empire, established by Ranjit Singh in North-west India.
(Near Peshawar). By 1834 the Sikh Empire extended up
to the Khyber Pass. Hari Singh Nalwa the Sikh general
remained the governor of Khyber Agency till his death
in 1837. He consolidated Sikh hold in tribal provinces.
The northernmost Indian territories of Gilgit, Baltistan
and Ladakh was annexed between 1831-1840.[110]
from the British Empire has polarised the sub-continental modied by contact with local languages leading to the
psyche, making objective assessment hard in comparison creation of several new languages, such as Urdu, which
to the other settled agricultural societies of India from uses the modied Arabic script, but with more Persian
the North West. Muslim rule diered from these others words. The inuences of these languages exist in several
in the level of assimilation and syncretism that occurred. dialects in India today.
They retained their identity and introduced legal and ad- Islamic and Mughal architecture and art is widely notice-
ministrative systems that superseded existing systems of able in India, examples being the Taj Mahal and Jama
social conduct and ethics. While this was a source of Masjid. At the same time, Muslim rulers destroyed most
friction it resulted in a unique experience the legacy of
of the ancient Indian architectural marvels and converted
which is a Muslim community strongly Islamic in char- them into Islamic structures, most notably at Varanasi,
acter while at the same time distinctive and unique among
Mathura, Ayodhya and the Kutub Complex in New Delhi.
its peers.
The impact of Islam on Indian culture has been ines-
timable. It permanently inuenced the development of
all areas of human endeavour language, dress, cuisine,
11 Iconoclasm
all the art forms, architecture and urban design, and so-
cial customs and values. Conversely, the languages of the 11.1 Nalanda
Muslim invaders were modied by contact with local lan-
guages, to Urdu, which uses the Arabic script. This lan- Main article: Nalanda
guage was also known as Hindustani, an umbrella term In 1193, the Nalanda University complex was destroyed
used for the vernacular terminology of Hindi as well as
Urdu, both major languages in South Asia today derived
primarily from Sanskrit grammatical structures and vo-
cabulary.
Muslim rule saw a greater urbanisation of India and the
rise of many cities and their urban cultures. The biggest
impact was upon trade resulting from a common com-
mercial and legal system extending from Morocco to
Indonesia. This change of emphasis on mercantilism and
trade from the more strongly centralised governance sys-
tems further clashed with the agricultural based tradi-
tional economy and also provided fuel for social and po-
litical tensions.
A related development to the shifting economic condi-
tions was the establishment of Karkhanas, or small fac- Ruins of Nalanda University
tories and the import and dissemination of technology
through India and the rest of the world. The use of ce-
by Afghan Khilji-Ghilzai Muslims under Bakhtiyar
ramic tiles was adopted from architectural traditions of
Khalji; this event is seen as the nal milestone in the
Iraq, Iran, and Central Asia. Rajasthans blue pottery
decline of Buddhism in India. He also burned Nalandas
was a local variation of imported Chinese pottery. There
major Buddhist library and Vikramshila University,[119]
is also the example of Sultan Abidin (142070) sending
as well as numerous Buddhist monasteries in India. When
Kashmiri artisans to Samarqand to learn book-binding
the Tibetan translator, Chag Lotsawa Dharmasvamin
and paper making. Khurja and Siwan became renowned
(Chag Lo-tsa-ba, 11971264), visited northern India in
for pottery, Moradabad for brass ware, Mirzapur for car-
1235, Nalanda was damaged, looted, and largely de-
pets, Firozabad for glass wares, Farrukhabad for printing,
serted, but still standing and functioning with seventy stu-
Sahranpur and Nagina for wood-carving, Bidar and Luc-
dents.
know for bidriware, Srinagar for papier-mache, Benaras
for jewellery and textiles, and so on. On the ip-side en-Mahabodhi, Sompura, Vajrasan and other important
couraging such growth also resulted in higher taxes on themonasteries were found to be untouched. The Ghuri rav-
peasantry. ages only aicted those monasteries that lay in the direct
of their advance and were fortied in the manner of de-
Numerous Indian scientic and mathematical advances
fensive forts.
and the Hindu numerals were spread to the rest of the
world and much of the scholarly work and advances in the By the end of the 12th century, following the Mus-
sciences of the age under Muslim nations across the globe lim conquest of the Buddhist stronghold in Bihar, Bud-
were imported by the liberal patronage of Arts and Sci- dhism, having already declined in the South, declined in
ences by the rulers. The languages brought by Islam were the North as well because survivors retreated to Nepal,
Sikkim and Tibet or escaped to the South of the Indian
13
11.2 Vijayanagar
Islamic empires in India [15] Al Baladhuri, Abu Al Abbas Ahmad, Kitab Futuh Al
Buldun, Part II, pp141 - pp151
Nader Shahs invasion of the Mughal Empire
[16] Fredunbeg, Mirza Kalichbeg, The Chachnama: An An-
Tibetan Expedition of Islamic Bengal cient History of Sind, pp71 - pp79
History of Pakistan [17] Hoyland, Robert G., In Gods Path: The Arab Conquests
and Creation of An Islamic Empire, pp191
History of Bangladesh
[18] Wink, Andre, " Al-Hind The Making of the Indo-Islamic
Delhi Sultanate Worlds Vol 2, pp113
Mughal empire [19] Wink (2002), pg.129 - pp131
Mughal era [20] Kennedy, Hugh, The Great Arab Conquests, pp194 -
pp196
Iconoclasm
[21] Dashti, Naseer, The Baloch and Balochistan, pp65
Persecution of Hindus
[22] Al Baladhuri, Abu Al Abbas Ahmad , Kitab Futuh Al
Persecution of Buddhists Buldun, Part II, pp212
[7] Mehta, Jaswant Lal, Advanced Study in The History of [32] Hoyland, Robert G., In Gods Path: The Arab Conquests
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[34] Kennedy, Hugh, The Prophet and The Age of The
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[35] Kennedy, Hugh, The Great Arab Conquests, pp197 -
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18 15 EXTERNAL LINKS
15 External links
History of Islam in India by Neria Harish Hebbar
(article with several pages)
Library of modern Hindu history The Islamic
Ages
A Response to Muslim Legacy in India
Story of Pakistan
History of Crafts, Manufacturing and Trade in
South Asia
Resources for the study of the Muslim Period of In-
dia
19
16.2 Images
File:Akbar_Fights_with_Raja_Man_Singh.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/eb/Akbar_Fights_with_
Raja_Man_Singh.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://warfare.uphero.com/Moghul/Akbar/Akbar_Fights_with_Raja_Man_
Singh-large.htm Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:
Q4233718' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png'
width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.
svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x'
data-le-width='1050' data-le-height='590' /></a>
File:Akbar_shoots_Jaimal_at_the_siege_of_Chitor.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a2/Akbar_
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Abul Fazl
V&A Museum
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File:Babur_visiting_the_Urvah_valley_in_Gwalior_1.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/69/Babur_
visiting_the_Urvah_valley_in_Gwalior_1.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Baburnama Original artist: Painters of Babur
File:Basawan._Battle_of_rival_ascetics._Akbarnama,_ca._1590,_V&A_Museum.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/
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domain Contributors: V&A Museum Original artist: Basawan
20 16 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES