Chapter 2 Establishing A PPP Framework PDF

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Chapter 2: Establishing a PPP Framework
Table of Contents
1 DISCLAIMER ................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
2 Establish the PPP Framework ..........................................................5
2.1 Why have a PPP Framework? .....................................................8
2.2 What is in a PPP Framework? ...................................................11
2.3 Objectives of the PPP Framework .............................................12
2.4 Scope of the PPP Framework ....................................................16
2.5 Choice of Legal and Administrative Instruments to Create
PPP Framework .........................................................................23
2.5.1 How Varying Legal Traditions Interact with Different
PPP Types.........................................................................23
2.5.2 Legal and Administrative Approaches to Establishing
PPP Frameworks ...............................................................28
2.5.3 How PPP frameworks Build on and Incorporate Pre-
Existing Government Frameworks .....................................33
2.5.4 Framework for Sub-National PPPs ....................................35
2.6 Defining the PPP Process ..........................................................38
2.6.1 Identification of Projects and Screening ............................42
2.6.2 Appraise the Project ..........................................................43
2.6.3 Structure the Procurement Process and the Project
Contract .............................................................................47
2.6.4 Tender and Award .............................................................50
2.6.5 Manage the Contract Construction Phase, Service
Delivery and Hand-Back ....................................................53
2.6.6 Privately-Initiated Projects .................................................54
2.7 Institutional Responsibilities .......................................................64
2.7.1 Typical Responsibilities .....................................................65
2.7.2 Identifying and Championing Projects ...............................65
2.7.3 Ensuring Coordination and Best Practice ..........................66
2.7.4 Public Financial Management............................................70
2.7.5 Approvals...........................................................................70
2.7.6 The Roles and Benefits of PPP Units ................................72
2.8 Public Financial Management of PPPs ......................................78
2.8.1 Types of Fiscal Commitment to PPPs ...............................79
2.8.2 Identifying and Quantifying Fiscal Commitments to a
PPP Project .......................................................................81
2.8.3 Ensuring Fiscal Commitments are Affordable....................83
2.8.4 Budgeting for Fiscal Commitments ....................................84
2.8.5 Accounting for, and Reporting on, Fiscal Commitments ....89
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2.8.6 Controlling Aggregate Fiscal Exposure to PPPs................92
2.9 Oversight of PPP Programs and Projects ..................................93
2.9.1 Role of the Legislature .......................................................95
2.9.2 Audit Entities and Ex-Post Evaluation ...............................96
2.9.3 Role of the Public ............................................................100
2.9.4 Promoting Procurement and Good Governance, and
Reducing Corruption ........................................................103
References .........................................................................................106
Tables
TABLE 2.2: Examples PPP Policy Objectives ......................................14
TABLE 2.1: Example Definitions of PPP Framework Scope.................19
TABLE 2.2: Legal Traditions and PPP Types in Civil and Common
Law Countries ................................................................................24
TABLE 2.3: Summary of Decision Criteria, Procedures and
Institutional Responsibilities across the PPP Process ....................39
TABLE 2.5: Examples of Procurement Strategies for Unsolicited
Proposals .......................................................................................59
TABLE 2.6: Example PPP Approval Requirements ..............................71
TABLE 2.7: PPP unit Examples............................................................76
Figure
FIGURE 2.1: Process for assessing, approving and bidding an
unsolicited proposal........................................................................63
Boxes
BOX 2.1: Learning Objectives ................................................................5
BOX 2.2: Conflicting Objectives and Risks in PPPs ...............................8
BOX 2.3: A PPP project without a Framework......................................10
BOX 2.4: Distortionary Taxes of Operations and Maintenance
(O&M) Contracts ............................................................................35
BOX 2.5: The Role of Sub-National PPPs ............................................37
BOX 2.6: Investment Decision versus a PPP Decision ........................43
BOX 2.7: PPP Appraisal Criteria in Indonesia ......................................47
BOX 2.8: Model and/or Precedent Contracts........................................48
BOX 2.9: Engagement and Communication with Stakeholders ............50
BOX 2.10: Renegotiation of a Public Transport PPP in Victoria,
Australia .........................................................................................53

BOX 2.11: Benefits of innovation High Occupancy Toll Lanes in
Virginia ...........................................................................................55
BOX 2.12: Costs of Direct Negotiation Independent Power
Tanzania ........................................................................................56
BOX 2.13: Responsibilities for Championing Projects in Various
Jurisdictions ...................................................................................66
BOX 2.14: Examples of the Finance Ministrys Role In PPPs ..............68
BOX 14: Examples of the Planning Agencies Role In PPPs ................69
BOX 2.15: The Evolution of the UKs PPP and Infrastructure Units .....73
Box 2.17: Fiscal Risk in Minimum Traffic Guarantees ..........................80
BOX 2.16: Approaches to Assessing Contingent Liabilities ..................83
BOX 2.17: Viability Gap Fund in India ..................................................85
BOX 2.18: Contingent Liability Funds for PPPs ....................................88
BOX 2.19: Examples of PPP Liability Disclosure..................................92
BOX 2.20: PPP fiscal limits...................................................................92
BOX 2.21: Private Finance Initiative (PFI) Calls for Evidence ..............94
BOX 2.22: Legislative Oversight of PPP Programs ..............................96
BOX 2.23: Project Performance Audits ................................................99
BOX 2.24: Legislative Audits and Reviews of PPP Programs ..............99
BOX 2.25: Disclosure Frameworks: Institutionalizing PPP
Information Disclosure and Transparency ....................................101
BOX 2.26: Public Role in Procurement Process Audits ......................104

1 Establish the PPP Framework
Introduction and Purpose
A PPP framework is best understood as the established procedures, rules
and institutional responsibilities that determine how the government
selects, implements and manages PPP projects. By setting procedures
and rules, good PPP practice can be established within the government. This
has the effect of limiting and managing government risk and ensuring
consistency. By defining institutional responsibilities, a PPP framework makes
institutions accountable for their role in the PPP process. A good PPP
framework lets the market know how PPP projects will be developed, and how
bids will be assessed. This can lead to more competitive procurement and
better value for the public.
PPPs can be implemented on a one-off basis without any specific PPP
framework. However, PPPs are technically complex, involving numerous
stakeholders, each with conflicting objectives. PPP frameworks are important
in ensuring that the objectives of the public and private sector are aligned.
They establish rules that avoid impropriety and promote the public interest in
getting quality projects done efficiently.
This chapter explains how to create a new PPP framework or, where an
existing framework is in place, what to look for to ensure that it is effective.
The learning objectives are outlined in box 2.1.
BOX 2.1: Learning Objectives

After studying this chapter, the reader will understand the following: -
The value of having a PPP framework;
What a PPP framework should include;
How to set the objectives and scope of a PPP framework;
Ways to establish a PPP framework in different jurisdictions, taking account
of existing legal and administrative traditions;
The stages of a typical PPP process, and how the framework guides each
stage;
How roles and responsibilities for PPPs can be allocated effectively
between various government agencies;
Principles and techniques that facilitate responsible public financial
management of PPPs; and
Ways to ensure appropriate oversight and transparency of PPP programs.

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Summary of Contents
Section 1.1 summarizes the advantages of having a well-developed PPP
framework. Section 1.2 then sets out the elements that typically comprise
such a framework.
Every jurisdictions PPP framework is unique. Its design needs to take into
account what the government is trying to achieve and the jurisdictions legal
and administrative traditions. Sections 1.3 and 1.4 set out the need to identify
the objectives and scope for the framework. Section 1.5 addresses how legal
and administrative traditions will influence how the framework is constructed.
Every PPP needs to be developed through a number of steps, including
identification of the project, structuring as a PPP, contracting, operation of the
project, contract management, and hand-back. Section 1.6 summarizes a
typical PPP process, procedures, and decision criteria that a good framework
would typically require for each step in the process.
Section 1.7 then sets out how to allocate institutional responsibilities for
developing and procuring PPPs. Section 1.8 deals with managing fiscal
commitments in PPPs. Finally, section 1.9 describes the desirability of
effective oversight of a PPP program and options to achieve this.

1.1 Why have a PPP Framework?
A good PPP framework aims to ensure that the right projects are selected as
PPPs, and that they are developed, delivered and managed in a structured,
transparent and efficient way. Equally, a good framework minimizes the risks
that a PPP project will not deliver Value for Money.
PPPs involve multiple conflicting interests. If risks are not allocated
appropriately, the public sector may incur costs that it cannot control. If the
procurement process fails to consider market conditions, the tender process
may not be competitive. If contingent liabilities are not monitored, there may
be unexpected fiscal obligations incurred by the government. See box 2.2.
BOX 2.2: Conflicting Objectives and Risks in PPPs

In a PPP, key stakeholders will have conflicting objectives. For example,
private parties seek to maximize profits while minimizing risk, whereas the
government pursues the public interest. Within the government, sector
agencies seek to maximize service delivery. This may conflict with ministries
of finance that seek to prudently manage financial obligations and risks.
The best way to address this conflict is to define the objectives of the PPP
program and each PPP project clearly and up front. This includes the relative
priorities, so that conflicts can be identified and resolved early.
As highlighted in chapter 1.8.2 of the PPP Guide, there are a number of risk
factors related to not having a framework. PPP frameworks address those
risks and increase the likelihood that PPPs will succeed.
Increasing the capability of government agencies to deliver PPPs:

PPP projects may be developed by various agencies across the
government. Each of these agencies may be an expert in its own
sector for example, in highway development, or water service
provision. However, most agencies will not be experts in PPPs. If each
agency has to learn how to do PPPs on its own, learning costs will be
high, as will the risk of mistakes. Codifying standard practices in a
framework reduces learning costs and the risk of mistakes. Codification
and standardization makes it easier for skills developed on one project
to be transferred to another project in another sector;
Providing a structured way of reconciling disparate objectives:

Delivering a PPP project typically requires co-operation between
numerous government agencies and private firms, all with competing
objectives. A PPP framework helps in managing expectations, training,
and skills development. This not only helps to establish a common

objective between stakeholders, but also improves the longevity of the
PPP program (in particular by establishing new mindsets);
Making sure that whole-of-government risk is limited: Sector

agencies developing PPPs will focus on delivering a project that will
work well for the sector. However, they may be less alert to other risks
which are more important at a whole-of-government level. These risks
include government reputation and fiscal risks. A good framework will
build in processes and responsibilities for identifying and mitigating
such risks;
Generating market interest: A key factor for a successful PPP is a

competitive procurement process. Competition helps drive down price
and promote innovation. A good PPP framework can be an effective
way of communicating the quality of the PPP program to the market, as
well as the governments commitment to potential investors. Thus, a
PPP framework can make PPP projects more attractive by increasing
competition. PPP frameworks can also reduce investors perception of
risk, making it more likely that projects can be privately financed. PPP
projects delivered by governments with transparent PPP processes
and effective oversight will be perceived as less risky; and
Facilitating probity and oversight of the PPP program: As with any

important government program, independent oversight and evaluation
are desirable. Having clear processes, decision making criteria, and
allocation of responsibilities makes such oversight more effective.
Clarity about what officials should do makes it easier to assess if they
did what they were supposed to do. Clarity about objectives makes it
easier to assess if those objectives are being achieved. If things are
going wrong, a clear and well documented framework makes it easier
to learn lessons from the experience. Evaluators of the program can
distinguish between whether the officials are following the framework
and the framework needs to be improved, or whether the problem is
that officials did not follow the framework. If the problem seems to be
with the framework itself, having a well-documented framework can
make it easy to see which particular parts of it need to be changed (see
section 1.9 for more on oversight of PPPs).
Many PPP projects developed in the absence of a PPP framework have gone
wrong. The Dabhol Plant in Maharashtra, described in box 2.3, is a case
study in which the inexperience of an agency and the lack of a PPP
framework contributed to the inappropriate delivery of a PPP project. There
were a number of issues with this project: the PPP project was identified
without a plan in place, the private party to deliver the project was selected in
an uncompetitive process, and the contractual negotiations were largely
driven by the private investor. Under an effective PPP framework, it is unlikely
such a project would have proceeded. Without a PPP framework, officials are
at risk of making poor decisions, such as not procuring a project competitively,
or taking a project to market before it is properly developed.
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BOX 2.3: A PPP project without a Framework
The Dabhol Plant in Maharashtra project ended unsuccessfully for both the
government and the private promoter because decisions were unstructured
and poorly governed, leading to an outcome that was not in the public
interest.
Enron led the project, and the contractual terms included the creation of a
corporate vehicle, the Dabhol Power Corporation (DPC). The DPC was to
construct the power plant in two phases and sell power to the Maharashtra
State Electricity Board (MSEB) under a 20 year take-or-pay contract. The
contract was backed by both a state government guarantee and a counter-
guarantee by the federal government.
In 2001, after the first phase was completed, the MSEB did not meet its
financial obligations given the high energy purchase price under the Power
Purchase Agreement (PPA). The DPC attempted to call in its guarantees, but
the federal government refused to make such payment on the basis of alleged
technical breaches. It was not until 2004 that settlements were made.
It is unlikely this project would have proceeded if the approach to
identification, procurement, appraisal and negotiation were good practice, as
shown in table 2.1.
Step Dabhol Better approach
Identification of a By a private party on From an integrated sector plan

project its own initiative. that shows the most economic
set of investments to achieve
sector objectives.
Selection of a By negotiation with a Through competitive processes

private party single proponent. to discover which firm is the best
party by scoring against a set of
defined and rational criteria.
Appraisal Advice by the World Projects that are not affordable

Bank that the project will not proceed.
was unaffordable
was disregarded.
Contractual Negotiation based Contract developed by the

agreement on a draft prepared government based on an optimal
by the private party. allocation of risks between
parties.
TABLE 2.1 Dabhol Plant Framework Approach
Source: Paterson, C. (2006) Investor-to-State Dispute Settlement in Infrastructure Projects. OECD
Working Papers on International Investment, 2006/02, OECD Publishing.
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http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/416335763425
It is desirable to initially establish general principles and then provide the

detail of the framework in parallel with the development and delivery of the
first projects. While it might seem that the framework should be established
first before undertaking projects, this is not generally the best approach. By
developing the framework in isolation of real world projects, processes may
become over standardized, which may create delays or lock-in unworkable
procedures or approvals. Moreover, political and bureaucratic priorities tend to
favor initiatives that are clearly linked to tangible results. A PPP framework
advanced as part of delivering tangible projects may therefore be given higher
priority than one that is not so linked.
In addition, by developing general principles first, then using projects to refine
that process, the framework will be suited to meet the particular needs of the
jurisdiction.1 For example, in British Columbia, the PPP framework is
nonspecific. As a result, it has been able to adopt a number of innovations,
particularly in the area of financial structuring that might not have been
possible under a more detailed framework. This flexibility has supported the
large number of PPPs in Canada.
1.2 What is in a PPP Framework?

A PPP framework should guide governments and private partners through
each step in developing a PPP, ensuring that projects are well structured and
delivered in line with expectations. The PPP framework will achieve this by
outlining procedures and decision rules for various institutions, and by
ensuring effective public financial management and oversight.
A PPP framework should articulate its objectives. These make explicit what
the government wants the PPP framework to achieve. They also provide a
basis for subsequent evaluation of the framework. The objectives of the PPP
framework are discussed in detail in section 1.3.
A good framework will also set out its scope, that is, the types of projects to
which it applies. The framework may be most effective for certain kinds of
projects within certain sectors. For example, it may not be sensible to have
PPPs of a low value follow the same rigorous procedures as those that apply
1 Deloitte and Touche USA LLP have developed a PPP Market Maturity Curve that shows how
jurisdictions generally work up to the full operation of the PPP Program, starting with a simple
framework and a small number of projects. Refer to UNECE (2008) Guidebook on Promoting good
governance in PPPs for more information.
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to high value PPPs. The scope of the PPP framework is discussed in section
1.4.
The PPP framework will need to be developed taking into account the
legislative and administrative contexts. The PPP framework will often be
embodied in PPP specific policy documents or legislation. The legal and
administrative instruments that can be used in PPP frameworks are outlined
in chapter 1.9.
PPP frameworks typically define:
Procedures: What things need to be done, by whom, in what order, to

allow the right decision to be made and the right actions to be taken?
For example, the Appraisal Phase could set out how a specified
agency in government will gather and process information to assess
whether the project would be best done as a PPP. The kinds of
procedures that should be contained in a PPP framework are explored
in section 1.6;
Decision criteria: How will decisions be made at each step? Again, at

the Appraisal Phase, one criterion should be whether the public
interest will be better served by doing this as a PPP or as a
conventional public sector project. The types of decision criteria that
should be contained within the framework are also explored in section
1.6; and
Institutional responsibilities: Which entities are responsible for which

tasks and objectives? For example, a specialist PPP unit may be
responsible for assessing whether a project is best done as a PPP or
not; the cabinet may be responsible for making a decision at to whether
a project should proceed as a PPP; the ministry of finance may have a
responsibility to advise on fiscal commitments made to a PPP project.
How the PPP framework should identify and assign responsibilities
among institutions is set out in section 1.7.
The PPP framework should set also out how fiscal commitments are
managed (section 1.8) as well as how proper oversight for the program is
established (section 1.9).
1.3 Objectives of the PPP Framework

As introduced in chapter 1.9, governments should adopt a structured and
programmatic approach if they want to rely significantly on the PPP model for
new infrastructure development. This is a way to attract stronger and more
consistent interest from the private sector. In this sense, a PPP program may
be defined as the ways in which the government plans to use PPPs to
achieve improved infrastructure service provision. This goes beyond the PPP
pipeline to include plans to develop additional and, as yet, not identified
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projects. It may include indications of priority sectors in which PPPs are
expected to be used, and the relevant extent to which the government plans
to use PPPs (as opposed to other service delivery mechanisms) in general or
in any particular sector.
The PPP framework should aim to promote the effective, efficient and
sustainable delivery of the PPP program in the jurisdiction. A PPP framework
is not an end in itself but a means to an end. It would not make sense for a
jurisdiction to develop an elaborate PPP framework if it only planned to do
one PPP project2. Equally, a government that is doing PPPs to finance a rapid
build out of urgently needed infrastructure may design a framework focused
on speed and attracting capital. A government using PPPs to improve
efficiency and accountability in an already well financed sector would probably
develop a different framework.
As such, it is important that governments define PPP program objectives as a
first step in developing the PPP framework. These objectives will give
designers of the framework the direction needed to formulate appropriate
processes, decision criteria, and institutional responsibilities.
The choice of objectives depends on the governments policies and priorities.
They can include the following:-
Enabling more investment in infrastructure by increasing project

financing options;
Achieving Value for Money in the provision of infrastructure and public

services;
Improving accountability in the provision of infrastructure and public

services;
Harnessing private sector innovation and efficiency;
Ensuring that the long-term delivery and management of PPPs is

sustainable, especially when stakeholders change over time (political
actors, champions, representatives in ministries or PPP units); and
Stimulating growth and development in the country.
2
The government would still want to follow good practice in doing the one PPP, but it would not need to
codify general approaches and capacitate multiple agencies. Developing good practice for a single
project is a lot easier than developing processes and rules that will work well for all projects, so
investing in a framework is worthwhile only when it is expected that it will be applied to multiple
projects.
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Table 2.2 provides examples of clear statements of PPP program objectives
drawn from the relevant countrys PPP policy statement or law.
TABLE 2.2: Examples PPP Policy Objectives
Country PPP Objectives

Australia Describes the aim of PPPs as being to deliver improved services
and better Value for Money, primarily through appropriate risk
transfer, encouraging innovation, greater asset utilization and an
integrated whole-of-life management, underpinned by private
financing.3
Bulgaria The Public-Private Partnership Act (SG, No. 45 of 2012) has the
following objectives.
Ensure the development of high quality and accessible services
of general interest by means of obtaining better Value for Money
from invested public funds.
Create prerequisites for the promotion of private investments in
the construction, maintenance, and management of physical and
social infrastructure facilities, and the carrying out of activities of
general interest.
Create guarantees for protection of public assets and for
effective management of public funds upon the implementation
of PPP.
Ensure the principles of transparency, free and fair competition,
non-discrimination, equality and proportionality.4
India The draft National PPP Policy sets several objectives for PPPs.
Harnessing private sector efficiencies in asset creation,
maintenance, and service delivery.
Providing focus on a lifecycle approach for development of a
project, involving asset creation and maintenance over its
lifecycle.
Creating opportunities to attract innovation and technological
improvements.
Facilitating affordable and improved services to the users in a
responsible and sustainable manner.5
3
Government of Australia (2008) National PPP Guidelines-PPP Policy Framework, p3.
4
Ministry of Finance of the Republic of Bulgaria (n.d.) Public Private Partnership. [Online] Available at
http://www.minfin.bg/en/page/750
5
Government of India (2011) National Public Private Partnership Policy-Draft, p8.
14

TABLE 2.2: Examples PPP Policy Objectives
Country PPP Objectives

Indonesia The purpose of co-operation of government and the private sector
(through PPPs) is set out as follows.
To fulfill sustainable funding requirements in the supply of
infrastructure through mobilization of private sector funds .
To improve the quantity, quality, and efficiency of services
through healthy competition.
To improve the quality of management and maintenance in the
supply of infrastructure.
To encourage the use of the principle whereby users pay for
services received, or in certain cases the paying ability of the
users shall be taken into consideration.6
So Paulo It states that the objective of the PPP program is to promote, co-
(Brazil) ordinate, regulate, and audit the activities of the private sector
agents who, as collaborators, participate in the implementation of
public policies aimed at the development of the state and the
collective wellbeing.7
Mxico It states that the objective of the PPP program is to increase social
wellbeing, and investment levels in the country.8
United The Private Finance Initiative (PFI) was introduced in 1992 as a
Kingdom means of harnessing the private sectors management skills and
commercial expertise, and to bring discipline to the delivery of
public infrastructure. The overall aim of the policy was to achieve
better Value for Money for the taxpayer by ensuring that
infrastructure projects were delivered on time and to cost, and that
assets were well maintained.9
The PPP framework should reduce the risk that PPPs are used for the wrong
reasons. Some governments have used PPPs to reduce reported levels of
government expenditure and borrowing, even when the long-term fiscal
implications of the PPP projects were similar to those of a publically financed
6
Government of Indonesia (2005) Presidential Regulation No. 67 concerning Government Cooperation
with Business Entities in the Supply of Infrastructure, as amended by Government of Indonesia (2011)
Presidential Regulation No. 56, chapter 2, article 3.
7
Legislative Assembly of the State of So Paulo, Brazil (2004) Law 11688 ("PPP Law"). So Paulo,
Article 1.
8
General Congress of the United States of Mexico, 2012. Ley de Asociaciones Publico Privadas (PPP
Law), Article 1.
9 HM Treasury (2012) A new approach to public private partnerships. Crown, London, p 15
15

project. A good PPP framework should ensure that PPPs are used to achieve
substantial benefits, and not to manipulate accounting results.
1.4 Scope of the PPP Framework

The scope of the PPP framework indicates the types of projects for which the
framework will apply. Scopes are generally defined by jurisdiction, sector,
size, and contract type. It is good practice for designers of a framework to
consider each of these dimensions, and to be explicit in the framework about
its scope. These aspects are explored in the remainder of this section.
Jurisdiction
The scope of any PPP framework will be limited by the jurisdiction of the
government that promulgates it. It is natural to think of national governments
that set PPP policies for their country, but what about different levels of
government?
In federal systems, any PPP framework promulgated by the federal
government can only extend to PPPs that fall within the governments
competence as set out in the constitution. These competencies differ from
country to country, but are often quite limited. For example, in the United
States (US), PPP frameworks are developed by the states; the federal
government is responsible for relatively little infrastructure. In India, while
states can develop their own PPP frameworks, the Union Government,
through the PPP cell in the Department of Economic Affairs, leads the
development of the PPP framework. In Canada, PPP frameworks are
developed at the provincial level (the Canadian Government also has its own
PPP program, for other national projects). Box 2.5 in section 1.5.4 provides
more detail on sub-national PPPs.
In non-federal systems, there may be sub-national governments at a second
level of government with competence in certain infrastructure and services
that develop PPP frameworks. For example, in Spain the central government
retains the powers to promote national interest infrastructures, while the
regional governments (Comunidades Autnomas) have the competence to
procure linear transport infrastructure (as long as the infrastructure is entirely
within its territory). They also have the exclusive competence to procure social
infrastructure (courts, schools and hospitals).
The extent to which national governments control the PPP projects and
frameworks of local governments is an even more complex question and
one that in federal systems can vary from state to state. For example, in
South Africa, the National Treasury must review and comment four times
during the development of PPPs at the municipal level to ensure that
government procedures are followed and contingent liabilities are controlled.
Technically, the reviews are advisory only, but in fact serve as de facto
16

approvals, without which the development process cannot proceed.10 In
Canada, PPP Canada (a federal agency) has a funding mechanism that
allows it to fund PPP projects at the provincial and municipal level. This
funding comes with requirements related to how projects are structured and
managed, which contributes to the track record of the Canadian market. This
is especially helpful for jurisdictions which have only one or two potential PPP
projects and so will not develop their own framework or practices.
Sector
When governments intend to focus PPPs on just a few sectors, the framework
may be designed with these sectors in mind. Further, the application may be
explicitly limited to those sectors. South Africa created a PPP framework
explicitly for highways (as well as a separate, more tailored framework for
other PPPs). The Philippines created a special regime for privately-financed
power plants.
Other PPP programs and their governing frameworks may cover multiple
sectors, but still set limits. As an example, the framers of Singapores PPP
policy (2004) limited its scope to those sectors in which other similar
countries have had proven success with PPP, including sports facilities,
incineration plants, water and sewage treatment works, major information
technology (IT) infrastructure, education facilities, hospitals and polyclinics,
expressways, and government office buildings.
Size
Many governments define a minimum size (or value) for PPP projects
implemented under the PPP framework. The relatively high transaction costs
of implementing a PPP can make PPPs below a certain size unviable. A size
limit may mean PPP type contracts cannot be used for smaller projects. For
example, Singapores PPP policy (2004) states that, initially, PPPs will be
pursued only if they have an estimated capital value of over US$50 million.
Brazils PPP law (Law 11079 2004) sets a minimum size of 20 million reals
(US$11.7 million equivalent) for individual projects.
In some jurisdictions, small projects are bundled as a way of economizing
transaction costs. For example, the Pennsylvania Bridges Project bundles the
rehabilitation of 558 bridges spread across several counties across the state
into one large project. The concessionaire is required to complete
construction by the end of 2017 (within three years of signing the contract)
10
South Africa National Treasury PPP Unit, 2007. Municipal Service Delivery and PPP Guidelines.
17

and will be responsible for the majority of design, financing, and maintenance
risks over the 28 year term of the concession.
PPP size limits may change over time as the government gains a better
understanding of the size of projects that are suited to a PPP. British
Columbia, Canada, is instigating a policy in which projects that are worth over
$100 million will be screened as PPPs. Initially, the policy stipulated that
projects over $20 million were to be screened; this was raised to $50 million
and is now in the process of being raised to $100 million. This was partially
because experience shows that PPP projects under $100 million are typically
not viable, but also in response to pressure from the local construction
industry that is uncompetitive in internationally procured PPPs.11
Contract Type
The scope can also define specific aspects of the contracts that will be
considered. Chapter 1 describes the range of contract types within the PPP
family.12 Many frameworks are explicitly limited to a particular subset of this
range, while others attempt to allow and control PPPs of almost any type
within a single framework. For example, Indias draft National PPP Policy
(2011) describes the types of contracts that are considered as PPPs, types of
contract that will not be used (those involving private ownership of assets),
and those that are not covered by the PPP policy (Engineering-Procurement-
Construction (EPC) contracts, and divestiture of assets). Brazils PPP law
(Law 11079 2004) and Chiles Concessions Law (Law 20410, 2010) both
define limits on the contract duration: in Brazil, it is a minimum of five years,
and in Chile, it is a maximum of 50 years.
Typically, the legal traditions of the country will influence the type of contract
for which the PPP framework will apply to. This is discussed in detail in
section 1.5. In summary, the two main categories of contracts are:
Government-pays contracts: The government agrees to pay the private

party on the basis of the availability and, in some instances, the
performance of the service over a period of time. For example, to
ensure that school or medical facilities are provided free of cost to the
user, the government may contract with private firms to provide the
facilities and pay for them from the government budget. The scope of
the UK's Private Finance Initiative (PFI) program has been
predominantly government-pays contracts, with minimal user-pays
elements; and
11 Refer to http://www2.news.gov.bc.ca/news_releases_2005-2009/2008FIN0019-001677.htm
12 Refer to sections 0.2 and 0.3.
18

User-pays or concession contracts: These contracts are designed to
allow the private sector to lease a government asset, to deliver public
services, and to generate an income from supplying the service. The
French PPP framework was originally framed around concession
contracts.13
Summary Examples of Scope Definitions

Table 2.2 Provides details on how various countries have defined the scope of
their PPP frameworks and programs.
TABLE 2.1: Example Definitions of PPP Framework Scope
Country PPP Policy Scope

Australia Project size: Value for Money considerations mean PPPs will
likely only be applicable for projects over US$50 million.14
Brazil Contract types: Only two types of contracts will be considered
PPPs in Brazil: (i) sponsored concessions returns for the private
party come from user fees and government transfers:- and (ii)
administrative concessions all of the returns to the private party
come from government transfers. Concessions not requiring
government transfers are not considered PPPs in Brazil. The law
also states that the concession must be at least five years long to
be considered a PPP.
Project Size: PPPs will only be used for project over 20 million
Reals (US$11.7 million equivalent).15
Chile Contract types: The law specifies a maximum duration for
concession contracts of 50 years.
Sector: The law does not specify the sectors. However, it states
that PPPs are to exploit public works and services, and the use of
national goods are used to develop necessary services.16
13
The scope for the PPP Framework in France has expanded. In 2004 the French government created
a new framework for government-pays PPPs under the contrat de partenariat (partnership contract)
14
Government of Australia (2008) National PPP Guidelines-PPP Policy Framework, section 3.1.3, p6.
15
National Congress of Brazil (2004) Law 11079 ("Federal PPP Law"). Article 2, p4.
16
National Congress of Chile (2010) Law 20410 ("Concessions Law").
19


Colombia Contract types: PPP contracts must always make the private
investor responsible for operations and maintenance, and must be
for less than 30 years (if the project is longer, it will require
approval from the National Council on Economic and Social
Policy).17
Project size: Total investment in the project must be above 6,000
Salario Mnimo Mensual Legal Vigente (SMMLV) (Minimum Legal
Monthly Wage), which is equivalent to $2.1 million.18
India Contract types: The policy lists preferred PPP contract types, as
well as exclusions. The policy states that the government does not
intend to use contracts involving private ownership of assets. It
also clarifies that Engineering-Procurement-Construction (EPC)
contracts and divestiture of assets, are not covered by the PPP
policy.19
Mauritius Sectors: In the early stage of the PPP program, the government
plans to focus on certain key areas: transport, public utilities, solid
and liquid waste management, health, education and vocational
training, and information and communications technology (ICT).20
Mexico Contract types: Defines PPPs as long-term contractual
relationships between public and private entities, to provide
services to the public sector or the general public, where the
infrastructure is provided, to increase social wellbeing and
investment levels in the country. Contracts must not exceed 40
years in duration (including extensions) contracts that are longer
than 40 years must be approved by law.21
17
Congress of Colombia (2011) Law 1508 ("PPP Law"), Article 3 and 6.
18
Salario 2015 = 644.336 equivalente a 350 dlares. Source: http://www.salariominimo2015.com/
19
Government of India (2011) National Public Private Partnership Policy-Draft, p6. Note that this policy
was under revision during the time of drafting this PPP Guide (July, 2015).
20
Government of Mauritius, 2003. Public Private Partnership Policy Statement, Section 5, p4.
21
General Congress of the United States of Mexico, 2012. Ley de Asociaciones Publico Privadas (PPP
Law).
20


Puerto Sector: Defines ten eligible sectors: sanitary landfills, reservoirs
Rico and dams; electricity generation plants; transport systems;
educational, health, security, correctional and rehabilitation
facilities; affordable housing; sports; recreations; tourist, and
cultural attractions; communication networks; high-tech,
informatics and automation systems; and any other sector that has
been identified as a priority through legislation.22
Singapore Sectors: Limited to those in which there are successful PPP
examples in other countries, including sports facilities, incineration
plants, water and sewage treatment works, major IT infrastructure,
education facilities, hospitals and polyclinics, expressways, and
government office buildings
Project size: PPPs will be used only for projects over US$50
million.23
Unified Frameworks
In countries with established PPP programs, PPP frameworks are often
applied across all sectors and, in some cases, across multiple jurisdictions
within a country (federal, state and local). An example of such a framework is
Australias National PPP policy framework; it applies to all significant public
infrastructure (both economic and social infrastructure and their related
services) procured by commonwealth, state and territory governments.
A unified framework can simplify things for agencies interested in developing
a PPP as well as for prospective investors. Unified rules and processes result
in greater efficiency for the private sector, and hence greater bidder interest.
Investors often view governments as monolithic, thus expecting that
governments will adopt consistent practices across sectors. Moreover, many
PPP issues are the same regardless of the sector or jurisdiction, so a single
set of well-designed rules may serve a governments well.
However, there are also disadvantages in trying to create unified frameworks
across sectors and jurisdictions.
Difficult to develop and inflexible to change: The greater the scope

of the PPP framework, the more difficult and time consuming it will be
to develop and change. The most challenging task in developing a
22
Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, 2009. PPP Act No. 29, Section 3.
23
Government of Singapore, 2004. Public-Private Partnership Handbook, Section 1.4.2, p8.
21

framework is gaining endorsement from stakeholders. The wider the
scope, the more likely there is to be conflicting interests. However, a
PPP framework designed for a targeted problem is relatively easy to
establish and can be easily adapted. It will limit the stakeholders
involved and the legislative or policy frameworks that need to be
addressed.
o For example, the first Philippines PPP framework was the Build-
Operate Transfer (BOT) Law passed in 1990. However, it was
soon apparent that the procurement processes under the first
BOT laws were too slow and restrictive to allow the government
to procure privately financed power generators (independent
power projects - IPPs) as quickly as was needed. Between 1992
and 1993, the country suffered a power crisis, with brownouts
lasting between 8 to 16 hours a day. In response, a new legal
framework for the IPP program was created by the Electric
Power Crisis Act of 1993. This framework enabled crisis
mitigation and by 1994 there were no brownouts.24 Then, when
Manila faced a water crisis in 1994, a legal framework was
created to facilitate water PPPs. The National Water Crisis Act
(NWCA) was passed in 1995 to provide a legal basis for
concession agreements.
Unable to address unique infrastructure challenges: Specific laws

that enable the development of PPPs in one sector or jurisdiction may
not work in another. For example, in South Africa, in effect two PPP
frameworks exist one for highways and one for non-highways. The
South Africa National Roads Authority developed a clear PPP
framework in 1997.25 A non-highway PPP framework was later
developed in 1999 when the treasury became concerned that PPPs
were increasingly used by other agencies as a means of off-balance
sheet financing. The National Roads Authority was not brought under
the new general framework, as the existing highway framework had
already proven its effectiveness.
A number of 'parallel' PPP frameworks may exist within a single jurisdiction. If
carefully designed, they may be effective in delivering PPP programs that
target specific objectives. However, if there is any overlap or conflict with
existing frameworks, laws, and/or policies, new 'parallel' PPP frameworks may
be unclear For example, in Romania, Law No. 178/2010 which provided the
general PPP framework was never used because it overlapped with the
24
Dumol (2000) The Manila Water Concession: A Key Government Officials Diary of the Worlds
Largest Water Privatization. World Bank
25
Republic of South Africa National Treasury Department (n.d.) About the PPP Unit. [Online] Available
at http://www.ppp.gov.za/Pages/About.aspx
22

existing concession framework regulated by the Government Emergency
Ordinance no. 34/2006.26
As an alternative, an umbrella policy can be developed, which then has
sector specific versions or detail. For example, in the UK, 'umbrella' policies
have been developed by HM Treasury, which are then applied by PPP units
that operate in central government departments such as defense and health.
1.5 Choice of Legal and Administrative Instruments to

Create PPP Framework
To be effective, PPP frameworks need to be documented. They also have to
have some enforcement mechanisms. Governments need to make the
following decisions.
How will the PPP framework be made binding on government officials?
How will the PPP framework be communicated to all stakeholders? and
What will give legal force to PPP agreements?

How frameworks are documented and given force varies widely between
jurisdictions. In some cases, PPP frameworks are enacted as laws. In others,
they are put in policy documents and manuals which the government commits
to follow. Just as importantly, PPP frameworks do not stand alone: they build
on, and incorporate, many pre-existing public sector management
frameworks. These typically include public procurement and financial
management frameworks.
Some historical context is provided below to understand the choices that
different jurisdictions make regarding the laws or other documents governing
PPPs. This is followed by a discussion of how governments embody their
PPP frameworks in laws and administrative documents. A description follows
as to how these frameworks inevitably incorporate and build on existing public
sector management frameworks.
1.5.1 How Varying Legal Traditions Interact with Different PPP Types
Countries vary widely in how they document and give force to PPP
frameworks. Countries with common law27 legal systems tend to rely on
26
Romanian Department for Foreign Investments and Public-Private Partnership. The New Law on
Public-Private Partnership. [Online] Available at http://dpiis.gov.ro/new_dpiis/en/public-private-
partnersip/department-attributions/
23

policy documents and administrative guidance materials. Countries with civil
law28 legal systems are more likely to enact the PPP framework in statute
law, and spell it out in detailed rules and regulations with legal force.
The different legal traditions interact with different types of PPPs see table
2.3. Civil law countries have used concession contracts and similar
arrangements for the private provision of public services for over 200 years. In
contrast, most common law countries do not have a tradition of concession
contracts, instead using fully private (investor-owned) companies to provide
infrastructure services, generally under government regulation.
TABLE 2.2: Legal Traditions and PPP Types in Civil and Common Law Countries
Legal Tradition Civil Law Common Law

PPP Types
User-pays PPPs
(Concessions and Historically France, Later development
Spain, and other civil of the framework
similar contracts) law jurisdictions
Government-pays PPPs
Historically UK and
(PFI-style contracts) Later development of Australia
the framework
Concession contracts have a long history in civil law countries

In France and other civil law countries, concessions and related contracts
have been used for more than 200 years. A concession for water supply in
part of Paris was let in 1782 (then later revoked following the French
Revolution).29 The municipal concession for water supply became an
important mode of water service provision from 1850 to 1910. While
27
Common law is generally uncodified. This means that there is no comprehensive compilation of legal
rules and statutes. Although common law does rely on some scattered statutes, which are legislative
decisions, it is largely based on precedent, meaning the judicial decisions that have already been
made in similar cases (University of California at Berkeley).
28
Also referred as the civil code. Civil code or civil law is codified. Such codes distinguish between
different categories of law: substantive law establishes which acts are subject to criminal or civil
prosecution, procedural law establishes how to determine whether a particular action constitutes a
criminal act, and penal law establishes the appropriate penalty. In a civil law system, the judges role
is to establish the facts of the case and to apply the provisions of the applicable code. Much civil law
originates from Code Napoleon. (University of California at Berkeley)
29
McCarthy, S. and Perry, J. (1989) BOT Contracts for Water Supply. London: World Water.
24

municipally financed and operated systems became more common from 1910
to 1970, lease (or affermage30) contracts for operations of publicly financed
systems became increasingly important from 1970.31
Belgium, Germany, Italy and Spain, all used concessions for municipal water
supply from around 1885. In Istanbul, the French company Generale des
Eaux (now Veolia) was granted a water supply concession in 1881.
Concessions were also granted to operate railways, tramways, ports, gas,
electricity, and waterworks.32 The Suez Canal was developed by French
interests under a concession granted in 1854 by the Turkish Viceroy of
Egypt.33
The civil law tradition of concessions was also followed in Latin America.
Private investment in infrastructure was generally not a policy priority from the
1950s to the 1970s. However, from the 1990s a number of Latin American
countries enacted legal reforms to once again encourage private investment
in infrastructure. Chile was a pioneer in this regard, passing a Concession
Law in 1991, which, with various amendments, still provides the framework in
use today.
In common law jurisdictions, investor-owned utilities provided user-pays

infrastructure services
In contrast, in Britain and its former colonies, concessions were not generally
used. Rather private companies raised capital and built infrastructure, which
they then operated and charged people to use. The right to operate and
manage the infrastructure did not need to be delegated by the state (as was
done in civil law countries). These private utilities and railway companies were
generally granted licenses to operate, and they were regulated (meaning that
in economic substance they were quite similar to concessions). However, the
legal framework was different, and such operations were considered to be
fully private, and not PPPs.
Investor ownership of infrastructure was curtailed in Britain after World War II.
The Labor government nationalized electricity, gas, and inland transport
(including railways, road haulage and canals). However, this tendency was
reversed in the 1980s when the Conservative government, led by Margaret
Thatcher, privatized state-owned enterprises in telecommunications, gas,
30
Refer to Section 0.4. for an introduction of terms used that may refer to a PPP transaction.
31
Pezon, C. (2011) How the Compagnie Ge'ne'rale des Eaux survived the end of concession contracts
in France 100 years ago. Water Policy, Volume 13, pp. 178-186.
32
Eldem, E. (2005) Ottoman financial integration with Europe: foreign loans, the Ottoman Bank and the
Ottoman public debt. European Review, 13(03), pp. 431-445.
33
McCarthy, S. and Perry, J. (1989) BOT Contracts for Water Supply. London: World Water.
25

electricity, water, railways, buses, ports, and airports. These sales were
termed privatizations not Public-Private Partnerships.34
In the United States, many of the early highways, canals, railways, transit
systems, water supplies, and electricity utilities were financed and operated
by private companies. Federal government involvement in financing
infrastructure started to increase under the New Deal Administration of
Franklin D Roosevelt from 1933. Following this, local and state governments
mostly funded infrastructure with bonds sold by special purpose corporate
entities that operated like private companies, but were in fact government-
owned (known as public authorities, special districts, and so on.). Examples
include the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey, and the Washington
Metropolitan Area Transit Authority.35 Interest in Public-Private Partnerships,
both as a way to privatize existing infrastructure and to attract private finance
for new infrastructure, started to increase in the 1990s. The State of Virginia
was among the pioneers, passing a PPP law for transport assets in 1995 after
a lengthy process. Prior to 1995 most infrastructure assets were financed
through tax-exempt bonds.
Common law countries then developed the government-pays PPP model

In the early 1990s, with most of the user-pays infrastructure having been
privatized, the Conservative government in Britain looked for ways to bring
private finance and operations into the services which were publicly funded.
Health and education were the most important of these. Prisons, national
defense, and social housing were others. The model chosen was to have
private companies construct and maintain the capital intensive facilities such
as school and hospital buildings.36 It was termed the Private Finance
Initiative (PFI).
34
There were exceptions. Passenger rail services were loss making and needed government subsidies,
so these were structured under contractual franchises that could properly be described as public-
private partnerships. A similar approach was followed with the franchising of tram and train services in
the State of Victoria, Australia in 1999.
35
The Port Authority of New York and New Jersey. History of the Port Authority (n.d.). [Online] Available
at http://www.panynj.gov/about/history-port-authority.html; Washington Metropolitan Area Transit
Authority (2015) About Metro. [Online] Available at http://www.wmata.com/about_metro/?
36
In principle it would have been possible to pay private providers to provide the full educational and
medical services. Privately-owned schools could have taught children at no cost to the families, to
established national standards, and been paid by the government to do it. In fact, since 2000 in the
health sector, the UK has adopted such an approach under the rubric Independent Sector Treatment
Centers. These centers perform routine operations under contract to the publicly funded National
Health Service. However, in the 1990s when the PFI program was established, fears of union and
popular opposition to privatization of services in these ways meant the focus was on private
provision of facilities, not the full service, and it is this focus that has been most widely imitated
internationally.
26

This new kind of government-pays PPP was enthusiastically embraced by
the new Labor administration led by Tony Blair, which came to power in 1997.
By 2001, 100 billion (US$ 150 billion equivalent) had been committed by the
UK government and 400 PFI contracts were in force.37 Similar initiatives were
developed in Australia and Canada. The State of Victoria in Australia
developed the Partnerships Victoria program, for example. Since 2002-03,
Partnerships Victoria projects have accounted for approximately 10 per cent
of annual public asset investment commitments.38 Canada uses government-
pays models of PPPs across a variety of sectors, including transportation,
transit, social housing, corrections, health care facilities, and utility services
such as water treatment plants.
Civil law countries develop frameworks for government-pays PPPs

Following the lead provided by the UK and other Commonwealth39 countries,
many civil law countries have introduced legal frameworks to allow and
control the use of government-pays PPPs. This has been done using
different approaches: creating specific laws for government-pays PPPs (and
retaining the existing laws and the traditional form of concession for user-pays
PPPs), creating a new law that governs any kind of PPP (user-pays,
government-pays, and hybrids), or expanding the application of (and
sometimes amending) the existing procurement legislation.
In 2004, France introduced the contrat de partenariat (partnership contract)
and set the basis for a central PPP unit (the Mission dappui aux partenariats
public-priv or MAPPP). The PPP laws were designed to fill the gap
between using traditional works contracts (marchs publics) and user-pay
concession arrangements (dlgations de service public).40
Spain also created a framework for government-pays PPPs. Unlike France,
this was not done through a stand-alone statute. Concession provisions in the
government procurement law were used for government-pays PPPs when
they began in the early 2000s. In 2011, the government procurement law was
extended to allow a new type of contract designed for PFI-type projects.
These contracts are named CPP (Collaboration Private-Public). The CPP
37
Hodge, G. A. & Greve, C. (2005) The Challenge of Public-private Partnerships: Learning from
International Experience. Northampton: Edward Elgar Publishing.
38
State Government of Victoria (2013) About Partnerships Victoria. [Online] Available at:
http://www.dtf.vic.gov.au/Infrastructure-Delivery/Public-private-partnerships/About-Partnerships-
Victoria
39
The Commonwealth is a voluntary association of 53 independent and equal sovereign states. Its
origins go back to the British Empire when some countries were ruled directly or indirectly by Britain.
Membership today is based on free and equal voluntary co-operation; no historical ties to the British
Empire are required.
40
European PPP Expertise Centre (2012) France: PPP Units and Related Institutional Framework.
27

allows more flexibility in risk allocation and other contract features. However, it
has been used only for projects that are very technically complex. Most
government-pays PPPs are still done under the provisions in the procurement
law dealing with concession contracts.
In Latin America, Chile also extended its Concession Law to include
government-pays PPPs.
Conversely, other Latin American countries including Colombia, Mexico,
and Peru41 have created specific statutes for PPPs (generally referred to as
Alianza Publico Privada (APP) once they started to use government-pays
PPP structures. These statutes cover both categories of PPPs.
Poland also passed a specific law to govern PPPs. It defines PPPs in a
narrow way so as to include only projects where there are government
payments (although there are doctrinal and legal controversies as to whether
that law applies also to pure user-pays projects). Brazil introduced the PPP
figure (Parceiras Publico Privadas) under a specific law to refer to
government-pays PPPs, including any PPP with public payments.
Where legal requirements differ between government-pays PPPs and user-
pays PPPs, the need arises to define which PPPs are which. This is not as
easy as it sounds since many user-pays PPPs have some level of
government payment. For example, the government may make a contribution
to up-front capital costs, or it may pay a subsidy to keep charges to certain
groups below cost. A common approach is to define a PPP as government-
pays if more than half the funding comes from government.
1.5.2 Legal and Administrative Approaches to Establishing PPP

Frameworks
The diversity of legal traditions and PPP types shows there is no single best
way to document and give force to a PPP framework. Rather, the right way to
establish a PPP depends on the administrative and legal traditions in the
country, and the governments objectives. This section looks at the various
approaches that common law and civil law jurisdictions take to establish PPP
frameworks in law and policy generally. It then considers how specific matters
such as enforcement, limits on contracts, and adjudication are dealt with in
different systems.
41
The first government-pays PPPs in Mexico were called proyectos de prestation de servicios or service
provision projects (PPS) and had to rely on two regulations: the concession regulations to grant the
title to operate economically the asset, and the leasing law (Arrendamientos), as the concession
contract as established did not contemplate the service payments as a revenue or compensation form
to the private partner. APP legislation (both at Federal government and state level) has solved this
issue.
28

Common law countries often use policy documents, not laws, to establish PPP
frameworks
Common law countries do not generally need laws to establish PPP
frameworks. In many common law countries, policy statements and
administrative documents are the best approach. Australia and Britain two
of the worlds most experienced PPP jurisdictions do not have PPP laws.
Doing PPPs under a policy framework, rather than a law, also works in
emerging market and developing economy (EMDE) countries such as
Jamaica.
In Britain, the HM Treasury has the responsibility for setting PPP policy for
England; this responsibility is devolved in Scotland, Wales and Northern
Ireland. The treasury publishes key policy, guidance, and statistics on
PPPs/PFIs and provides advice to departments wishing to undertake PPP/PFI
projects. Each government department is responsible for the implementation
of PPP policy, and they must take into consideration any legislation regarding
procurement. The HM Treasurys focus is on ensuring that public sector asset
and service investment programs maintain momentum, provide Value for
Money, sustain market confidence, and deliver improved operational
performance of projects.42
In Australia, the National PPP Policy sets the direction for the PPP program.
This policy, and detailed guidelines that complement the policy, have been
agreed to and endorsed by the Council of Australian Governments (consisting
of the Federal government and each state and territory government).
Departures from the policy and guidelines are possible, but must be approved
by the relevant PPP authority (usually treasury or finance).43
In addition, various laws that are not specific to PPPs complement the
framework. For example, in New South Wales, procurement must comply with
relevant provisions of the Public Works and Procurement Act 1912 and the
Public Finance and Audit Act 1983.
Like Australia, Jamaicas legal system is inherited from England. Jamaica
developed a PPP framework as it revised its divestment (privatization) policy.
In Jamaica, the policy was adopted by the cabinet, and then published.44 The
Development Bank of Jamaica (DBJ) a government-owned financial
institution was mandated with managing the implementation of the policy,
42
HM Treasury (2013) Public Private Partnerships. [Online] Available at:
http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20130107105354/http://www.hm-
treasury.gov.uk/infrastructure_public_private_partnerships.htm
43
Infrastructure Australia (2008) National Public Private Partnership Guidelines Overview.
Commonwealth of Australia.
44
Development Bank of Jamaica Limited (2012) Shaping New Partnerships For National Development.
29

serving as a PPP unit in conjunction with its established role as a privatization
agency. The processes to be followed are set out in a manual which guide the
staff developing PPPs. Staff in the DBJ and the sectoral agencies follow the
policy and the manual because of administrative requirement.
Other common law jurisdictions, including New Zealand and the Canadian
provinces such as Alberta, British Columbia, and Ontario among others, also
embody their PPP frameworks in policies, manuals, and other non-legally
binding documents. In common law jurisdictions such as these, the
government has the powers of a natural person or corporation. Thus, it does
not need legislation to enable it to enter contracts of any sort, including Public-
Private Partnership contracts.
Moreover, these jurisdictions often have Westminster system45 styles of
government. Under the Westminster system there is a closer alignment
between the legislature and executive than there is in the presidential systems
adopted by many civil law countries46 (note that some common law countries,
including the US and Nigeria, have presidential rather than Westminster
systems of government). In a Westminster system the executive branch
typically feels confident controlling its own actions, and it does not need laws
to either empower or control it. The executive is accountable to the public
through general elections, and this is what gives government policy
statements their force. Governments expect to be judged on whether they
have adopted good policies and whether they have followed the policies to
which they have committed themselves.
In Westminster system jurisdictions, policies written about how the
government will implement PPPs not only communicate the framework, but
also become the instrument by which the framework is made binding on
government officials. By constitutional convention or civil service law
(depending on the jurisdiction), civil servants are required to follow
government policies.
The PPP contracts themselves are almost always normal private law
contracts, given their force through ordinary contract law. Adjudication and
enforcement of the contracts are also a matter of private law, handled through
the regular courts (or by arbitration, if the parties opt into arbitration through
the contract).
Some common law jurisdictions pass PPP laws, for a variety of reasons
45
In the Westminster system, the leader of the executive branch (the Prime Minister) is the leader of the
party able to command a majority in the legislature. Cabinet members are appointed by the Prime
Minister from among members of the legislature. Although this is often said to imply legislative control
of the executive, in reality it tends to create a legislature that follows the lead of the executive.
46
Koopmans, T. (2003) Courts and Political Institutions. Cambridge University Press, p180-182.
30

Some common law jurisdictions do create PPP laws. This is often to override
existing laws that would otherwise restrict or delay PPP projects. Another
reason for putting the framework into a statute is to provide greater force,
stability, transparency, and accountability.
In the US, states that want to develop PPPs pass PPP laws. For example, in
Virginia, the Public-Private Transportation Act (PPTA) of 1995, and the Public-
Private Education Facilities and Infrastructure Act (PPEA) of 2002 provide the
legislative framework that allows the state to qualify local governments and
certain government entities to enter into agreements with private firms to
construct, improve, maintain, and operate transportation, education and other
facilities.47 Similarly, in California, The Senate Bill Second Extraordinary
Session 4 (SBX2 4) was passed in 2009 to allow regional transportation
agencies and the Californian transportation agency (Caltrans) to enter into an
unlimited number of Public-Private Partnerships.48
To an observer accustomed to the Australian and British models, the
approach taken by US states seems a bit odd at first sight. The states
executives, after all, have the inherent power to enter contracts of all sorts.
Therefore why do state legislatures need to pass laws empowering them to
enter into PPP contracts? One important reason is to create exceptions to
other state laws already on the books that prevent PPP contracts. In
particular, public procurement laws in many states are prescriptive, and as a
result they effectively outlaw PPPs.
Another reason is that the greater separation of powers in the American state
governments (compared to the Westminster system) makes it more common
for legislatures to control the exercise of executive power through laws.
Moreover, since the US system allows the legislature and the executive to be
controlled by different parties with opposing agendas, it is desirable for the
stability of a PPP program if the legislature explicitly authorizes the executive
to engage in PPPs.
Many EMDE countries with common law systems have passed specific PPP
laws. Among them are India and Kenya. In India, individual states have
passed legislation to promote private sector participation in infrastructure
projects across sectors. States such as Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat and Punjab
47
Reese., B. (2008) Virginia s Public-Private Partnership Program. Commonwealth of Virginia: Office of
the Secretary of Transportation, U.S.A.
48
California Department of Transportation: Official Website. [Online] Available at:
http://www.dot.ca.gov/hq/innovfinance/public-private-partnerships/PPP_main.html
31

have developed specific laws and institutions for PPP projects.49 Kenya has
also recently instated a Public Private Partnership (PPP) Act, 2013.50
Although in most cases such PPP laws are not strictly necessary, there are
several possible advantages to having a special PPP law: increased
accountability and transparency of the program, greater policy stability (since
laws take longer to change than policies), and a signal to investors and
funding agencies which may perceive a law as a stronger commitment than a
policy statement. Against these advantages must be weighed some
disadvantages, including the longer time it takes to pass a law, the loss of
flexibility in updating the framework in response to new situations and lessons
learned, and the difficulty of coordination between the legislature and the
executive (which may create inconsistencies or bottlenecks in the framework).
In common law jurisdictions that pass PPP laws, the legal instrument that
governs the PPP is still a private law contract, adjudicated and enforced
through the courts or contractual arbitration.
Civil law jurisdictions generally embody their PPP frameworks in laws

Civil law countries tend to embody their PPP frameworks in laws. This follows
from the civil law tradition that government agencies may only do what they
are explicitly authorized to do, as well as the tradition of limiting government
discretion with tightly defined rules. However, as we have seen, the types of
law used differ from jurisdiction to jurisdiction. Spain and a number of other
civil law countries empower and control PPPs through the public procurement
law. Chile controls all PPPs through its concession law.
The Philippines (a predominantly civil law country) created a special BOT Law
which then evolved into a PPP law. The BOT Law is prescriptive detailing
how PPPs are to be undertaken, including the government bodies that can
enter into contract with a private company for a PPP project, eligible projects,
approval processes, how negotiations are to be undertaken, repayment
schemes, and similar matters.51
France, despite being the well-spring of much modern civil law (through the
Code Napoleon) developed a legal framework for concessions which is similar
to common law in important ways. Government agencies, including local
governments, were taken to have an inherent power to enter into contracts
that delegate the provision of public services. The award and enforcement of
49
Energy and Infrastructure Unit and Finance and Private Sector Development Unit (2006) India
Building Capacities for Public-Private Partnerships. South Asia Region. The World Bank.
50
Government of Kenya (n.d.). Legal and Regulatory Framework. [Online] Available at:
http://pppunit.go.ke/index.php/legal-regulatory-framework
51
Republic of the Philippines (2012) The Philippine Amended BOT Law R.A.7718.
32

these contracts was subject to a special administrative court (the Conseil
dEtat) which built a legal framework for such contracts from case by case
decisions over more than 200 years52,53 Government-pays PPP contracts on
the other hand were recently authorized and controlled by a specific statute.54
As in France, concession contracts in Spain are not private law contracts, but
are subject to special administrative law provisions. This is not the case in all
civil law countries, however. In the Philippines, Power Purchase Agreements
(PPAs) and the Manila Water Concessions are treated as private law
contracts.
The PPP framework can be used to reduce the need for court action
The PPP framework should be explicit about mechanisms that are used to
reduce the need for court action. In many countries, it can take years for
disputes to be resolved through the courts. Court processes can also be
expensive. They rely on judges who are typically not familiar with the complex
and technical matters involved in PPP contracts. For this reason, it is often a
good idea to include alternative dispute resolution mechanisms in contracts.
Mediation and arbitration provisions are often included (options to solve
disputes and the role of dispute resolution processes are explained further in
chapter 5.8). Enforcement mechanisms that reduce the need for court action,
such as escrow accounts and performance bonds, can also be useful tools.
1.5.3 How PPP frameworks Build on and Incorporate Pre-Existing

Government Frameworks
Regardless of the tradition within which a PPP framework is constructed, it is
not constructed in isolation. Rather, it builds on, incorporates, and modifies
the pre-existing frameworks for contracting, procurement, and financial
management in government. It makes sense to use as much of the existing
frameworks as possible and to ensure that whatever is added that is specific
to PPPs dovetails with existing systems. Among these pre-existing systems,
the following are typically found:-
Administrative law: In many civil law countries, government agencies

are governed by administrative laws that control their functions and
decision-making process;
52
Koopmans, T. (2003) Courts and Political Institutions. Cambridge University Press, pp. 135-147.
53
Shugart, Chris. (1998) Regulation-by-Contract and Municipal Services: The Problem of Contractual
Incompleteness. Ph.D. thesis, Harvard University.
54
European PPP Expertise Centre (2012) France: PPP Units and Related Institutional Framework.
33

Procurement law: The transaction process for a PPP must typically
comply with public procurement law and regulations, unless PPPs are
specifically exempt;
Public financial management law: Institutional responsibilities,

processes, and rules established in public financial management laws
and regulations can contribute to the PPP framework. For example,
this could include project approval requirements, fiscal limits, budgeting
processes, and reporting requirements (see section 1.7.4 for PPP
public financial management responsibilities);
Sector laws and regulatory frameworks: PPPs are often

implemented in sectors that are already governed by sector-level law
and regulatory frameworks. These may constrain the governments
ability to contract with the private sector, or provide rules for doing so.
PPPs for regulated industries such as electricity distribution or water
supply will need to consider tariffs and service regulation, the role of
regulatory agencies, and how these interact with the terms of the PPP
contract.55; and
Other rules affecting the operation of private firms: These also

apply to PPP companies, and they should be taken into consideration
when defining PPP projects and processes:-
o Environmental law and regulations;
o Laws and regulations governing land acquisition and
ownership;
o Licensing requirements, particularly for international firms;
o Tax rules;
o Employment law;
o Accounting standards;
It is good practice to review the legislative and administrative context to
ensure that it is not incompatible with key elements of the objectives of the
PPP framework. For example, in both Brazil and India there are taxation rules
which discriminate against private sector subcontracting of operations and
maintenance in PPPs (see box 2.4). Similarly, discrimination against foreign
investors (for example, convertibility, confiscatory taxes on repatriation of
55
Groom, E., Halpern, J. and Erhardt, D. (2006) Explanatory Notes on Key Topics in the Regulation of
Water and Sanitation Services. World Bank Group, Bank Netherlands Water Partnership, Public
Private Infrastructure Advisory Facility.
34

equity) should be reviewed in order to attract the participation of
international/global investors and developers.
BOX 2.4: Distortionary Taxes of Operations and Maintenance (O&M)

Contracts
The tax treatment of the project company, commonly referred as a SPV
(discussed in chapter 5.3.) established by project consortiums to deliver a
PPP project, favors one type of contracting structure which may not be the
most efficient. Such is the case in Brazil and India.
Brazil: Under the turnover tax system in Brazil, the operating cost of the
Curitiba Metro in the state of Parana increases by an estimated 6 percent
per year in cases in which there is a separate O&M contractor through a
PPP. This compares with the fiscally neutral position in which the O&M is
carried out by the Concessionaire
India: The subcontracting of O&M services attracts services tax (currently
at 12.36 percent, and set to increase to 14 percent), while the same
service of O&M if performed by the concessionaire directly does not
attract the services tax. This means that subcontracting becomes a
burden on the PPP project, affecting its financial viability. Instead of
subcontracting to specialists to mitigate risk and improve the quality of
project delivery, the concessionaire is instead incentivized to undertake
the works.
Source: KEOLIS South Africa
Sector regulation may also constrain how the government may develop and
manage PPP contracts. For example, concessions for utility services may be
governed by public utility regulation. Essential infrastructure may be subject to
open access rules under competition law.
1.5.4 Framework for Sub-National PPPs

Thus far the discussion has assumed that a government is creating a
framework to guide its own actions. However, where there are multiple levels
of government, and there may be instances when one level may wish to
empower, influence, or control a lower level of government. In federal
systems, national governments may wish to affect the legal framework for
35

states.56 National and state governments may also wish to enable or control
local government entering into PPPs.
In federal systems, constitutions normally specify which matters are the
preserves of states, and which of the federal government. PPP frameworks at
the state level therefore apply to PPPs that are within state competencies.
Federal rules apply to PPP projects that are federal competencies and
executed by the federal government. Federal governments are generally
limited by the constitution as to how much they can intrude on how state
governments discharge matters that are within the states competence.
When it comes to local governments, it is generally the case that state or
national governments can legislate the behavior of local governments within
their jurisdictions. In Australia and Canada, the national PPP policy does not
apply to local government. PPPs are rare at the local level due to the small
size of projects developed at this level.57 In France, local governments
procedures for entering into PPP contracts are governed by national laws and
the jurisprudence of the Conseil dEtat. In Spain, PPPs done by local
authorities have to respect the national general procurement legislation, as
well as a specific law regulating municipal service procurement.
When governments cannot, or do not want to, control the behavior of a lower
level of government by law, they can often incentivize the desired behavior
through various kinds of inter-governmental fiscal transfer. In the United
States, the Transportation Infrastructure Finance and Innovation Act TIFIA
provides state governments with incentives to do transport PPPs by offering
concessional finance for the projects. This comes in the form of direct loans,
loan guarantees, and standby lines of credit.58 In Canada, PPP funding of
provincial and municipal PPPs comes with requirements as to how projects
are structured and managed.
However, such incentives are not always seen as efficient. In Britain, national
government departments were previously given an allocation of PFI credits
in their budgets. These could be paid to local authorities as grants to support
local PPP projects, and they were useful in standardizing contracts and
creating more consistent and higher quality provisions for risk allocation. For
example, the Department of Transportation could use credits to support local
government transportation projects, while the Department of Environment and
Climate Change would support local government waste management
projects. However, PFI credits were criticized as they gave additional
56
State is used as a generic term that includes provinces (for example, in Canada or China) or any
other second tier of government within a federal system.
57
The Department of Infrastructure and Regional Development (2013) Local Government infrastructure.
[Online] Available at: http://www.regional.gov.au/local/publications/reports/2002_2003/C4.aspx
58
U.S. Department of Transportation Federal Highway Administration (n.d.) TIFIA. [Online] Available at:
http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/tifia/
36

spending power to central departments wishing to deliver PFI projects through
local authorities. In 2010 they were abolished, with the aim of making central
government funding neutral between PFI and non-PFI forms of project
delivery at the local level.59
Investors in many countries consider local governments to be less reliable
counterparts than national governments, either because of lower credit ratings
or limited availability of resources. This can create a role for national
governments to provide financial or technical support to local governments.
As a national government provides support to local governments, it may feel
the need to control what local governments do.
Further examples of how national government can influence sub-national
PPPs are outlined in box 2.5.
BOX 2.5: The Role of Sub-National PPPs

Australia: Most large-scale development infrastructure in Australia is a
state responsibility. The states of New South Wales and Victoria led the
PPP agenda, developing state-based PPP frameworks in the early 2000s.
These approaches were instrumental in the development of a national
PPP policy framework. The national policy was prepared and endorsed by
all state, territory, and commonwealth governments as an agreed
framework for the delivery of all PPP projects. It recognized that a
consistent national approach to PPP delivery across all governments was
beneficial to all.60
Canada: Most infrastructure development is the responsibility of the
provincial governments, therefore PPP frameworks are developed at the
provincial level, without federal oversight. The federal government can
however influence the delivery of provincial PPP programs by financing
local and municipal PPP projects through the P3 Canada Fund.61
India: Indias Union Government, through the PPP cell in the Department
of Economic Affairs, leads the development of the PPP framework. The
PPP cell is responsible for all PPP matters, including policy, schemes,
programs, and capacity building. Apart from the Union Government, state
governments also have the right to enact their own PPP legislation under
the constitution. Several states including Andhra Pradesh , Gujarat, and
59
HM Treasury (2012) A New Approach to Public-Private Partnerships. Crown.
60
Infrastructure Australia (2008) National Public Private Partnership Guidelines Overview.
Commonwealth of Australia.
61
PPP Canada (n.d.). The P3 Canada Fund: How to Apply. [Online] Available at
http://www.p3canada.ca/en/apply-for-funding/
37

Karnataka have created their own PPP frameworks and have successfully
developed their PPP projects.
US: The national government is responsible for very little infrastructure.
Even the national highway system (the Interstate) is actually owned and
operated by the states. Most of the funding comes from the federal
gasoline tax, which is allocated to the states using a formula. For this
reason, PPP frameworks are created by state governments. There is no
federal level PPP framework in the US.62.
1.6 Defining the PPP Process

The framework should provide guidance on each stage of developing and
implementing a PPP project from initially identifying candidate projects, to
managing PPP contracts throughout the project lifecycle.
Governments need to ensure that only good PPP projects are developed.
These are PPPs that, amongst other things, are cost-benefit justified, provide
better Value for Money than traditional public procurement, financially viable
and fiscally responsible, and will attract market interest. Whether a project
meets all these criteria cannot be fully assessed until the PPP is fully
designed and structured. This creates a paradoxical situation the government
does not want to incur the considerable costs of designing and appraising a
project unless it knows the project meets the criteria. However it cannot tell if
it meets the criteria until the project has been designed and appraised.
Successful PPP programs tackle this problem through progressively more
rigorous screening at successive stages of project development. Once a
project has been identified as potentially worthwhile, it is screened using
simple indicators to see if it is likely to be a good PPP project. If it passes this
first screen, it may be further developed or appraised through additional
stages before being submitted to decision-makers for approval to take to
tender.
This section introduces the key decision criteria, procedures, and institutional
responsibilities that should be considered across the PPP process. This
section focuses simply on the features of the process that need to be
considered when putting together a PPP framework. Details on the specific
tasks at each step are provided in the remaining chapters of this PPP Guide
and an overview of the process has been provided in chapter 1.
It is important to note that these are simply guidelines. There are many
subtleties in the PPP process and what works well in one culture or public
62
The Department of Defence runs a large PPP Program for services on buses.
38

administrative system may not work as well in others. Therefore, the local
circumstances and how the public sector works be understood before
adopting practices from elsewhere. See table 2.4
TABLE 2.3: Summary of Decision Criteria, Procedures and Institutional

Responsibilities across the PPP Process
39

Key Decision Criteria Procedures
Identify Does the project fit in with Prepare pre-feasibility or initial
projects and a broader plan for the scoping study.
screening sector? Seek confirmation that the project
Is the project economically contributes to a broader sector
feasible and fiscally plan.
responsible? Seek confirmation that the project
Does the project meet PPP is economically feasible and
program objectives? fiscally responsible.
Submit project documentation for
approval.
Appraise the
Is the project Prepare a comprehensive
project
economically, appraisal which provides
technically, evidence of the projects
environmentally, and economic, commercial,
legally feasible? technical, environmental, and
legal feasibility, as well as its
Is the project affordable?
affordability.
Is the project suitable as
Conduct a Value for Money
a PPP? (Commercially
assessment of the suitability of
feasible and bankable,
the project as a PPP.
and likely to deliver
Value for Money as a Prepare procurement strategy.
PPP?)
Submit project documentation
Is there an appropriate for approval by relevant
procurement strategy? agencies.
Structure the
Does tender Prepare tender
procurement
process and documentation reflect the documentation, including
project procurement strategy? qualification criteria, evaluation
criteria, and proposal
contract Have risks been
requirements.
identified and allocated
to the most appropriate Prepare risk matrix and
party? allocate risks.
Are management plans Develop risk management
in place for risks plans.
allocated to the
Draft contracts.
government?
Seek approval for contracts.
Have contracts been
drafted to reflect the risk Refine and finalize
matrix? procurement strategy.
Obtain approvals.
40

TABLE 2.3: Summary of Decision Criteria, Procedures and Institutional
Responsibilities across the PPP Process
Key Decision Criteria Procedures

Tender and
Has the procurement Market the PPP.
award
process been
Undertake
competitive?
qualification/prequalification.
o Have qualified private
Qualify (and, if necessary,
partners been informed
shortlist) qualified firms.
about the PPP?
o Have qualified private Issue Request for Proposals
partners been given (RFP) and receive bids.
ample opportunity to Evaluate bids.
express their interest and
develop proposals? Select the proposal that offers
the greatest Value for Money.
Has the selection criteria
ensured a Value for Sign the contract and reach
Money private partner is financial close.
selected?
Manage the
Are there issues with Manage the contract, including
contract
construction, project delivery that need the delivery of the service
service attention? against the agreed
delivery and Should the contract be performance metrics/key
hand back performance indicators (KPIs).
terminated or altered?
Communicate issues to central
agencies if risk status
escalates.
Neither this chapter nor the remainder of the PPP Guide discuss in detail
general project governance frameworks or project management techniques.
Instead this PPP Guide simply draws attention to this where they are relevant.
For example, stakeholder identification and management is paramount, as for
any government project. Specific reminders of this are included in this
chapter as a part of the overall process framework (such as in box 2.10).
Similarly, chapter 3 includes both a description of matters to be considered
when planning the management of the PPP process for a project (see chapter
3.11), and stakeholder management and communication matters (chapter
3.12).
41

1.6.1 Identification of Projects and Screening
The process starts with project origination, typically following the same or
using a similar process as for originating public sector investment projects,
while screening projects for their potential suitability as PPPs. Screening at
this stage is usually indicative, limited to the information available at relatively
low cost.
Decision criteria
The framework should ensure that only projects that meet the following
criteria proceed:-
The project fits in with a broader plan for the sector. Sector plans will
consider the needs of the sector and identify the best approaches to
address problems. The projects that are most likely to demonstrate
Value for Money are those that align with this sector plan;
The project meets PPP program objectives. PPP program objectives

should clearly specify the types of projects that should be considered
for development. This allows projects unsuitable to be developed as a
PPP to be easily screened out; and
The project is economically viable and fiscally responsible. Projects

should not proceed unless they are economically sound. PPPs should
not be used unless either the revenues from the project are sufficient to
cover its costs, or the government has adequate resources to pay for
or subsidize the service. The government must also have the ability to
absorb any direct or contingent liabilities. Those projects that may
impose costs or incur liabilities that are beyond the financial capability
of the government should be avoided.
Procedures and institutional responsibility

The PPP framework will need to identify the following:-
Who proposes PPP projects? Can only government entities with

investment programs submit a proposal? Or can private proponents
also put forward proposals for PPP projects? The advantages and
disadvantages of acting on PPP ideas proposed by private firms are
discussed further in section 1.6.6;
42

Who approves further development of PPP projects? Successful
PPP projects typically require the support of the line agency,63 that is,
the department initiating the project, the finance ministry and other
central authorities; and
What project documentation is needed for approval? The

framework will need to indicate the level of documentation required for
relevant stakeholders to be able to approve the projects procedure.
Refer to chapters 3 and 4 for details on approvals regarding the preparatory

stages of the PPP process.
1.6.2 Appraise the Project

Candidate projects that survive the screening are then developed and
appraised. Again, this is an iterative, or multi-stage, process. The appraisal
report, often called a Business Case, is typically the basis for approval to
proceed with the PPP transaction.
In describing the framework in this Body of Knowledge, project and
procurement decisions are considered as part of the same process. A two-
stage process, however, is not always practical, as outlined in BOX 2.6.
BOX 2.6: Investment Decision versus a PPP Decision

It is desirable for governments to separate the investment decision from the
procurement decision.
Investment decision: Is it a good project? Is the government willing and

able to provide the required funding?
Procurement decision: What is the best way of buying the project?

Does the PPP procurement offer better Value for Money than the best
practicable public sector delivery model?
This two-stage process has a number of benefits, including:
All potential projects (regardless of procurement method) compete for

the same finite funds, thus ensuring that projects are appropriately
prioritized in terms of strategic importance.
63
Line agencies are responsible for policy development, planning, and the delivery of specific
services. This is in contrast to central agencies which have whole-of-government policy
responsibilities.
43

The choice of procurement method is not prejudiced by the perceived
budget impact, that is, the government dispels the common
misconception that PPPs are an alternative to government borrowing.
If Value for Money is not achieved through a PPP tender process, the
investment can go ahead under a different procurement methodology.
However, in reality many governments do not develop comprehensive
strategic planning processes in each sector, nor do they undertake systematic
cost benefit and technical analysis of all projects. Therefore, a jurisdiction that
does not routinely do such analysis can do one of two things.
Establish requirements for the systematic appraisal of all projects:

While this is ideal, it requires wide-scale government support. Therefore
it may not be achievable without a mandate or within a short period of
time.
Under the mandate of the PPP framework, establish a requirement

for the appraisal of PPP projects: In this way, all PPP projects would
have to be appraised to determine whether or not they are good projects
(before being implemented as PPPs). A disadvantage of this approach is
that PPP projects are made subject to stricter scrutiny than non-PPP
projects. The main advantage of this approach is that it ensures that only
worthwhile projects are implemented under the PPP program. However,
it does not subject the PPP program to the kind of complexity and delays
likely in trying to introduce proper project appraisals for all public sector
projects. A further advantage is that project appraisal techniques that are
shown to work for PPP projects could later be extended to other, non-
PPP, projects.
Decision criteria
At this stage, the framework should ensure that only those projects which are
good projects and suitable for PPPs proceed to development. Good projects
can be defined as follows.
Economically, technically, environmentally and legally feasible:

This feasibility assessment is not unique to PPPs. All government
projects, regardless of the procurement method, should demonstrate
that they are good projects. Specialist skills are required to undertake
such an appraisal, so when such skills are not available in-house,
advisors should be appointed;
Affordable: Affordability needs to be assessed from both the

government and user perspectives. The government should only
proceed when government liabilities, both direct and contingent, are
within budgetary constraints. In addition, the services provided by the
PPP need to be affordable to the users. False expectations of user
willingness to pay may lead to underutilized infrastructure and financial
trouble for the project;
44

Projects that are suitable for PPPs are those that can demonstrate the
following.
Commercial viability (and bankability): PPPs require the

participation of the private sector. If the project can not provide financial
returns for the level of risk incurred by the private sector, then it will not
be commercially viable. This means the project must be able to
generate returns to the investor and enable investors to raise debt from
lenders, while also meeting the requirement of affordability to the public
sector;
Value for Money: PPPs are just one form of procurement. A PPP is
considered Value for Money if the project is expected to deliver higher
net economic benefits if done as a PPP.
There are many ways of assessing Value for Money. The traditional
approach developed in the UK and used in many Australian
jurisdictions as well is to determine whether a PPP will have a lower
(risk-adjusted) cost to the government than a conventional
procurement. The assumption in this approach is that the private
company can be incentivized to manage risks better than the public
sector, thereby improving overall economic outcomes.
Another approach is to see which delivery option will maximize benefits
for a given budget. In New Zealand, the test is which approach is likely
to deliver greater net economic benefits.
Value for Money is usually assessed in a qualitative way during an
initial screening stage under what are sometimes called PPP suitability
tests (see chapter 3.10), and it is then quantified if the project moves
on to a full appraisal.
It is important to recognize the limitations of quantitative Value for
Money analyses. They are necessarily based on assumptions and
forecasts, so they will only indicate whether the chosen procurement
method will deliver higher net economic benefits. Because of this, in
Canada the outcomes of quantitative Value for Money analysis are
treated as an estimate only and in some cases are used amongst other
qualitative indicators to select a procurement option;
The ability to be ring-fenced: The project needs to be sufficiently

separated from other government systems to ensure that accountability
can be provided and interface risks64 are limited.;
64
The relationship with other contracts or activities of the government, or dependencies of the
government, on the successful performance of the PPP contract.
45

Definable outputs: Clear, specific, and measurable outputs are
essential in a PPP, so that the contract can be monitored and enforced.
Designing the contract around outputs also has the benefit of giving the
private party the freedom to design more efficient and innovative ways
of delivering a service. This compares to more traditional contracts in
which designs and inputs are specified; and
Sufficient information to be able to assess costs and risks: For the

potential bidders to be willing to dedicate resources to developing a
bid, they need to be able to calculate what the potential liability of the
PPP might be. This is only possible if the risks of the project can be
identified and then allocated to either party.
An appropriate procurement strategy should also be developed during this
phase. A sound procurement strategy is needed to attract suitable private
partners, and to make them compete to offer the government the best deal.
The procurement strategy should engage potential bidders early in the
process. In this way, the government can ensure the opportunity is one that
suitable private firms will bid on. It will also allow their ideas to be
incorporated in the contract design.

The framework should create a principled, predictable way of selecting PPP
projects. To do this, the PPP framework will need to specify the following:-
The required content of the PPP appraisal: This includes the studies
that need to be done (for example, demand forecasts) and the
questions that need to be answered to determine if a project is
economically, financially, technically, environmentally, and legally
feasible (the PPP appraisal is also called a business case or feasibility
study); and
Who approves the PPP appraisal: As outlined in the previous section,

any PPP project will require the support of numerous stakeholders to
be successful. The PPP framework will need to identify the approval
process needed for proceeding to the next phase. Many jurisdictions
require a decision by the cabinet in favor of proceeding. Others
delegate the decision to a government agency, perhaps with the assent
of one or more central agencies or a PPP unit.
An example of PPP appraisal criteria is presented in BOX 2.7. Refer to
chapter 4 for details as to how to undertake the project appraisal stage.
46

BOX 2.7: PPP Appraisal Criteria in Indonesia
The Indonesia Infrastructure Guarantee Fund (IIGF) assesses PPPs using
the following appraisal criteria.
The project is viable, that is, it is technically, economically, and financially
viable as well as environmentally and socially desirable.
Project risks are identified, allocated properly with effective mitigation
plans.
The procurement process is sound as shown in the procurement plan.
The procuring authority has the capacity to manage the contract and
risks.
IIGF approval, based on these criteria, is required for projects that need
government guarantee in any way.
Source: Indonesia Infrastructure Guarantee Fund (2012) Infrastructure Guarantee Provision
Guidelines.
1.6.3 Structure the Procurement Process and the Project Contract

Before the PPP transaction can be implemented, the tender documents and
the draft PPP contract need to be prepared. To prepare the tender
documents, the evaluation criteria and proposal requirements must be
developed. To prepare a contract, the outputs, responsibilities, and risk
allocation need to be fully defined and expressed in appropriate legal
language.
Decision criteria
The procurement process, the tender documents, and the contract need to
achieve government objectives while minimizing expected costs. In addition,
the contract must be one that the government is capable of managing. The
contract must be attractive to potential private partners, and stakeholders
must be convinced it is in the public interest. PPP frameworks should
therefore be designed to ensure that the following:-
All significant risks can be identified and allocated to the most

appropriate party the success of a PPP lies in how well risks have
been allocated. If risks are not allocated appropriately, the project will
cost more than necessary; and
Appropriate risk management plans can be developed. For those

risks allocated to the public sector, appropriate plans need to be in
place that both minimize the likelihood of the risk occurring and the
impact in case the risk does occur.
47

To ensure that developing the tender documents and contracts is as efficient
as possible, the framework needs to indicate the following.
Approaches to risk allocation, risk management plans and draft

contracts. Some governments have standardized rules about risk
allocation, others look at each project on a case-by-case basis.
Drafting contracts requires the expertise of experienced PPP lawyers.
Agencies without this experience in-house will need to secure it by
using outside counsel;
For example, when the Canadian British Columbia PPP market was in
its infancy, it brought in lawyers and technical advisors from Australia
and UK, jurisdictions with established PPP framework. . They not only
helped to develop the PPP contracts, but also built the capacity of the
Canadian public sector and private sector advisors who have since
become in-country PPP experts.
Guidelines for procurement: The PPP framework should clearly

indicate to line agencies and the private sector what the standard PPP
procurement process will be. This will signal to prospective partners
how they can be involved. Clear procurement guidelines will also
reduce the likelihood of disputes about the award decision. Model and
Standard contracts can ensure consistency in the design of PPP
contracts, while sending clear messages to the market. However, they
also have disadvantages since they may make it harder to tailor
contracts to the needs and objectives of each case (see BOX 2.8).
BOX 2.8: Model and/or Precedent Contracts

A model contract is one that embodies good practice and is available for
agencies to use. In contrast, a standard contract is one that public agencies
are required to use (or at least required to document and justify any deviations
from it). Also, standard contracts may not be a full set of all provisions in the
contract, but rather a set of recommendations (including alternative
approaches for some issues) in the form of guidelines.
Done well, model or standard contracts have a number of advantages as
listed below.
Reducing risk to the government because the chance of the contract
48

being wrong (for example, poorly drafted or with an inappropriate risk
allocation) is reduced;
Saving time and money for the bidders by reducing the time required to
understand each project contract;
Enabling the project team to focus their work on developing and
tailoring existing processes and legal documentation, rather than
drafting contracts from scratch; and
Reducing the time required for case-by-case negotiations as both
parties have an expectation of what is acceptable.
Standard contracts in particular have risks. It is hard to write one contract that
will apply to a wide range of different deals. Therefore, requirements to use
standard contracts can actually reduce the quality of contracts below what
they would be if specially developed by experienced advisors for each case.
Each jurisdiction will have to strike the right balance between standardization
and customization. If most of the projects will be fairly similar (for example, all
government-pays contracts for social infrastructure) then a single standard
contract may make sense. If there are various categories of projects
envisaged, standard contracts for each category may be warranted.
If a wide range of heterogeneous deals are expected, it may be that one or
two model contracts, coupled with some standard for contract drafting, would
be best. Standards for contract drafting could include preferred risks
allocations, a list of topics that should be addressed in all contracts, and
sample provisions for some topics that are likely to be similar across multiple
contract types (such as extraordinary adjustments, force majeure, dispute
resolution, and termination provisions).
Some international institutions such as the World Bank or United Nations (the
United Nations Economic Commission for Europe UNECE) are also working
to provide precedents for materials and recommendations (for example, see
PPP Infrastructure Resource Center http://ppp.worldbank.org/public-private-
partnership) or standard provisions (such as the PPP standards under
development by the UNECE65).
How to gain approval for tender: As with the previous two phases, the
PPP framework will need to identify the approval process for
proceeding to the next phase.
65 According to the UNECE, PPP models and procedures can contribute to achieving the Sustainable
Development Goals across a wide spectrum of different sectors like water and sanitation, health and
renewable energy. With this aim, the UNECE, through its International PPP Center of Excellence, is
developing a number of international PPP sets of standards (http://www.unece.org/ceci/ppp.html). To
learn more about the SDGs, see http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/mdgoverview/post-2015-
development-agenda.html.
49

Refer to chapter 5 for key elements of PPP contract structuring and
procurement.
1.6.4 Tender and Award

A well designed and implemented procurement is central to achieving Value
for Money from the PPP. Procurement processes can include marketing the
PPP, checking the qualifications of bidders, inviting and evaluating proposals,
interacting with bidders during the process, selecting the preferred bidder, and
concluding the contract. Stakeholder engagement is essential to this and all
other stages, as outlined in box 2.9.
BOX 2.9: Engagement and Communication with Stakeholders

Without giving due consideration to stakeholders and their ability to influence
the project, the viability of a PPP project may be compromised.
If the contract is designed in a way that is not acceptable to the private
sector and its lenders, the private sector may not participate in the
procurement process;
In absence of limited and continued public support, a project may be
cancelled by the next elected government. For example, in 2015 a
proposed toll road in Melbourne, Australia was cancelled when a new
state government was elected, costing the government $250 million in
fees for planning, preliminary works and other fees;66 and
If there are public demonstrations, labor union action, or public boycotts,
projects may suffer from delayed implementation or reduced profitability.
In order to reduce the likelihood of such risks occurring, the PPP framework
can include a policy on stakeholder engagement. This should address the
following concepts and principles.
Stakeholder Identification and Analysis: How to determine who PPP
project stakeholders are, and their key groupings and sub-groupings;
Information Disclosure: How information should be made accessible to
interested and affected parties in a manner that is understandable;
Stakeholder Consultation: How a two-way process of dialogue between
the project and its stakeholders should be undertaken in order to initiate
66 East West Link: Taxpayers hit with $339 million bill as Government strikes deal to scrap East West
Link (15 April, 2015). ABC News. Accessed online July 2015 at http://www.abc.net.au/news/2015-04-
15/victorian-government-to-pay-339-million-east-west-link-contracts/6393536
50

and sustain constructive external relationships over time;
Negotiation and Partnerships: How the government will reach
agreement on a specific issue or set of issues;
Grievance Management: How to respond when grievances surface. For
projects with environmental and social impacts, grievances will not be
avoidable, but how they are managed can have significant implications on
the projects performance;
Stakeholder Involvement in Project Monitoring: How and when to
engage project affected stakeholders in monitoring the implementation of
mitigation measures or other environmental and social programs;
Reporting to Stakeholders: How to report on the stakeholder
suggestions that have been taken on board, what risk or impact mitigation
measures will be put in place to address their concerns, and how project
impacts are being monitored; and
Management Functions: How stakeholder engagement can become
systematic and integrated into the PPP process, including how to identify
critical points in the life of the PPP process where stakeholder
engagement will be needed and who will deliver these actions.
Source: International Finance Corporation (2007) Stakeholder Engagement: A Good

Practice Handbook for Companies Doing Business in Emerging Markets.
At the end of the transaction, after bids are received and the contract agreed,
the government will finally know the cost of the PPP project and other terms.
At this point it may be checked once more to ensure it still meets the PPP
criteria. Cancelling a project, however, at the end of procurement is
undesirable and can damage the market reputation of the jurisdiction. There
are significant costs involved in preparing a bid, so unless the market has
confidence that the project will proceed, the private sector will be unlikely to
participate. To make sure that projects are not cancelled at the end of the
procurement process, the PPP framework should set out the circumstances
under which a project will not proceed. For example, in some jurisdictions
(such as Canadas British Columbia), affordability ceilings are revealed to
ensure the market knows the maximum that the public sector is willing to pay.
Decision criteria
To test if the procurement was appropriate, the following criteria are helpful.
Was the procurement competitive? For example, have most qualified

private partners heard about the opportunity? The competition will only
be as good as those competing. Have qualified private partners been
given ample opportunity to express their interest and develop
51

proposals? If timelines are too short, or processes too onerous, private
partners will avoid becoming involved; and
Has the process been transparent and conducted with integrity and
fairness? The way that the award process is administered should be
clearly communicated and responsibilities clearly allocated. The criteria
for award should be transparent, with a well-defined objective,
qualification criteria, technical specifications, and bidding requirements.
The tender process should ensure that all bidders are treated fairly.

The framework should highlight the following procedures and institutional
responsibilities.
PPP marketing, evaluation of qualifications (and, if there is short

listing of qualified consortia, the short-listing process), and applying
the evaluation criteria to select the proposal that offers the best
Value for Money. The framework should not be overly prescriptive with
these tasks. Rather, it should provide guidance on how to ensure the
process is smoothly delivered and that common pitfalls are avoided.
The framework states who evaluates, who makes the selection
decision, and who approves the contract;
Reaching commercial close. The framework should give guidance as

to the extent of negotiations that will occur to reach commercial close.
For example, in British Columbia and most Canadian jurisdictions, the
final proposal submitted by the competing teams is based on a final
version of the project agreement. Beyond this point, no changes to the
key commercial terms of the agreement are permitted; and
Reaching financial close. After the contract has been agreed, the
financiers (in particular debt providers) need to agree to provide the
funding. Often the financiers of the project company want to change
some of the conditions that were agreed at commercial close. The
framework should address this risk, containing processes to reduce
delays and contractual changes in getting to financial close. It should
also make it clear who is responsible (on the government side) for this
process, and what approvals are needed if it seems necessary to
agree to changes to the contract in order to reach financial close.
Refer to chapter 6 for details on how to tender and award a PPP contract.
52

1.6.5 Manage the Contract Construction Phase, Service Delivery and
Hand-Back
Finally, having executed the contract, the PPP enters the final and longest
stage managing the contract throughout its operational phase. The
challenge is to ensure the PPP provides Value for Money throughout the
contract, not just at the Construction Phase. This typically requires ongoing
management of the PPP.
Decision criteria
The PPP framework should ensure that the project is managed in such a way
that if there are any issues with the project, they are communicated by the
concessionaire to the implementing agency, and, if required, to relevant
central government agencies. A strong operations team and governance
mechanisms for reviewing performance and escalating issues (such as
contract management frameworks, monitoring requirements, and risk
management processes) will better equip the government to manage the PPP
and make hard decisions, such as contract renegotiation or termination if
needed. Governance mechanisms can also help the government agency to
be a good working partner which private parties can have confidence.
A robust PPP framework and process should help to ensure that PPP contract
agreements are designed to withstand unexpected events after contract
execution, without a need for contract renegotiation. Sometimes, however,
renegotiation rather than termination or abandonment may be preferable to
preserve some of the benefits of the PPP. In these cases, the renegotiation
process needs to be carefully managed by the government, with proper
resources and a proper governance structure. The objective of renegotiation
should be to secure an outcome that meets the objectives of the public sector
better than would adherence to the original contract terms.
Contracts are sometimes renegotiated in order to prevent operators walking
away. When a project is underway, it may become clear that the original
terms and risk allocation are not always fully appropriate. When risk allocation
can be adjusted while still achieving a net benefit when compared to the
alternative of cancellation, renegotiation should be considered. Advisors may
need to be re-engaged at this stage (an example of such a renegotiation is in
Victoria, Australia, described in box 2.10).
BOX 2.10: Renegotiation of a Public Transport PPP in Victoria,

Australia
In 1999, the state government of Victoria awarded five franchises for the
operation of trams and commuter rail in Melbourne, and regional trains in the
state of Victoria. These were user-pays operation and maintenance
53

contracts coupled with an infrastructure lease and viability gap subsidy
payments. The financial viability of the bids relied on significant growth in
patronage and reduction in costs.
However, the growth and cost reductions were not fully realized. As a result,
the operators started to lose money. The emerging problems were evident
from regular reports filed with the government. The government did not take
action on receiving the reports. It was only when the operators threatened to
walk away that the government responded to the problem.
The total equity invested by the contractor was low relative to the expected
losses, so the operators preferred to abandon the franchises, rather than
endure the losses involved in trying to improve them. The government was
faced with the possibility of having to take operations back into the public
sector, which it did not want to do.
The government decided to renegotiate the contracts with the existing
operators to enable them to continue to operate in the same way. The
government originally expected total savings of A$1.8 billion (US $ 1.2 billion
equivalent) over the life of the contract. While renegotiating the contract
would increase the cost of the project, the overall net public benefit of the
project was still positive.
Source: Ehrhardt and Irwin (2004) Avoiding Customer and Taxpayer Bailouts in Private Infrastructure
Projects: Policy towards Leverage, Risk Allocation, and Bankruptcy World Bank Policy
Research Working Paper 3274, April 2004.
Procedures and Institutional Responsibility

PPP contracts are typically managed by the relevant line agency. Central
agencies will also need to be informed of emerging issues and risks. The PPP
framework should set out how the line agency and relevant central agencies
should communicate.
The framework will also need to specify how contracts should be completed or
terminated. Refer to chapters 7 and 8 for details on managing the contract.
1.6.6 Privately-Initiated Projects

As an alternative approach to originating and developing PPP project ideas,
some governments accept unsolicited or privately-initiated PPP projects.
By welcoming privately-initiated projects, governments can harness
information and ideas that private firms have about how to provide services
people need. At the same time, allowing firms to promote their own project
ideas is tricky. If the idea is then put out to competitive tender, firms may feel
there is no point in volunteering good ideas since they cannot benefit from
doing so. On the other hand, not putting the idea out to competitive tender
could allow a firm to charge more than the cost for a service, leading to
allegations of favoritism. The challenge for a PPP framework is to steer a
middle course so that private firms are encouraged to offer good ideas and
54

still retain their intellectual property, while also including some competitive
element to keep costs down and ensure a sense of fair play.
The PPP framework needs to strike the right balance between several factors:
providing incentives to private proponents to submit high-quality project ideas,
deterring poor quality proposals, ensuring competitive tension, and
demonstrating transparency.
Benefits and Pitfalls of Privately-Initiated projects
Accepting privately-initiated projects allows governments to benefit from the
knowledge and ideas of the private sector. This can be a significant
advantage where limited government capacity means the private sector is
better able to identify infrastructure bottlenecks and innovative solutions. It
also provides the government with information about where commercial
opportunities and market interest lie. Box 2.11 provides an example of a PPP
project originated by a private company that provided an innovative solution to
a transport infrastructure problem that the public sector had been struggling to
solve.
BOX 2.11: Benefits of innovation High Occupancy Toll Lanes in

Virginia
A portion of the I-495 highway (the beltway around the Washington, DC
metro area) and the major I-95 North-South corridor needed repair and
expansion to alleviate congestion since the early 1990s. The state of Virginia
Department of Transportation (VDOT) had developed a plan to rehabilitate
and expand the highway at a cost of $3 billion. However, lack of funding and
public opposition over the proposed displacement of over 300 businesses and
homes had stalled the project.
In 2002, Fluor, an engineering and construction company, submitted an
unsolicited proposal to develop High Occupancy Toll (HOT) lanes on
Interstate 495 as an alternative way to accommodate traffic volume. HOT
lanes are an innovative technology that allows drivers to pay to avoid traffic.
The tolled lanes run alongside freeway lanes, and are designed to be free of
congestion. To regulate demand for the lanes, tolls for the HOT lanes change
depending on traffic conditions; when traffic increases, tolls go up. Cars with
more than 3 passengers, and buses, are allowed to use the HOT lanes free of
charge. The Fluor proposal reduced the number of businesses and homes
displaced from 300 to 6, a major factor in garnering public support for the
project. The proposal also minimized project costs by reducing lane widths.
In 2005, VDOT awarded the PPP agreement to construct the HOT lanes. The
total cost of the project was around $2 billion, compared to the estimated $3
billion under initial plans developed by the government. The state of Virginia
contributed $400 million of this cost. The HOT lanes project reached financial
close in 2007, and new lanes opened for business in 2012.
55

Source: Virginia HOT Lanes website (http://www.virginiahotlanes.com); Gary Groat (2004) Loosening
the Belt Roads and Bridges Vol. 42 No. 4 April 2004; Virginia Department of Transportation
(2008) Virginia HOT Lanes Fact Sheet Commonwealth of Virginia; The Public Private
Partnerships Reference Guide V 2.0 (World Bank 2014).
At the same time, the government has to devote administrative resources to

assessing and procuring unsolicited proposals. There is always a question of
whether government resources would have been better allocated to projects
that are known to be in line with government plans and priorities.
In addition, negotiating with a project proponent on the basis of an unsolicited
proposal in the absence of a transparent or competitive procurement
process can create problems. It could result in poor Value for Money from
the PPP project, given a lack of competitive tension. It could also provide
opportunities for corruption and give rise to complaints about the fairness of
the process, especially if a company is seen to benefit from a PPP without
opening the opportunity to competitors. For these reasons, some countries
prohibit the use of unsolicited proposals for PPPs.
Box 2.12 provides an example of a power project in Tanzania that was directly
negotiated following an unsolicited approach by the private investor.
Subsequent disputes led to an arbitration in which the contractor was found to
have charged more than was reasonable.
BOX 2.12: Costs of Direct Negotiation Independent Power Tanzania

The government of Tanzania and the Tanzania Electricity Supply Company
entered into contractual agreements with Independent Power Tanzania
Limited (IPTL) of Malaysia for the supply of 100 megawatts of power over a
20 year period. This transaction was directly negotiated following an
approach by the private investors during a power crisis.
After the contract was signed, objections were raised that the project was
not least cost and that it was not procured on a transparent and competitive
basis. Before the plant started operations, the government submitted the
project to international arbitration. The arbitrators found that the private
company had inflated the costs of the project, and they ordered the amount
that could be recovered to be reduced by about 18 percent. In the
arbitration hearings the government alleged that the contract award had
been corrupt, but failed to produce evidence to satisfy the Tribunal. The
government has not subsequently pursued the corruption investigation.
However, legal disputes between the IPTL and the government continued
to the date of writing (2015).
Source: World Bank/Energy, Transport and Water Department, and Finance, Economics and Urban
Department (2009) Deterring Corruption and Improving Governance in the Electricity Sector
World Bank; Eberhard and Gratwick IPPs in Sub-Saharan Africa: Determinants of Success
World Bank.
56

Creating competitive tension
Although some jurisdictions simply discourage privately initiated projects,
many have developed mechanisms to take advantage of market initiatives,
while also introducing competitive tension. There is no international
consensus on the best way to subject unsolicited proposals to competition,
but the following approaches can be applied.67
Swiss challenge following an unsolicited approach, an open bidding

process is conducted. If the proponent does not win, it has the option to
match the winning bid and win the contract. This approach is used in
the Philippines and several states in India;68
Inclusion in best and final offer round a two-stage bid process in

which the highest ranked bidders from the first stage (such as an
expression of interest) are invited to submit final proposals in a second
stage. The proponent of the market-initiated project is automatically
included in the second stage. This approach (as well as the
developers fee approach, below) is used in the South Africa roads
sector;69
Developers fee the firm that made the original offer is paid a fee by
the government or the winning bidder. The fee can simply reimburse
some project development costs, or be set to provide a return on
developing the project concept and proposal. This is one option for
dealing with unsolicited proposals permitted in Indonesia under the
presidential regulations governing PPPs;70 and
Bid bonus the proponent receives a scoring advantage typically

defined as an additional percentage added to its evaluation score in an
open bidding process. This approach is used in Chile where the bid
bonus can be between 3 and 9 percent of the financial evaluation score
(in addition, the proponent is reimbursed for the cost of detailed
studies).71
67
As set out in Hodges and Dellacha (2007) Unsolicited Infrastructure Proposals: How Some Countries
Introduce Competition and Transparency.
68
As described further in Reddy & Kalyanapu (undated) Unsolicited Proposal-New Path to Public-
Private Partnership: Indian Perspective.
69
South Africa National Roads Authority (1999) Policy of the South African National Roads Agency in
Respect of Unsolicited Proposals.
70
Government of Indonesia (2005) Presidential Regulation No. 67 concerning Government Cooperation
with Business Entities in the Supply of Infrastructure, as amended by Government of Indonesia (2011)
Presidential Regulation No. 56.
71
Government of Chile (2010) Regulation No. 956 of Public Works Concessions (Reglamento de
Concesiones de Obras Publicas).
57

Table 2.5 provides further examples and references. These alternatives have
not all proved equally effective at enabling competition.72 In Chile, for
example, of 12 concessions awarded from unsolicited proposals as of March
2006, 10 attracted competing bids and only 5 were awarded to the original
proponent. On the other hand, in the Philippines under the Swiss Challenge
approach, all 11 PPP contracts awarded from unsolicited proposals by 2006
went to the original proponent.
72
Hodges & Dellacha (2007) reviewed several countries experience with unsolicited proposals in
Appendix B of Unsolicited Infrastructure Proposals: How Some Countries Introduce Competition and
Transparency.
58

TABLE 2.5: Examples of Procurement Strategies for Unsolicited Proposals
Jurisdiction Key Features

Chile Two-stage process for accepting unsolicited proposals initial proposals are screened; if
accepted, the private party must conduct detailed studies and prepare a detailed proposal. The
government then prepares bidding documents based on the detailed proposal and puts the
project out for competitive tender.
Costs of carrying out studies are reimbursed (paid by the winning bidder or the government if
project never proceeds to the bid stage). Costs agreed at the initial project approval stage.
The proponent receives a bid bonus of a pre-defined percentage (between 3 and 8 percent
depending on the project) added to a financial evaluation score.73
Indonesia Unsolicited proposals welcomed for projects not already on the priority list.
Accepted proposals are put through a normal competitive process. Proponents may either be
awarded a bid bonus, of up to 10 percent, or paid a developers fee for the proposal. The
approach is set by the procuring authority, based on an independent appraisal.74
73
Government of Chile (2010) Regulation No. 956 of Public Works Concessions (Reglamento de Concesiones de Obras Publicas), Title II: Bids Submitted by
Private Parties.
74
Government of Indonesia (2005) Presidential Regulation No. 67 concerning Government Cooperation with Business Entities in the Supply of Infrastructure, as
amended by Government of Indonesia (2011) Presidential Regulation No. 56, Chapter IV.

Italy Contracting authorities publish three year plans on an annual basis; private companies are
invited to make proposals for infrastructure listed in these plans (following clear content
requirements including detailed studies and timeline). Proposals are evaluated by the procuring
authority.
A type of Swiss Challenge process is used to procure the project. A first stage is used to
identify two competing bidders who, together with the proponent, enter into a negotiated
procurement procedure. If a competing proposal is preferred, the proponent is given the right to
match that proposal, in which case the proponent is awarded the concession.75
Republic of Korea Unsolicited proposals must be evaluated by the procuring authority and the PPP unit (the Private
Infrastructure Investment Management Centre, PIMAC).
The opportunity is published and alternate proposals are requested, due within a 90 day time
limit.
The proponent receives a bid bonus of up to 10 percent, added to the overall bid evaluation
scores. The proponent may modify its original proposal at the bidding stage, but its bonus is
reduced to a maximum of 5 percent. Bonuses are disclosed in the request for alternate
proposals.
Losing bidders are compensated in part for proposal costs to encourage competition.76
75
President of the Republic of Italy (2006) Legislative Decree 163: Code for Public Contracts for Works, Services and Supplies in the Implementation of Directives
2004/17/CE e 2004/18/CE, Articles 156-155.
76
Kim, Kim, Shin and Lee (2011) Public-Private Partnership Infrastructure Projects: Case Studies from the Republic of Korea, Volume 1: Institutional
Arrangements and Performance, pp. 67-69.

Philippines Unsolicited proposals are welcomed for projects not already on the priority list.
The procuring authority must advertise the opportunity for at least three weeks and invite
competing proposals within a 60 day time limit.
If competing proposals are received, a Swiss Challenge process is followed if the proponent is
not the winning bidder, it is given the opportunity to match the winning bid and win the contract.
If no competing proposal is received, the authority may negotiate with the proponent.77
South Africa (roads sector) Unsolicited proposals must comply with clear content requirements, and they are evaluated by
the agency.
If the proposal is accepted, the agency and the developer enter into a scheme development
agreement, under which the private party is responsible for detailed development of the PPP,
including developing tender documentation. The agreement includes a developers fee payable
by the winning bidder to the proponent.
The project is put out to competitive tender in a two-stage best and final offer process. The top
two bidders from the first round are invited to resubmit best and final offers; the proponent is also
invited, if not already in the top two contenders.78
State of Virginia, United Proposals are welcome that comply with the detailed requirements set out and are evaluated in
States (highways sector) the same way as government-originated projects.
Proposals for PPPs requiring no government oversight or support are advertised for 90 days (or
120 days for PPPs requiring government support). If no competing proposal is received, the
government may negotiate directly with the proponent.79
77
Philippines BOT Center (1993) The Philippine BOT Law (Republic Act No. 7718) and its Implementing Rules & Regulations, Rule 10.
78
South Africa National Roads Authority (1999) Policy of the South African National Roads Agency in Respect of Unsolicited Proposals.
79
The Commonwealth of Virginia (2005) Public-Private Transportation Act of 1995 (as Amended) Implementation Guidelines.
Dealing with intellectual property
To encourage market-initiated proposals, the government needs to commit to
protecting intellectual property. Without such protection, there is little incentive for
the private party to invest in any new or innovative ideas. There are various
approaches to dealing with intellectual property in an unsolicited proposal.80
Where possible, the government can competitively tender the project by

specifying required outputs, and not the required technology to deliver
those outputs. This approach is consistent with good practice in defining
output-based performance requirements for PPPs; and
In cases where the intellectual property is crucial to the project, such that it
could not be implemented otherwise, direct negotiation may be warranted,
along with procedures to benchmark project costs.
The government of New South Wales in Australia provides guidance for
practitioners on handling intellectual property,81 and it allows direct negotiation of
the PPP in certain circumstances. Proponents agree that they must identify any
intellectual property they wish to protect (subject to agreement with the
government). The project is then tendered based on output specifications without
revealing technology information if possible. If the intellectual property is crucial
to the existence of the service need, the government negotiates with the
proponent to obtain the rights to the necessary intellectual property before
procuring the project competitively. In contrast, in some civil law countries the
approach to intellectual property is codified in law, and so not subject to
negotiation.
Defining Clear Processes

Clear processes for handling unsolicited proposals are important for transparency
and achieving Value for Money. Clear processes not only assist the government
in managing such a proposal, but they can also help incentivize private
developers to invest resources in developing good quality project proposals, and
encourage potential competitors to engage in the bidding process. A well-defined
process to assess, approve, and bid on a project originating in an unsolicited
proposal is illustrated in figure 2.1.82 First, a private company submits an
80
As described in UNCITRAL (2001) Legislative Guide for Privately-Financed Infrastructure Projects section
on unsolicited proposals pp. 91-97.
81
New South Wales Treasury (undated) Intellectual Property Guidelines for Unsolicited Private Sector
Proposals Submitted Under Working with Government.
82
Hodges and Dellacha (2007) Unsolicited Infrastructure Proposals: How Some Countries Introduce
Competition and Transparency.
62

unsolicited proposal, following clear content and presentation requirements. This
proposal is screened, often following a similar approach to that described in
section 1.6.1. If the proposal passes the initial screening, the proponent is invited
to complete any necessary studies before the proposal is assessed against the
standard PPP criteria. If approved, any developers fee or bonus that will apply is
often agreed at this stage.
The responsible government agency then prepares the bid documents, based on
the final proposal, and conducts a tender process. Proponents may or may not
have an opportunity to respond to the bid documents and submit a final bid. For
example, in Korea the proponent may modify its original proposal and bid, but in
doing so forfeits some of its bid bonus.83
FIGURE 2.1: Process for Assessing, Approving and Bidding an Unsolicited

Proposal
Source: Based on Hodges and Dellacha (2007) Unsolicited Infrastructure Proposals: How Some Countries
Introduce Competition and Transparency.
It is worth considering specifying time periods within which each of these steps
will be taken.84 On the one hand, specific deadlines within which the government
83
As described in Kim, Kim, Shin and Lee (2011) Public-Private Partnership Infrastructure Projects: Case
Studies from the Republic of Korea, Volume 1: Institutional Arrangements and Performance.
84
Hodges and Dellacha (2007) describe the benefits and risks of doing so in Unsolicited Infrastructure
Proposals: How Some Countries Introduce Competition and Transparency.
63

will deal with proposals can be helpful to provide assurance to the private sector
that their proposal will not languish in the process. On the other hand, some
countries introduce tight limits on the time allowed for competing proposals,
which can deter competition. For example, in the Philippines, the BOT Law of
1993 requires authorities to advertise an opportunity for three weeks and allow
60 days for competitors to respond. This is unlikely to allow competitors enough
time to carry out the due diligence necessary to prepare a high-quality strong
proposal.85
1.7 Institutional Responsibilities

Institutional responsibilities for PPPs, that is, which entity will play what role at
each step of the process will need to be defined in the framework.
Institutional arrangements differ widely from place to place. This depends on the
particular needs of the PPP program and the pre-existing institutional roles and
capacities.
General principles for effective design of institutional arrangement for PPPs

General principles to guide institutional arrangements for PPPs include the
following:-
Build on existing institutional responsibilities and processes;
Design the institutional architecture appropriate to the likely scale of the

task;
Develop policies and architectures in parallel with the first projects;
Assign responsibilities to agencies that have the incentives, information,

and competence to discharge the responsibilities and clearly define any
institutional relationships; and
Avoid creating overlaps and additional coordination needs.

The point about building on existing responsibilities and processes is particularly
important. There will already be sector agencies with responsibility for planning
and developing projects. They these should generally continue in their existing
role, while adding PPPs as a new delivery and financing option. Similarly,
existing public sector procurement rules and public financial management rules
85
Philippines BOT Center (1993) The Philippine BOT Law (Republic Act No. 7718) and its Implementing
Rules & Regulations.
64

will provide the background framework which will then needs to be tailored to
allow and support the development of PPPs.
1.7.1 Typical Responsibilities

In developing a PPP framework, it is useful to consider the main responsibilities
and identify an existing institution, if available, that is suitable for each one. The
main responsibilities include the following.
Identifying and procuring projects: Driving forward the PPP project:

identifying potential projects, appraising, structuring, drafting the contract,
bidding on it, and finally managing the contract after it is signed (this is
explored in detail in section 1.7.2);
Ensuring coordination and best practice approaches: Ensuring that

the correct processes are followed, that analysis of a proposed PPP is
complete, that all the agencies that need to comment or give their go
ahead do so, and that the body with approval authority receives all the
information it needs to make a sound decision (this is explored in detail in
section 1.7.3);
Public financial management: Making sure that there is sufficient fiscal

space to fund direct liabilities and also deal with situations where risks
allocated to the public sector do crystallize into fiscal expenditures (section
1.7.4 discusses this concept); and
Approving projects: Giving the go ahead for the project to proceed. As

shown in section 1.6, approvals may be needed at several stages of
project development (this is discussed in Section 1.7.5).
Where existing institutional infrastructure and skills are insufficient, the
establishment of a PPP unit may be helpful (see section 1.7.6). External
advisors may be needed to support the skills available in-house.
1.7.2 Identifying and Championing Projects

Projects can be identified and championed by the procuring authority or central
authorities. The procuring authority is the public party to the PPP contract. The
procuring authority is responsible for conducting the PPP deal and managing the
PPP contract. This role typically falls to the entity with responsibility for ensuring
the relevant asset or service is provided.
The PPP law or policy may specify which government entity is allowed to enter
into PPP contracts, and the authorities that are responsible for PPP
implementation. It is common for agencies with existing responsibilities for
65

infrastructure such as a department of transportation or local authority to be the
procuring authority and to champion the project.
In some jurisdictions, a central PPP, infrastructure, or planning authority will take
the lead in identifying and championing projects that are suitable to be developed
as PPPs. Such agencies may also run the procurement on behalf of the sector or
local authority. Country examples are presented in box 2.13..
BOX 2.13: Responsibilities for Championing Projects in Various

Jurisdictions
In the Philippines, the BOT Law (1993) delegates responsibility for
developing and implementing PPPs to eligible government agencies, units,
or authorities. These include Government-Owned or Controlled Corporations,
Government Financial Institutions), State Universities and Colleges, and
Local Government Units. These agencies are required to create a
prequalification Bids and Awards Committee that will oversee the PPP
process for each PPP project.86
Under Tanzanias PPP law (2010), the procuring authority can be any
eligible party within the government. The procuring authority is responsible
for facilitating project development, including project identification, a
feasibility study, environmental impact assessment, and design and
implementation of the PPP contract.87
Under the Manual for PPP procedures in Colombia (2010), procuring
authorities (ministries or other sector-specific, local, and regional institutions)
are in charge of conducting eligibility and Value for Money analyses, and
submitting the results to the PPP unit the UPAPP88. The implementing
agencies also manage the procurement process.89
1.7.3 Ensuring Coordination and Best Practice

Sector agencies may lack some of the skills needed to identify and develop PPP
projects successfully. Particularly at the early stages of a PPP program, sector
agencies may have little experience in engaging with the private sector on
86
Philippines BOT Center (1993) The Philippine BOT Law (Republic Act No. 7718) and its Implementing
Rules & Regulations.
87
The United Republic of Tanzania (2010) Public Private Partnership Act 2010.
88
Unidad de Proyectos de Asociacin Pblico-Privada.
89
Government of Colombia (2010) Manual de Procesos y Procedimientos para la ejecucion de Asociaciones
Publico Privadas (Process and Procedures Manual for PPP Projects), Chapter 4.2, p 34.
66

privately financed projects. Sector agencies may also lack expertise in rigorous
project analysis, or they may have an inadequate focus on achieving Value for
Money for the government as a whole. Moreover, coordination across the
government is needed, something that sector agencies cannot provide. For this
reason, other entities are often also involved, including those listed below;
Specialized PPP units. These units are a repository of skill and

experience in developing PPPs. They support contracting authorities in
implementing PPP projects. They are often an extension of one of the
central agencies such as the ministry of finance. Section 1.7.6 provides
several more examples of PPP units and the extent of their roles in
implementing PPPs;
External PPP transaction advisors. Even governments with long PPP

experience do not have all of the in-house expertise and skills needed to
develop PPP projects. All engage external specialist advisors for detailed,
technical tasks, such as conducting feasibility studies and drafting PPP
contracts. The extent and nature of external advisory support needed will
change as the program evolves. For example, in the Netherlands, initially
external advisors constituted about 75 percent of the personnel engaged
on any given PPP. This slowly changed in favor of internal staff as they
became more familiar and better qualified to prepare and procure PPP
deals. Moreover, the Dutch government initially used UK advisors as they
were more experienced with PPPs. Over time these were replaced by
local Dutch advisors who had demonstrated their skills in this area;90
o It is important to highlight that some commercial skills are required
in-house in order to appoint and manage appropriate advisors. If
the wrong advisers are appointed or the advisers are not managed
appropriately, the project will not start out well.
Inter-departmental committees to oversee each PPP transaction.

These committees often include representatives from the sector ministry
as well as ministries of finance and planning, and legal representatives. Of
course, ways need to be found to make the processes of such committees
streamlined and efficient. Without this, there is a risk that they become
bureaucratic bottlenecks. One country which does this is Jamaica which
forms enterprise teams for all privatizations and PPPs. Such teams can
ensure coordination between agencies, and they bring in senior skilled
practitioners to guide the transaction. Similarly, in British Columbia,
Canada, each project has a steering committee established before
procurement begins. This committee has representatives from the
90
As described in Castalia (2009) Benchmarking Indonesias PPP Program report to the World Bank, p. 21.
67

ministries of finance and infrastructure, as well as the procuring authority.
The steering committee remains in place through the Design and
Construction Phase;
Specialist entities in different implementing roles. This is done in Per

where the procurement agency is responsible for implementing the PPP
transaction, and sector regulatory agencies are responsible for monitoring
the private parties compliance with the PPP contract;91 and
Central Agencies. Central agencies are those with whole of government

(rather than purely sectoral) functions. They typically include the ministry
of finance, the body responsible for economic planning and coordination
(where this is separate from the ministry of finance), and the body
responsible for legal compliance across government (such as an attorney
generals department). It is usual for these central agencies to be involved
in commenting on all major policies initiatives and projects involving
expenditure, economics or legal matters. The central agencies are
generally involved in the creation of the PPP framework. The framework
then generally requires that the advice from the central agencies be
sought at particular points in the PPP project development process.
Since the central agencies are involved in all PPP projects, their input can
ensure consistency, coordination, and best practice. For example, the
ministry of finance might demand that cost benefit analysis and Value for
Money analysis are done for all projects, in consistent ways. The attorney
general might demand that certain legal templates be used, and that the
government always avoid certain legal risks. Typical central agency roles
include the following.
o Ministry of finance roles: The finance ministry is often central to the
controlling function for PPPs. Finance ministry involvement helps
ensure that the PPP program is focused on achieving Value for
Money and that fiscal risks are managed. Examples of finance
ministry control processes are shown in box 2.14.
BOX 2.14: Examples of the Finance Ministrys Role In PPPs

Portugal operates a typical gateway process. At several stages, the finance ministry must
check and may stop a PPP from proceeding if it believes it is not affordable, or that the
92
proposed PPP structure will not offer Value for Money.
91
Zevallos Ugartes book (2011) Concesiones en el Peru: Lecciones Aprendidadas (Concessions in Peru:
Lessons Learned), s.l.: Fondo Editorial de la USMP provides further details on the institutional framework
for implementing PPPs.
92
Monteiro (2007) PPP and Fiscal Risks: Experiences from Portugal, pp. 6-8.
68

The Australian state of Victorias policy document Partnerships Victoria Requirements sets
out a control process for all major investment projects involving an independent panel of
experts. All high value or high risk projects including PPPs go through a gateway approval
process, established by the Department of Treasury and Finance. A panel of experts that are
not directly involved in the project carries out reviews at key stages (called gates) in
developing and implementing the project. For PPPs, there are five gates: strategic
assessment, business case, readiness for market, readiness for service, and benefits
93
evaluation.
o Planning agency roles: In countries where national planning

agencies perform a strong coordination function in infrastructure or
economic policy generally, they may also be given the role of
regulating the PPP process. Where a planning agency is involved in
a control function, the program generally works best when there is
also a mechanism for effective coordination with the finance ministry.
Box 2.15 provides some examples.
BOX 14: Examples of the Planning Agencies Role In PPPs

In the Philippines under the BOT Law (2004), PPPs must be approved by the National
Economic Development Authority (NEDA) Board, a central planning authority. Projects are
recommended to the NEDA board by the Investment Co-ordinating Committee (ICC), which is
a subset of the members of the NEDA board. The ICCs recommendation is in turn informed
by a review provided by NEDAs technical staff. The staff checks that the project submission is
complete and demonstrates that the project complies with requirements for financial,
94
economic, social, and environmental impacts. To maintain coordination with the Ministry of
95
Finance, the Secretary of Finance is on both the ICC and the NEDA Board.
In Chile, Ministry of Planning approval of project economic and social analysis is defined as a
96
prerequisite for the Ministry of Finance to approve a PPP.
o Attorney generals role: In many countries, the attorney generals

signoff is required for major contracts, including PPPs. The PPP law
of Tanzania (2010) requires that the implementing agency submit the
93
State Government of Victoria (2013) About Partnerships Victoria. [Online] Available at
http://www.dtf.vic.gov.au/Infrastructure-Delivery/Public-private-partnerships/About-Partnerships-Victoria
94
Philippines National Economic and Development Authority (2004) ICC Project Evaluation Procedures and
Guidelines.
95
Philippines National Economic and Development Authority (2004) ICC Project Evaluation Procedures and
Guidelines.
96
National Congress of Chile (2010) Law 20410 ("Concessions Law") Article 8.
69

final draft PPP contract for approval by the attorney general, before
the contract is executed.97 This is also required in Jamaica.
However, this is not universally required. Australian state
governments tend to engage leading private law firms to advise the
government on PPPs. Australian governments recognize that private
law firms have greater expertise in fields such as construction and
project finance than their attorney-generals departments (which tend
to have more expertise in administrative law).
1.7.4 Public Financial Management

PPP programs create direct and contingent liabilities. The government will need
to ensure that there is sufficient fiscal space to fund direct liabilities, as well as to
deal with situations where contingent liabilities translate into fiscal expenditures.
The financial management of PPPs is normally the responsibility of the procuring
authority under the oversight of a finance ministry or treasury.
1.7.5 Approvals
Most governments have rules for approving capital investment projects that is,
defining who can give approval at various points in the life of the project for the
project to proceed to the next phase. Because PPPs often do not require capital
investment by the government, they may not automatically be subject to these
approval rules. Many governments therefore define similar approval requirements
for PPPs.
Often, several decision points are created, allowing weak projects to be stopped
before they consume too many resources or develop a momentum of their own.
At a minimum, approval is typically needed to enter into a PPP transaction.
Because the final cost of a project is not known until procurement is concluded,
final approval may be needed before the contract is signed.
Jurisdictions vary as to which entity can approve a PPP. A few countries require
legislative approval of projects. More often, approval may come from the cabinet
or a cabinet level committee, the finance ministry, or a combination of agencies
and authorities. Approval responsibilities may depend on the size of the project,
as is typically the case for other capital investments.98
97
The United Republic of Tanzania (2010) Public Private Partnership Act. 2010, pp. 15-16.
98
As described in Irwin (2007) Government Guarantees: Allocating and Valuing Risk in Privately Financed
Infrastructure Projects.
70

Table 2.6 provides examples of approval requirements set out in national PPP
frameworks.
TABLE 2.6: Example PPP Approval Requirements
Country Approval requirements

New South In New South Wales, capital and recurrent funding for the project needs to
Wales, be approved by the Budget Committee of the Cabinet, the Expenditure
Australia Review Committee (ERC) of the Cabinet, and if there are joint financing
arrangements, the PPP also needs to be approved by the Treasurer. The
ERCs funding approval decision takes into account decisions about the
relative need for the project made by a separate committee, the Cabinet
Infrastructure Committee (CIC) which looks at the projects business case.
Approval requirements are defined at each stage of the PPP process.
1. PPP Project Planning and Definition ERC approval is required to
proceed with release of Expression of Interest (EOI) tender
documentation.
2. Expression of Interest Agencies should consult New South
Wales Treasury to determine if ERC approval is required.
3. Request for Detailed Proposals ERC approval is required before
entering into contract negotiations or pre-selection negotiations
based on prescribed negotiation parameters with preferred
bidder(s).
4. Negotiations and Contract Finalization ERC approval is
required prior to the Portfolio Minister (or delegate) signing any
contract if significant variations arise in negotiations. The
Treasurers approval is also needed under the Public Authorities
Financial Arrangements (PAFA) Act for agencies to enter into a
joint financing arrangement. This will be a condition precedent for
any PPP contract to become effective.99
Chile Final approval of a PPP through a signing of the decree that formalizes
the concession rests with the President and the Ministry of Finance
together. Contracts cannot be bid out unless the Ministry of Finance has
approved the bidding documents. The Ministry of Finance must also
approve any changes to economic aspects of the bidding documents, as
well as certain changes during implementation.100
Colombia PPPs must be approved by the following.
CONFIS the National Fiscal Council (CONFIS), which leads the
national fiscal policy and co-ordinates the budgetary system, approves
99
New South Wales Government (2012) NSW Public Private Partnership Guidelines.
100
National Congress of Chile (2010) Law 20410 ("Concessions Law") Article 7, 20 and 28.
71

the future appropriations (vigencias futuras) for PPP projects. CONFIS
is comprised of the Ministry of Finance, the Director of the
Administrative Department of the National Planning Agency, the Chief
Economic Advisors of the Presidency, the Vice-Minister of Finance, and
the directors of the National Treasury, Public Credit, and Tax and
Customs Authority. Before reaching the CONFIS, the project must have
the approval of the sector ministry and the National Planning
Department.101
CONPES the National Council for Economic and Social Policy
(CONPES) is the highest planning authority in Colombia, and it advises
the government in all aspects related to the economic and social
development of the country. CONPES certifies the strategic importance
of the project. Such certification is required for the project to be eligible
to receive future appropriations. CONPES comprises the President, the
Vice President, the Cabinet, the Director of the Administrative
Department of the Presidency, the Director of the National Planning
Department, and the Director of Colciencias.102,103
Philippines All national projects and projects over PHP200 million ($4.6 million)
require approval from the Investment Coordination Committee under the
National Economic and Development Authority (NEDA) Board. Build-Own-
Operate projects require approval from both the NEDA Board and the
President. The members of the NEDA Board are Cabinet members
responsible for the major infrastructure, economic, and finance
departments.104
South There are four stages of PPP approvals made by the Cabinet on
Africa recommendations by the Treasury. Projects are submitted for approval
after: (1) the feasibility study has been completed, (2) the bid documents
have been prepared, (3) bids have been received and evaluated, and (4)
negotiations have concluded and the PPP contract is in its final form.105
1.7.6 The Roles and Benefits of PPP Units

Many governments with successful PPP programs have created a dedicated unit
(either as a separate entity, or within an existing department) tasked with
implementing, facilitating, or advising on PPPs. (see box 2.16 for example)
These are referred to as PPP units. Their roles often include the following;106
101
The United Republic of Tanzania (2010) Public Private Partnership Act. 2010, Section 3.2.3.
102
The Department for Science, Technology and Innovation.
103
Congress of Colombia (2011) Law 1508 ("PPP Law").
104
Congress of the Philippines (1993) The Philippine BOT Law Republic Act No. 7718, Rule 2, pp16-19.
105
Government of South Africa (2004) PPP Manual.
106
As described in Public Private Infrastructure Advisory Facility (2007) Public Private Partnership Units:
Lessons for their Design and Use in Infrastructure. World Bank.
72

Control and oversight of the PPP process: As described in section 1.6,
this includes ensuring that the right steps are taken in developing a PPP,
so that the required analysis shows the project is consistent with appraisal
criteria, and that all required approvals have been obtained. The PPP unit
may also act as an approving body, as is the case in a number of
European countries. For example, Croatias PPP unit approves the
eligibility of projects and any contract renegotiations. Frances PPP unit
approves the eligibility of projects and any final contracts;107
Development of the PPP framework: Management of evolution (but not

creation) of the PPP framework, including developing and keeping
updated the process guidelines;
Promoting PPPs within the government: For example, reminding

implementing agencies that it may be desirable to do large new projects
as PPPs;
Advising and supporting agencies to implement PPPs: Offering

experience and specialist skills acquired because of their focus on PPPs
and involvement in numerous projects, as described in section 1.7.2;
Acting as a knowledge center: Collating and disseminating knowledge

and information about PPPs, thus ensuring that knowledge is shared
across procuring authorities and made available to the public;
Providing communication channels to investors: Helping bidders and

financiers, who may otherwise be unsure who to ask, with information
about the program and upcoming opportunities; and
Monitoring and support after financial close: Assisting the procuring

authority with contract management, and ensuring critical information is
communicated to relevant central agencies that need to be aware of
changes in the PPPs risk status in order to monitor the projects
contingent liabilities.
BOX 2.15: The Evolution of the UKs PPP and Infrastructure Units
The United Kingdoms Treasury Taskforce (TTF) was established in 1997 within
HM Treasury as a central coordination unit for the rollout of the Private Finance
Initiative (PFI). It was designed to assist public sector bodies to improve the
107
The European PPP Expertise Centre (EPEC) (2014) Establishing and Reforming PPP Units: Analysis of
EPEC Member PPP Units and Lessons Learnt.
73

delivery of PPPs. It standardized the procurement process and trained staff,
particularly those in private finance units of government departments, in the PFI
process. It contained independent projects and policy sections. The projects
section undertook the day-to-day implementation of the PFI and any variations.
In 2000, the TTF evolved into Partnerships UK (PUK), a 49 percent public and
51 percent private entity charged with the further development and delivery of
the PFI program. This has led to around 750 signed contracts in various sectors
(including health, education, housing, prisons, transport, and waste
management), for an accumulated value of more than 68 billion (US4 10 billion
equivalent).
In 2009, Her Majestys Treasury established Infrastructure UK (IUK) by bringing
together the program and project delivery capability of PUK, the lending
capability of the Treasury Infrastructure Funding Unit (TIFU), and the policy
development capability of the Treasury PPP policy team. IUK advises the UK
government on the long-term infrastructure needs of the UK, provides
commercial expertise to support major projects and programs, and identifies
and addresses cross-cutting issues. IUK is the governments primary strategic
resource for the long-term planning, prioritization, financing, and delivery of
infrastructure in the UK, including sectors such as social infrastructure, energy
and waste, water, telecommunications, and transport. IUK is not just a PPP
unit; it is the UKs infrastructure unit.
Source: HM Treasury (2013). Public Private Partnerships. Available at:
http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20130107105354/http://www.hm-
treasury.gov.uk/infrastructure_public_private_partnerships.htm
The design of a PPP unit should reflect its functions.108 For instance, units that
focus on regulating and controlling the PPP process should generally be located
in finance ministries or planning agencies. If a PPP unit is undertaking
multiple functions, it needs to be designed to avoid potential conflicts of interest.
If a unit is guiding, advising, and approving PPPs, then it needs to ensure there
are internal firewalls, that it involves other entities involved in approvals, or that it
brings in additional scrutiny by audit or other oversight agencies.109
Typical choices in the creation of a PPP unit will include the following;
Unit location: Does it sit within an existing department or is it independent

of other government agencies? PPP units may be allocated in a line
ministry or department, a central agency such as the ministry of finance
108
Public Private Infrastructure Advisory Facility (2007) Public Private Partnership Units: Lessons for their
Design and Use in Infrastructure. World Bank.
109
Dutz, Harris, Dhingra & Shugart (2006) Public Private Partnership Units: What Are They, and What Do
They Do? World Bank Public Policy for the Private Sector.
74

(or within a national financial agency or national development bank), the
ministry of planning, or the prime ministers office. More than one PPP unit
may coexist, each with different roles and scope of responsibilities (see
table 1.7);
Functions to be undertaken: As outlined at the start of this section, does

it undertake regulation, control and oversight, promotion, advice,
communication channels, and/or monitoring and support roles?
Resourcing: How will it attract and retain the right talent to a public sector
organization? Specifically, how can it attract legal and financial skills when
equivalent positions in the private sector can be significantly better paid?
Staffing PPP units may in turn have an impact on how they are structured
and governed; and
Funding mechanism: How can it promote the right incentives and

behaviors? How is the PPP unit funded to enable it to meet its operating
costs? Does it receive a budget allocation, or does it charge procuring
authorities for its services? This choice affects the incentives and
behaviors of both the procuring authorities (if they have to pay, they might
be less willing to involve the PPP unit) and the PPP unit (if it relies on
procuring authorities for its revenue, it may be more proactive in trying to
get involved, but may have a conflict of interest in exercising its control
and oversight functions).
The role of the PPP unit will need to change as the PPP program matures and
government agencies build up expertise and start developing their own PPP
units. At the outset of a program the PPP unit will likely carry out multiple roles,
but over time it may move towards the regulatory and supervision role.
The location of PPP units, and their mix of functions performed is a matter of
design, history, and local context, as illustrated in table 2.7.
75

TABLE 2.7: PPP unit Examples
Parent Entity Examples and Functions

Finance In the UK, the Treasury Taskforce (100 percent public PPP policy unit),
Ministry or Partnerships UK (a 51 percent private and 49 percent public PPP delivery
Treasury unit), and Infrastructure UK (a 100 percent public infrastructure policy,
planning and delivery unit) have been essential to the success of the UK's
PPP program. They were connected to HM Treasury. For more information
see box 2.16.
The PPP units Victoria and New South Wales (Australia) have played an
important role in promoting PPPs as an implementation method. These
units were attached to the state departments of treasury and finance.
In South Africa, the PPP unit moved from the Treasury Budget Office to the
Treasury's Government Technical Advisory Centre in 2014. This
represented a shift in focus from controlling the process of developing PPP
projects and contingent government liabilities resulting from fiscally risky
PPPs, to advisory and project management support, particularly around the
110
funding and management of feasibility studies for PPPs. Responsibility
for regulating the process of developing PPPs and guarding against
111
contingent liabilities remained behind in the Budget Office.
In 2009, New Zealand created a unit in the Treasury, naming it the National
Infrastructure Unit in recognition of its function of promoting more effective
investment in infrastructure. Its focus is therefore on promoting the best
options for infrastructure investment, rather than just PPPs.
Colombia has a PPP unit within the National Planning Department . This
112
Planning
Agency unit is responsible for developing and implementing PPP related policies
and coordinating the PPP procurement process and project transactions,
113
such as managing transaction advisors.
Investment In Uruguay under Law 18786 (2011), the CND a state owned investment
Promotion promotion agency, acts as a PPP unit in many respects. It helps structure
Agency projects, gives advice and produces guidance materials for implementing
agencies. The procuring authority and CND may sometimes agree to have
the CND implement the PPP project. A separate PPP unit in the Ministry of
Finance approves financial and budgetary aspects of projects, and monitors
implementation of the PPP. The PPP unit is also responsible for approving
114
any contract adjustments during implementation.
110
Market players interpreted this move as a response to the fact that the heavy regulation of PPP
development had virtually shut down the pipeline of projects. PPPs at the municipal level stopped
completely. (Personal communication with James Leigland, Technical Assistance Facility (TAF), Private
Infrastructure Development Group (PIDG), South Africa).
111
South Africa National Treasury PPP Unit (2007) Municipal Service Delivery and PPP Guidelines.
112
Colombia also has two other PPP Units. One is located in the Ministry of Finance and is responsible for
the fiscal aspects of PPP projects. The other unit is housed in the Ministry of Transport, which is
responsible for PPP projects related to highways and roads.
113
Congress of Colombia (2011) Law 1508 ("PPP Law").
114
Parliament of Uruguay (2011) Law 18786 ("PPP Law"), Articles 9-13, 23, 38.
76

Similarly in Peru, Legislative Decree No. 1012 (2008) enables
PROINVERSION (the investment promotion agency) to select the type of
PPP, design it, and draft the contract. Ministry of Finance approval is
115
needed if the project requires subsidies.
In the State of So Paulo, Brazil, Centro do Professorado Paulista (CPP)
was established in 2004 as an investment promotion agency that helps to
develop and structure PPPs. CPP also manages a trust fund that provides
116
guarantees to PPP projects.
Development In Jamaica, the National Investment Bank of Jamaica, and its successor the
Bank Development Bank of Jamaica, have long functioned as the governments
privatization and PPP agency. In recognition of the fiscal risk Jamaica took
on in many of its previous PPPs, the government created a new PPP
framework in 2011 with a stronger role for the Ministry of Finance, but it has
117
retained the Development Bank as lead PPP agency.
Puerto Ricos PPP law (2009) created an effective PPP unit within its
118
Development Bank.
In Mexico, FONADIN, part of the national development bank Banobras,
functions like a PPP unit for some PPPs. FONADINs Rules of Operation
(2011) assign responsibilities to various secretariats (finance,
119
communications and transport, tourism) and to different units within
FONADIN (a technical committee, business units, an evaluation sub-
120
committee, and monitoring unit) for developing and approving PPPs.
Prime Ministers In Bangladesh, the PPP office was established as a separate, autonomous
Office office under the Prime Minister's Office. Its purpose is to support sector line
ministries to facilitate identification, development, and tendering of PPP
projects to international standards. This office is in addition to the PPP unit
that sits within the Ministry of Finance to control the fiscal responsibility and
121
sustainability in PPP projects.
Malaysias PPP unit was established under the Prime Minister's
Department in April 2009. This unit is the central agency tasked with the
responsibility to plan, evaluate, co-ordinate, negotiate, and monitor the
implementation of PPP projects. This unit also manages and evaluates
projects that require funding from the Facilitation Fund, a fund specially
115
President of Peru (2008) Legislative Decree No. 1012, Article 9.
116
Legislative Assembly of the State of Sao Paulo, Brazil (2004) Law 11688 ("PPP Law"). Article 12-18.
117
Government of Jamaica (2011) Government of Jamaica Policy Framework and Procedures Manual for
Privatization of Government Assets Draft.
118
Legislative Assembly of the State of Sao Paulo, Brazil (2004) Law 11688 ("PPP Law") pp.1.
119
BANOBRAS (2000) FONADIN Reglas de Operacion (Rules of Operations) Title One, Chapter IV, Rule
5.13, Title Two, Chapter II, Rule 8.6, Title Three, Chapter IV Rule 18).
120
BANOBRAS (2000) FONADIN Reglas de Operacion (Rules of Operations) Title One, Chapter IV, Rule
5.13, Title Two, Chapter II, Rule 8.6, Title Seven, Chapters I-VI, Rules 37-56.
121
Public Private Partnership Office Bangladesh: Prime Ministers Office (2015). Welcome to PPP
Bangladesh. Available at http://www.pppo.gov.bd/
77

established to stimulate private sector investment and bridge the viability
122
gap of projects that have strategic impact.
PPP units may bring risks and pitfalls to the project and program management if
they are not properly designed. Firstly, if there is a lack of clarity in the units role,
it may end up as another entity worsening, not improving, coordination. Similarly,
the unit may become a bottleneck for approvals if it has insufficient resources to
undertake appraisals. Finally, when various entities want to control the PPP unit,
it may lead to conflict in its design, leading in turn to delays in the creation of the
PPP framework and delivery of the PPP program.
Also, PPP units cannot perform miracles. PPP units will probably not help much
where high-level political commitment to a quality PPP program is lacking. PPP
units also need to be integrated into the mainstream project approval and
budgeting process in the government if they are to be successful. For example,
the fact that the BOT Center in the Philippines did not have strong institutional
links to either the Department of Finance or the Planning Agency posed
limitations in project preparation for many years.
Although PPP units are not always required, and will not always succeed in
creating successful PPP programs123, well structured PPP units have worked well
in many countries, as the above examples show.
1.8 Public Financial Management of PPPs

Public financial management of PPPs relates to how fiscal commitments under
PPPs are controlled, reported, and budgeted. Public financial management aims
to reduce the risk of PPPs costing the government more than expected or placing
undue burden on future generations.
PPP contracts commit governments to substantial payments years into the
future. This can create challenges for public financial management which is
generally geared to annual appropriations for expenditure. For this reason, PPP-
specific approaches to public financial management have been developed.
Strong public financial management is desirable because poor financial
management of PPPs can have wide reaching economic impacts. Rating
agencies will examine the overall financial health of governments including the
122
Official Portal of Public Private Partnership Unit (2015). Message From Director General. Available at
http://www.ukas.gov.my/en/perutusan-ketua-pengarah
123
Public Private Infrastructure Advisory Facility (2007) Public-Private Partnership Units: Lessons for their
Design and Use in Infrastructure. World Bank.
78

implications of PPP fiscal commitments when assigning a rating to government
debt. If a government is not managing the financial commitments of their PPP
contracts, the government bonds may be seen as a risky investment, increasing
the overall government cost of debt.
This section first describes common types of fiscal commitments (section 1.8.1)
and how those commitments can be quantified (section 1.8.2). It then outlines
how to decide on making fiscal commitments (section1.8.3), and how budgeting
for PPPs should be done (section 18.4). Finally, it shows how the effectiveness of
commitments can be maximized (section 1.8.4) and how to account for and
control PPP exposure (section 1.8.5 and section 1.8.6 respectively).
1.8.1 Types of Fiscal Commitment to PPPs

Fiscal commitments to PPPs can be payments for services, capital contributions,
or subsidies to reduce costs for users, or a means to share risk. The wide range
of fiscal commitments can usefully be divided into the following categories.
Direct liabilities: known payments that must be made if the PPP

proceeds (although there may be some uncertainty regarding the value).
Direct liabilities arising from PPP contracts can include:
o Upfront "viability gap payments an up-front capital subsidy
(often paid out as construction progresses);
o Availability payments a regular payment over the life of the
project, usually conditional on the availability of the service or
asset at a contractually specified quality. The payment may be
adjusted with bonuses or penalties related to performance; and
o Shadow tolls or output-based payments a payment or subsidy
per unit or user of a service. For example, per vehicle kilometer
driven on a PPP highway. See box 2.17.
Contingent liabilities: payment commitments whose occurrence, timing

and magnitude depend on some uncertain future event, outside the control
of government. Contingent liabilities under PPP contracts can include:
o Guarantees on particular risk variables an agreement to
compensate the private party for loss in revenues should a
particular risk variable deviate from a contractually specified level.
The associated risk is thereby shared between the government
and the private party. For example, this could include guarantees
on demand remaining above a specified level (as in a take-or-pay
contract), or on exchange rates remaining within a certain range;
79

o Compensation clauses for example, a commitment to
compensate the private party for damage or loss due to certain,
specified, uninsurable force majeure events;
o Termination payment commitments a commitment to pay an
agreed amount should the contract expire or is terminated due to
default by the public or private party. The amount may depend on
the circumstances of default; and
o Debt guarantees or other credit enhancements a commitment to
repay part or all of the debt used to finance a project in the event
that the private borrower does not repay it. The guarantee could
cover a specific risk or event. Guarantees are used to provide
security to a lender that the loan will be repaid.
Liabilities of government owned off-takers: if a commercial but

government owned entity (such as a power or water utility) contracts with
a private generator or bulk water supplier, there are two levels of liability.
o The liability of the government-owned entity. This must be
recorded by the entity in question and may be consolidated into
whole-of-government financial reporting in some cases; and
o Central government liabilities to make good if the government-
owned off-taker defaults (this may be an explicit or implicit
contingent obligations).
Box 2.17: Fiscal Risk in Minimum Traffic Guarantees

Minimum traffic guarantees are sometimes agreed to by governments to limit
the downside traffic risk for investors. Such guarantees compensate the
concessionaire if traffic or revenue falls below a specified minimum level.
There are a number of different forms the guarantee can take.
Cash compensation if revenue falls below the minimum level.
An extension of the concession term in the event traffic falls below

minimum levels.
Cash compensation and a maximum traffic ceiling above which all

revenues are transferred to the government.
Standby government loans to support traffic and revenue risk.

It is not unusual for such guarantees to be called on. If users are sensitive to
price fluctuations, and there are a high number of free alternative routes,
economic downturns can be reasonably expected to affect road traffic. For
80

example, during the 2008 Global Financial Crisis, Iberias (Spain) toll traffic
volumes in 2013 were 30-35 percent lower than 2007 levels.
Source: Fisher and Babbar (n.d.) Private Financing of Toll Roads. World Bank; Infrastructure Journal.
1.8.2 Identifying and Quantifying Fiscal Commitments to a PPP Project

A governments fiscal commitments both direct and contingent will be
established by the PPP contracts. The value of direct liabilities will be relatively
simple to quantify. In many cases its value will be explicitly expressed in the
contract. Valuing contingent liabilities is more complicated and requires a good
understanding of both the size of the potential liability and the likelihood of its
occurring.
Direct liabilities
During the appraisal stage, the value of the direct fiscal commitments required
can be estimated from the project financial model (described further in chapter 4).
The value of these direct payment commitments is driven by the project costs
and any non-government revenues. The value of the direct fiscal contribution
required is usually the difference between the cost of the project (including a
commercial return on capital invested) and the revenue the project can expect to
earn from non-government sources such as user fees.
The fiscal cost can be measured in different ways.
Estimated payments in each year: The amount that the government

expects to have to pay in each year of the contract, given the most likely
project outcomes. This is the most useful measure when considering the
budget impact of the project;
Net present value of payments: If the government is committed to a

stream of payments over the lifetime of the contract such as availability
payments it is often helpful to calculate the net present value of that
payment stream. This measure captures the governments total financial
commitment to the project, and it is often used if incorporating the PPP in
financial reporting and analysis (such as debt sustainability analysis).
Calculating the net present value requires choosing an appropriate
discount rate the choice of discount rate to apply when assessing PPP
projects has been a subject of much debate;124
124
Harrison (2010) Valuing the Future: The Social Discount Rate in Cost-Benefit Analysis. Australian
Government Productivity Commission.
81

It is generally helpful to estimate how the payments might vary. For example,
payments may be linked to demand, inflation, or they may be denominated in a
foreign currency (and therefore be subject to exchange rate changes). The effect
on payment obligations of changes in these variables should be assessed.
Contingent liabilities
Assessing the cost of contingent liabilities is more difficult than for direct
liabilities, since the need for, timing and value of such payments are uncertain.
Broadly speaking, there are two possible approaches.125
Scenario analysis: Scenario analysis involves making assumptions about

the outcome of any events or variables that affect the value of the
contingent liability, and calculating the cost given those assumptions. For
example, this could include working out the cost to the government in a
worst case scenario, such as default by the private party at various
points in the contract. It could also include calculating the cost of a
guarantee on a particular variable, for instance demand for different
levels of demand outturns; and
Probabilistic analysis: An alternative approach is to use a formula to

define how the variables that affect the value of the contingent liability will
behave. A combination of mathematics and computer modeling is then
used to calculate the resultant costs. This enables analysts to estimate the
distribution of possible costs, and then calculate measures such as the
median (most likely) cost, the mean (average) cost, and various
percentiles (for example, the range of values within which the cost is 90
percent of the time). To be useful, probabilistic models need reliable data
from which to estimate the probability distributions of the underlying risk
variables.
Box 2.18 provides examples of approaches to assessing contingent liabilities
across jurisdictions.
125
As described in the Infrastructure Australia Guidance Note (2008) National Public-Private Partnership
Guidelines Volume 4: Public Sector Comparator Guidance.
82

BOX 2.16: Approaches to Assessing Contingent Liabilities
Colombias Ministry of Finance has defined its approach to (i) assessing
the financial and economic implications of contingent liabilities, (ii)
accounting, budgeting, and assessing the fiscal implications of contingent
liabilities, and (iii) identifying, classifying, quantifying, and managing
contingent liabilities. This approach is set out in a presentation on
management of contingent liabilities.126
In Chile, the Ministry of Finance has developed a sophisticated model for
valuing minimum revenue and exchange rate guarantees to PPPs. This
valuation is updated on an ongoing basis for all PPP projects, and it is
reported in an annual report on contingent liabilities127. The report includes a
brief description of the techniques used in Chile to analyze and value
guarantees extended to PPP projects. Irwin and Mokdads paper on
managing contingent liabilities from PPP projects also describes the Chilean
methodology in more detail.128
Perus Finance Ministry has also published a methodology for valuing
contingent liabilities under PPPs. The consultancy report that defined the
methodology has been published, and it includes a description of
methodological alternatives and the PPP related contingent liabilities in
Peru. Both documents are available on the Ministrys website section on
managing contingent liabilities.129
1.8.3 Ensuring Fiscal Commitments are Affordable

Affordability means the ability to be accommodated within the inter-temporal
budget constraint of the government.130 Due to the long-term and contingent
nature of PPP costs, it is not easy to decide whether they are affordable. In
practice, affordability is assessed by considering the medium-term (typically three
years or longer) expenditure framework, and then the annual budget constraint.
What is the medium-term expenditure framework? Make conservative

assumptions as to how overall budget limits will evolve, and consider
whether the estimated annual payments for a PPP (under a reasonable
range of scenarios) could be accommodated within those limits;
126
Ministerio de Hacienda y Credito Publico (2005) Pasivos Contingentes - Colombia (Contingent
Liabilities).
127
Dipres (2010) Informe de Pasivos Contingentes. Government of Chile.
128
Irwin and Mokdad (2010) Managing Contingent Liabilities in Public-Private Partnerships: Practice in
Australia, Chile, and South Africa. World Bank/Public Private Infrastructure Advisory Facility.
129
Peru Ministerio de Economia y Finanzas.
130
OECD (2008) Public Private Partnerships: In Pursuit of Risk Sharing and Value for Money.
83

Budget limits are set in a number of different ways. 131 In Brazil, project
studies must include a fiscal analysis for the next ten years. In the UK,
procuring authorities must demonstrate the affordability of a PPP project
based on agreed departmental spending figures for the years available,
and on cautious assumptions of departmental spending envelopes
thereafter. In France, the affordability of a PPP is demonstrated by
reference to a ministerial program a multi-year indicative budgeting
exercise. South Africas approach (2004) to affordability also describes a
similar approach; and
What is the annual budget constraint? Introduce budget rules to ensure

that PPP commitments are considered in the annual budget process.
Again, this can be done in a number of different ways. In the state of
Victoria, Australia, once a project is approved for PPP delivery, the
government will reflect it in the expected PPP capital cash flows for that
project as an estimated finance lease liability in the budget, along with any
capital contribution expected to be made by the state. Colombias law on
contingent liabilities (1998) requires implementing agencies to make a
cash transfer to a contingency fund when a PPP project is signed. The
cash transfer is set equal to the expected value of payments under any
revenue guarantees provided (these payments may be phased over
several years). This means the decision to accept a contingent liability has
an immediate budget impact that must be considered.132
See chapter 4.11 for further discussion in fiscal limits and affordability.
1.8.4 Budgeting for Fiscal Commitments

Budgeting for PPPs involves making sure that money is appropriated and
available to pay for whatever cost the government has agreed to bear under its
PPP projects. Because such costs may be contingent or occur in the future, PPP
budgeting can be hard to manage in traditional annual budget cycles.
Nevertheless, credible and practical budgeting approaches are needed for good
public financial management, and to assure private partners that they will be
paid.
Budgeting for direct commitments to PPPs
131
As highlighted by OECD (2008) Public Private Partnerships: In Pursuit of Risk Sharing and Value for
Money.
132
Congress of Colombia (1998) Law 448 (on managing contingent liabilities of government entities), Article
6.
84

Direct commitments to PPPs include upfront payments (payments during
construction usually built as grants), as well as ongoing payments such as
shadow tolls or availability payments in government-pays PPPs or hybrid
projects.
When governments provide upfront or grant payments to PPPs, the payments
required are similar to those for traditionally government procured projects.
Because these payments are typically made within the first few years of a project,
they can be relatively easily built into annual budgets and medium-term
expenditure frameworks. Nonetheless, some governments have introduced funds
(known as Viability Gap Funds) from which such payments will be made. One
example of such a fund is in India, as described in box 2.19.
BOX 2.17: Viability Gap Fund in India

In July 2005, the Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs established Indias
Viability Gap Fund program through its approval of the Scheme for Financial
Support to Public Private Partnerships in Infrastructure.
The program has been successful. Twenty-three PPP projects with a total
investment of $3.5 billion have received subsidies or Viability Gap Funding
(VGF). An additional 43 projects are under review or have received in principle
approval.
The primary objective of Indias VGF program is to attract more private
investment in infrastructure by making PPP projects financially viable.
Dissecting this primary objective reveals three underlying objectives.
Attracting more private investment to mobilize additional finance and
more rapidly meet Indias infrastructure needs.
Prioritizing PPP projects to improve efficiencies, control timing and cost,
and attract private sector expertise.
Developing projects through an inclusive approach that does not
neglect geographically or economically disadvantaged regions.
Critically, knowing that the funding is available encourages firms to bid on
Indias PPP projects. The resulting keen competition has meant that many
projects that the government thought might need a subsidy have in fact been
fully privately financed without the necessity of a VFG contribution.
85

How are funds appropriated in the budget?
An appropriation from the state budget of about $335 million was used to
capitalize Indias VGF program.133 Rather than being disbursed in that year, the
appropriation was set aside as a dedicated fund to be managed by the Ministry
of Finance. It is expected that additional funds will be allocated to the VGF
program through further annual appropriations once the initial capital is spent.
VGF for projects in Indias National Highway Development Program is
appropriated separately. Starting in 2006, a portion of road user tax revenue in
the Central Road Fund has been earmarked for Viability Gap Funding. The
amount of funds earmarked for VGF is determined annually by the Planning
Commission with input from the Ministry of Finance and the Ministry of Shipping,
Road Transport, and Highways.
Source: Castalia (2011) Report to the World Bank Institute Subsidy Funding Mechanisms for
Public Private Partnerships in Latin America.
Budgeting for long-term direct commitments, such as availability payments, is

more challenging. The mismatch between the annual budget appropriation cycle
and the multi-year payment commitments exposes the private party to the risk
that payments may not be appropriated when due. This problem is not unique to
PPPs. Indeed many other types of contractual payment commitments may
extend beyond the budget year.134 In many jurisdictions, governments do not
introduce any particular budgeting approach for direct, long-term PPP
commitments. This is done on the assumption that a responsible legislature will
always approve appropriations to meet the governments legally binding payment
commitments.
Where appropriations risk is high typically in systems with a true separation of
powers between the legislature and executive mechanisms to reduce this risk
may be warranted. In Brazil at the federal level, Law No. 101 of 2000 requires
subsidy payments to PPPs to be treated in the same way as debt service
payments, that is, they are automatically appropriated.135 This means that once
the subsidy is approved, the appropriations needed are not subject to further
legislative approval.
133
Ministry of Finance (2006) Economic Survey, 2005-06. Government of India.
134
Leases for government buildings are an obvious example.
135
Lei Complementar No. 101 (2000) Articles 29, 30, and 32.
86

Budgeting for contingent liabilities in PPPs
Budgeting for contingent liabilities can be particularly challenging because
payments may become due unexpectedly. If savings cannot be found within the
existing appropriations, the government may need to go back to the legislature to
request a supplementary appropriation, often a difficult and contentious affair.
To overcome these difficulties, governments may introduce particular
mechanisms for budgeting for contingent liabilities under PPP projects. There are
two ways to do this.
The first option is to create additional budget flexibility.136 This can

include creating a contingency line in the budget from which unexpected
payments can be made. A contingency line could be specific to a
particular liability for example, those that are considered relatively higher
risk, or cover a range of contingent liabilities. Alternatively, some countries
allow spending in excess of the budget without need for additional
approval in certain defined circumstances; and
The second option is to create a contingent liability fund.137 A

contingent liability fund (or guarantee fund) is an account (which may be
within or external to the governments accounts) to which transfers are
made in advance, and from which payments for realized contingent
liabilities will be made when due.
If designed appropriately, creating a fund can help control the
governments fiscal commitments to PPPs as well as provide a clear
budgeting mechanism, thereby improving credibility. In Indonesia, the
intention is that the government will no longer bear any contingent
liabilities under its PPP projects. These will be borne by the Indonesia
Infrastructure Guarantee Fund (IIGF). Contingent liabilities will only be
assumed following a careful assessment of the risk by IIGFs
management. In the state of So Paulo in Brazil, the contingent liabilities
under PPP projects have been borne by the So Paulo Partnerships
Corporation (Companhia Paulista de Parcerias CPP) since the PPP law
11688 was passed in 2004.
An advantage of contingent liability funds is that they can avoid the timing
issues that arise if funds must be appropriated through the budget process
in order to meet a contingent liability. A need for additional appropriations
can significantly delay payment, resulting in liquidity issues for the private
sector. Contingent liability funds can reduce risk for bidders, which in turn
136
As described in Cebotari (2008) Contingent Liabilities: Issues and Practice.
137
Ibid.
87

reduces costs for the public sector. Box 2.20 describes these examples of
contingent liability funds.
BOX 2.18: Contingent Liability Funds for PPPs

Colombia: To manage contingent liabilities arising from guarantees offered to
toll road concessionaires, Colombia assesses the fiscal impact of guarantees
before these are granted and sets aside funds to cover the expected
payments from the guarantees138. A Government Entities Contingent
Liabilities Fund, established in 1998, has a special account that is managed
by La Previsora, a trust company. The fund receives contributions from the
government entities, the national budget, and the returns generated with its
resources. The government entities carry out the contingent liabilities
valuation which is then approved by the Public Credit Divisions of the Ministry
of Finance. Once the PPP is approved and implemented, the division carries
out ongoing assessments of the value of the associated contingent
liabilities.139
So Paulo, Brazil: In the State of So Paulo, the So Paulo Partnerships
Corporation (Companhia Paulista de Parcerias CPP) was established in
2004 using resources from the sale of the governments stake in State Owned
Enterprises [#17, Articles 12-23]. Among its other roles, the CPP provides
fiduciary guarantees to PPP projects.140 The CPP is managed by a
Directorate of up to three members selected by the Governor of the State, a
Management Council comprised of up to five members selected by the
Governor of the State, and a fiscal council. The CPP is an independent legal
entity. A Castalia and World Bank Institution (WBI) review of Subsidy Funds
for PPPs in Latin America and Caribbean (LAC)141 provides more
background about the CPP.
Indonesia: The Indonesia Infrastructure Guarantee Fund, or the IIGF, is a
state owned enterprise established by government regulation and the Ministry
of Finance Decree in 2009. As one of the fiscal tools of the government, the
IIGF is supervised by the Ministry of Finance. The IIGFs mandate is to
provide guarantees for infrastructure projects under PPP schemes. The fund
operates as a single window for appraising, structuring, and providing
138
Castalia (2009) Benchmarking Indonesia's PPP Program.
139
Congress of Colombia (1998) Law 448 (on managing contingent liabilities of government entities),
Articles 3-8.
140
Governor of the State of Sao Paulo (2004) State Decree 48.867, Article 15.
141
Castalia & WBI (2011) Subsidy Funding Mechanisms for Public Private Partnerships in Latin America.
88

guarantees for PPP infrastructure projects. The single window provides
certainty because it ensures a consistent policy for appraising guarantees, as
well as a single process for claims. This introduces transparency and
consistency in the process, which is critical for market confidence. The IIGF
provides guarantees against specific risks in a variety of sectors, including
power, water, toll roads, railways, bridges, and ports.142
1.8.5 Accounting for, and Reporting on, Fiscal Commitments

Governments need to account for and report on their financial commitments,
including those under PPP contracts. Fiscal reporting on PPPs needs to be
consistent with fiscal reporting generally. There are three main types of fiscal
reporting.
Government finance statistics: These are summary statistics on the

state of a governments finances, which are intended to be internationally
comparable. These statistics may follow regional or international
standards, such as those set by Eurostat for European Union countries,
or the International Monetary Fund (IMF) publication Government
Finance Statistics Manual (GFSM) published in 2001;143
Government financial statements: Most governments publish audited

financial statements. There are internationally recognized standards on
what should be in those financial statements, although in practice few
governments meet those standards. The International Public Sector
Accounting Standards (IPSAS) is a modified version of the International
Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS). IPSAS is designed for use in the
public sector, and IFRS applies to companies. Some governments use
simplified versions of the IPSAS standards (for further information see
https://www.ifac.org/public-sector/about-ipsasb); and
Budget documentation and reporting: Most governments prepare

reports on financial performance as part of budget preparation and
reporting. These are not subject to any international standards, although
there are international guidance materials that promote transparency. For
example, the IMFs Manual on Fiscal Transparency (2007) and the
Organization for Economic Co-Operation and Developments (OECD)
Best Practices for Budget Transparency (2002).144,145
142
More information about the IIGF is available on its website: http://www.iigf.co.id/Website/Home.aspx
143
International Monetary Fund (IMF) (2001) Government Finance Statistics Manual.
144
International Monetary Fund (IMF) (2007) Manual on Fiscal Transparency.
145
OECD (2002) Best Practices in Budget Transparency.
89

In general, the standards referred to above set rules or guidelines for whether
and how various kinds of liabilities and expenditures should be recognized or
disclosed.
Recognizing PPP liabilities in government accounts
Governments need to decide whether and when PPP commitments should be
recognized, that is, formally recorded in financial statements as a liability or
expense. This is important because limits or targets are often set on the
governments overall liabilities and expenditures, and depending on how PPPs
are reported and incorporated in national accounts, this may create a dangerous
bias in favor of the PPP tool (see chapter 1.5.1). The extent to which PPP
commitments are recognized as government capital expenditure or liabilities can
therefore influence a governments decision to pursue PPPs, including how to
structure them.146
The financial standards vary in their treatment of PPP fiscal commitments. Two
standards specifically address when and how direct liabilities and assets of
PPP projects should be recognized by the contracting governments in its
accounts.
IPSAS Standard 32: Introduced in 2011, IPSAS 32 defines when PPP

assets and liabilities should be recognized, assuming a government is
following IPSAS accrual accounting standards. Under IPSAS 32, the asset
will be regarded as belonging to the governments. Therefore, PPP assets
and liabilities should be included in the governments balance sheet if (i)
the government controls or regulates what services the operator must
provide with the PPP asset, to whom, and at what price; and (ii) the
government controls any significant residual interest in the asset at the
end of the contract. Under this definition, government-pays PPPs would
appear on the governments balance sheet; the treatment of user-pays
PPPs is less clear, and may depend on the details of the contract;147,148
and
Eurostat guideline: Before the introduction of IPSAS 32, the only

standard specifically addressing PPPs was a Eurostat ruling. This ruling
requires European governments to recognize PPP liabilities in debt
146
In addition to potentially favoring PPPs when there are restrictions on debt or the budget, when PPP
accounting depends on risk transfer (for example ESA 2010) this may influence the PPP structure by
incentivizing the government to transfer more risk than the optimum, therefore destroying the VfM of the
PPP.
147
As of January 2012, no government has fully adopted IPSAS standard 32, so it remains to be seen how it
will be interpreted in practice.
148
International Public Sector Accounting Standards Board (2011) IPSAS 32 Service Concession
Agreements: Grantor.
90

statistics where the government does not transfer to the private sector the
majority of risks, including construction risks and either demand or
availability risk. Chapter 4.12 provides more detail on Eurostat criteria.149
Most accounting and reporting standards do not require governments to
recognize contingent liabilities, including those arising from PPP contracts.
There is one exception: IPSAS standards for governments implementing accrual
accounting require contingent liabilities to be recognized if it is likely that the
underlying event will occur and the amount of the obligation can be measured
with sufficient reliability.150 In this case, the net present value of the expected cost
of the contingent liability should be recognized as a liability (a provision) and as
an expense when the contract is signed.
As part of the appraisal exercises, the respective country may require a specific
analysis to determine whether the asset (and associated liabilities) should be
recorded on the public balance sheet or on off government accounts. This will
influence whether the government proceeds with the PPP route (or with the
project in any form) depending on the regulatory or policy limits that may be in
place for government debt and deficit. This analysis is further explained in
chapter 4.12.
When governments have IMF or other international donor agreements, the
accounting and reporting standard may differ from IPSAS and Eurostat. In this
case, the debt limits and reporting guidelines will be set by the donors.
Disclosing PPP liabilities

Most international reporting and statistical standards agree that even when PPP
commitments are not recognized as liabilities, they should be disclosed in notes
to the accounts and reports.
Disclosing useful information on contingent liabilities is complicated. In principle,
it would be useful to disclose the expected value of payments. The expected
value of a contingent liability is difficult to predict. It is also useful if the magnitude
and the likelihood of a liability being incurred are disclosed. Such disclosure
could usefully be substantiated by a report with additional information. Examples
of this are provided in box 2.21.
149
Schwartz, Corbacho and Funke (2007) Public Investment and Public-Private Partnerships. International
Monetary Fund.
150
Cebotari (2008) Contingent Liabilities: Issues and Practice.
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BOX 2.19: Examples of PPP Liability Disclosure
Cebotaris paper on Government Contingent Liabilities describes
international guidelines for how contingent liability exposure should be disclosed
including those under PPP programs and provides examples from several
countries.
Cebotaris paper also describes how some countries have interpreted these
standards in practice. For example, Australia and New Zealand disclose
contingent liabilities including to PPPs in notes to financial statements available
online.151 Since 2007, Chiles Budget Directorate152 of the Ministry of Finance
has published an annual contingent liabilities report which initially presented
information on contingent liabilities from revenue and exchange rate guarantees
to PPPs. This report has since been expanded to cover other types of
government contingent liability.
Source: Cebotari (2008) Contingent Liabilities: Issues and Practice.
1.8.6 Controlling Aggregate Fiscal Exposure to PPPs

In addition to considering fiscal exposure on a project-by-project basis, some
governments introduce targets or rules limiting aggregate exposure. Given the
difficulties in deciding whether a particular PPP commitment is affordable, limits
on aggregate exposure can be a helpful way to ensure the governments total
exposure to PPP costs and risks remain within manageable limits. Examples of
PPP fiscal limits are presented in box 2.22.
BOX 2.20: PPP fiscal limits

Perus Legislative Decree No. 1012 (2008)153 states that the present value
of the total fiscal commitments to PPPs firm commitments and measurable
contingent liabilities shall not exceed 7 percent of gross domestic product
(GDP). However, every three years, the President may, with the
endorsement of the Ministry of the Economy and Finance, issue a decree
increasing or decreasing this limit, depending on the infrastructure needs of
151
For New Zealand, see http://www.treasury.govt.nz/government/financialstatements; for Australia, see
http://www.finance.gov.au/publications/commonwealth-consolidated-financial-statements/.
152
Dipres (2010) Direccin Presupuestaria from the Ministerio de Hacienda of Chile.
153
President of Peru (2008) Legislative Decree No. 1012.
92

the country.
In Hungary, the public finance law limits the total nominal value of multi-
year commitments in PPPs to 3 percent of government revenue (Act 38 of
1992, Article 12, as quoted in Irwin paper).154
Brazils Federal PPP law (Law 11079, 2004) limits the total financial
commitments undertaken in PPP contracts to a maximum of 1 percent of
annual net revenue.155 Hemming notes that accounting rules for PPPs are
being defined, including the valuation of guarantees and their treatment in
relation to this limit.
However, creating PPP specific limits distinct from other limits on public
expenditure can simply create incentives for agencies to choose public
procurement over PPP even when PPP would provide better Value for Money.
An alternative, therefore, is to incorporate limits on PPP commitments within
other fiscal targets. For example, some governments introduce targets or limits
on public debt. Some types of PPP commitment may be included within
measurements of public debt, following international norms or national rules. In
such cases, an appropriate approach could be to establish a limit on debt plus
PPP commitments. In any control on total PPP exposure, a difficult issue will be
whether to include contingent liabilities, and if so, how to value them.
When aggregate exposure is limited, each PPP will have to be tested against
such overall limits, under the respective appraisal exercises as part of the
approval process (see chapter 4.11).
1.9 Oversight of PPP Programs and Projects

PPP projects are usually implemented by the Executive branch of government.
The processes and responsibilities described in section 1.7 aim to create checks
and balances within the executive branch as to how those decisions are made.
This section describes the broader governance of the PPP program how other
entities and the general public participate in the PPP process, and how they hold
the executive accountable for its decisions and actions. Box 2.3 provides an
example of how this is undertaken for the UKs PFI.
154
Irwin and Mokdad (2010) Managing Contingent Liabilities in Public-Private Partnerships: Practice in
Australia, Chile, and South Africa. World Bank/Public Private Infrastructure Advisory Facility.
155
Brazil, Presidency of the Republic (2004) Law 11079 ("Federal PPP Law").
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BOX 2.21: Private Finance Initiative (PFI) Calls for Evidence
In 2011, the UK government decided that a fundamental reassessment of the
PFI model was needed. In part because during a period of fiscal austerity,
stakeholder groups and the public had become concerned that PPP
payments could not be cut, thereby forcing greater reductions in other parts of
the budget. As dissatisfaction mounted, many questioned whether the PPP
contracts had in fact provided Value for Money.
To provide an opportunity for all interested parties to bring forward proposals
on how best to reform the PFI model, the government launched a call for
evidence. In response:
o 136 submissions were received from a range of organizations, including
advisors, investors, contractors, service providers, academics, and the
public sector
o 3 responses were received from MPs
o 16 responses were received from individuals.
In light of the call for evidence, the government decided to reform the PFI
model and develop a new approach, PF2, for involving private finance in the
delivery of public infrastructure and services. The PF2 model seeks to
improve the Value for Money of financing projects, increase the transparency
of the liabilities created by long term projects, increase the equity returns
achieved by investors, speed up and reduce the cost of the procurement
process, and to provide greater flexibility in the provision of services.
Source: HM Treasury (2012) A New Approach to Public-Private Partnerships.
The entities and groups outside the executive with a role to play in ensuring good
governance of the PPP program can include:
The legislature: The legislative branch of government often defines the

PPP framework by passing PPP legislation. In some cases, the legislature
may be directly involved in the PPP process, approving PPP projects.
Legislators also exercise ex-post oversight, scrutinizing reports on the
governments PPP commitments. The role of the legislature is explored in
section 1.9.1;
Auditing entities: Many jurisdictions have independent audit entities.

These entities may consider PPP commitments as part of their regular
audit responsibilities for example, in auditing government financial
statements. They may also review PPP project performance, investigate
particular points of concern, or review the Value for Money of the program
as a whole. In turn, these reviews enable the legislature and the public to
94

check on PPP program performance. The role of auditing entities is
explored in section 1.9.2;
The public: The public can directly participate in PPP project design. This
can be done through consultation processes and in monitoring service
quality, if provided with channels for feedback. The transparency of the
PPP process as a whole, and an active media, can inform public opinion
and if the issues are serious enough influence elections. The role of the
public is explored further in section 1.9.3; and
Other mechanisms: There are some additional mechanisms that can be

used to ensure good governance of the PPP process. Probity advisors can
be engaged at each stage to identify and minimize any real or perceived
conflicts of interest. Public procurement watchdogs can monitor the
procurement process. Such mechanisms are explored in section 1.9.4.
1.9.1 Role of the Legislature

The legislative branch of government, that is, the elected, law-making parliament
or assembly may control the PPP process in several ways.
Defining the PPP legal framework and policy: The PPP framework is
often established in specific PPP legislation. As described earlier in this
chapter, one rationale for introducing a PPP law is to enable the legislative
branch of government to set rules for how PPPs will be developed and
implemented, against which those responsible can be held accountable;
Defining limits on PPP commitments: The legislature may limit total

PPP fiscal commitments (as highlighted in section 1.8.6), the amount
taken on in a year, or otherwise govern the risk and inter-generational
equity issues that PPPs can create;
Approving PPP projects: PPP projects may require parliamentary

approval, as described in section 1.7.5. This requirement can be limited to
PPP projects above a certain size. For example, the Hungarian PPP Act
(1992) states that the government must seek Parliaments approval before
signing a contract creating multi-year payment obligations with a present
value of more than $230 million.156 In Guatemala, all PPP contracts
require approval from Congress157. Requirements for parliamentary
156
Irwin (2007) Government Guarantees: Allocating and Valuing Risk in Privately Financed Infrastructure
Projects. World Bank.
157
Congress of the Republic of Guatemala (2010) Ley de Alianzas para el Desarollo de Infraestructura
Econmica (Law of Partnerships for the Management of Economic Infrastructure).
95

approval create a risk that a tender process will be conducted and a
preferred bidder will be selected, but parliament will not give the necessary
approval for the government to enter into the contract. This risk may
decrease investor appetite to bid for PPPs in the country; and
Program oversight: Many governments include information on the PPP

program in budget documents and other financial reports. Some Australian
states table project or contract summaries in parliament within a specified
time after financial close. This gives parliament the opportunity to
scrutinize the governments commitments to PPPs and hold the decision-
makers responsible after the event. Parliament may also commission and
receive auditors reports on the PPP program. Examples of legislative
oversight are provided in box 2.24.
BOX 2.22: Legislative Oversight of PPP Programs

In 2005, the Parliament (House of Commons) of the UK published a
performance audit of the 30 year PPP for the London Underground Urban
Mass Transit System. The report assessed the governments justification for
the maintenance and upgrade contract with the private sector, the Value for
Money analysis, and overall structure of the PPP. The report provided
conclusions and offered recommendations for future changes, which the UK
Treasury then addressed to Parliament.158
The Public Accounts and Estimate Committee in the Parliament of
Victoria, Australia reviewed Partnerships Victoria, the PPP program, in the
context of governance, risk allocation, accountability, protecting the public
interest, economic benefits and Value for Money, and international
accounting standards for PPPs. Recommendations were then made to
improve PPP policies and strengthen governance of the projects.159
1.9.2 Audit Entities and Ex-Post Evaluation

Audit entities are an important link in the chain of accountability for public
expenditure decisions, providing independent reviews of government finances
and performance to parliaments and to the public. The International Organization
158
Committee of Public Accounts (2005) London Underground Public Private Partnerships: 17th Report of
Session 2004-2005.
159
Public Accounts and Estimates Committee, Parliament of Victoria (2006) Report on Private Investment in
Public Infrastructure, Seventy First Report to the Parliament.
96

of Supreme Audit Institutions (INTOSAI) provides an online list of its member
audit entities.160
The mandate of supreme audit entities varies by jurisdiction, but should generally
include two levels of audit. The first is regularity audits which can include
auditing the financial statements of government entities and of the government as
a whole, and auditing decision-making processes for compliance and probity.
The second is performance or Value for Money audits, reviewing the
governments effectiveness and efficiency.161 Value for Money audits can be
conducted at the PPP program or project level.
While the remits of supreme audit entities vary, they typically extend only to
government agencies and entities wholly or majority owned by the government.
Supreme audit entities, therefore, typically do not have the right or responsibility
to audit PPP companies. Nonetheless, the private company often holds a lot of
relevant information. Attempts by an audit entity to access information held by the
private party can cause conflict.
To overcome this, the PPP contract can include requirements that the PPP
Company provide audited accounts and any other relevant data the government
may require. The audit entity also needs to be clear about its rights to access
information belonging to the PPP Company. INTOSAI has published guidelines
for auditing PPP projects (2007).162
Regularity auditing for PPPs

When carrying out regularity audits of contracting authorities, audit entities will
typically check that PPP commitments are appropriately reflected in the
accounts, and that PPP processes have been followed. Audits can occur at any
stage of the PPP process, including during project preparation or after
procurement.
Performance auditing of PPP projects and PPP programs

Auditing agencies may carry out performance or Value for Money audits of
particular PPP projects or broader PPP programs when there is concern over
160
See http://www.intosai.org/about-us/organisation/membership-list.html
161
INTOSAIs International Standards of Supreme Audit Institutions (ISSAI) 100 sets out basic principles in
government auditing. Paragraphs 34-44 describe the mandates of audit institutions, and define regularity
and performance audits.
162
INTOSAI (2007) Guidelines on Best Practice for the Audit of Public/Private Finance and Concessions
(revised).
97

whether processes have been appropriately followed, or whether the project is
providing Value for Money.
INTOSAI recommends that performance audits of PPP projects should be
conducted soon after procurement, and further reviews should be carried out
over the project lifetime covering the following information;
All major aspects of the deal that have a bearing on Value for Money, such
as required actions, outputs, and timing of delivery;
How the PPP was identified;
How the transaction process was managed;
The tender process that was adopted;
How the contract was finalized; and
Ongoing management of the PPP contract.163

Examples of a PPP project performance audit in two states in Australia are
outlined in box 2.25.
163
ibid.
98

BOX 2.23: Project Performance Audits
In the state of New South Wales, Australia, the auditor-general audited the
Cross City Tunnel, a PPP project that provides a highway underneath
Sydneys central business district. The 2006 report included an analysis of the
process in which the PPP contract was awarded, how the contract was
eventually amended, and whether the costs of the project to citizens were
justified. The project audit noted its high tolls, lower than expected levels of
traffic, implications of the upfront fees paid by the concessionaire, and a lack
of transparency in the amendment of the initial contract. The Auditor-General
provided opinions on each of these issues based on the analysis.
The state of Victoria, Australia, awarded concession contracts (called
franchises) for the tram and train system in the city of Melbourne. When
these operators ran into financial difficulties, the government decided to
renegotiate with the existing private contractors, rather than retender. This
raised some concerns for the resulting Value for Money. The government
carried out an ex post Value for Money audit of the concessions and
renegotiations. The report, published in 2005, focused on the effectiveness of
the responsible agency, transparency of the process, proper risk allocation of
the project, the development of public sector benchmarks, and adequate
monitoring systems.164
It may be useful for the PPP program as a whole to be audited after it has been
working for some time. Program-based audits should focus on providing
recommendations for improving the program. Box 2.26 provides an example.
BOX 2.24: Legislative Audits and Reviews of PPP Programs

In 2011, the UK National Audit Office (NAO) published a review of the PFI
program and other large procurement projects, and provided key lessons from
the UKs experience. The NAO assessed various aspects of the program,
including Value for Money, project preparation and implementation, and
accountability. Based on this analysis, the NAO offered recommendations for
future improvements to the PFI program.
Source: Controller and Auditor General (2011) Lessons from PFI and Other Projects National
Audit Office.
164
Auditor General Victoria (2005) Franchising Melbournes Train and Tram System Victorian Government
Printer. Available at: http://download.audit.vic.gov.au/files/ptfranchising_report.pdf.
99

1.9.3 Role of the Public
PPPs are meant to provide value to the public. Getting the right level of public
involvement in the PPP process and program can make or break the legitimacy
of a PPP program, and directly contribute to good governance. Direct public
participation at various points in the PPP process can improve project design.
Equally important, making PPP projects and processes transparent enables PPP
performance to be a factor in the public policy debate and public opinion on
regarding governments overall performance.
Public participation in the PPP process
Public participation can be introduced into the PPP process at three stages.
PPP program development engaging the public from the onset by

involving them in the development of the PPP policy framework and
continuing to seek feedback as the program is developed;
PPP project development introducing stakeholder consultation in the

PPP development process, so that public concerns can be taken into
consideration when structuring and implementing PPPs; and
PPP contract monitoring building mechanisms for user feedback and

grievance resolution into contract agreements and management
frameworks. Chapter 8 provide guidance and examples regarding how the
public can play a role in monitoring contractor performance.
Promoting transparency of the PPP program

Many governments make information about the PPP program publicly available.
This enables the media to report on the program, and allows the public to
develop informed opinions on the governments performance in implementing
PPPs.
As described in section 1.8.5, international standards require disclosure of
financial commitments to PPPs in national accounts. Performance audits and
reports are also commonly publicly available (refer to chapter 2.9.2). It is possible
to also require disclosure of key contract clauses, or entire PPP contracts.
Typically, any commercially sensitive elements of the contract are excluded from
the published version. For example, the state of Victoria (Australia) has a policy
of publishing all PPP contracts on the Victorian Government Purchasing Board
website (www.vgpb.vic.gov.au). In addition, a project summary is required,
100

providing information on the key project features and commercial terms of the
project.165
While many governments withhold key commercial terms from publications,
complete transparency can increase public trust in the program, so it should be
considered. In the Australian state of New South Wales, the Freedom of
Information Act requires information on PPPs to be made available to the public.
In British Columbia, and most other jurisdictions in Canada, requests for quotes
and proposals are disclosed during the procurement process, and the project
agreement (redacted) and a project summary report are disclosed as soon as
possible after financial close. A Freedom of Information and Protection of Privacy
Act (FOIPPA) governs the information that must be released (and withheld) if in
Canada.
The World Bank Group has recently published guidelines on best practice
frameworks for disclosure. These guidelines provide a suggested framework and
additional resources for policy makers interested in developing a policy for PPP
disclosure for their countries. Recommended aspects of frameworks for
disclosure are outlined in box 2.27BOX 2.25.
BOX 2.25: Disclosure Frameworks: Institutionalizing PPP Information

Disclosure and Transparency
Managing the disclosure of information for PPPs is paramount for better
management of PPP projects and programs. Many aspects of a sound and
reliable framework are related to information disclosure management: accounting
and reporting for PPP liabilities is in essence an information disclosure exercise
regarding liabilities and fiscal implications (this has been discussed in section
1.8). In addition, transparency is a key principle of any public procurement
process, and the private sector will only be interested (on a significant scale
rather than opportunistically) in PPP programs if the procurement rules provide
and protect transparency and fairness in selection, as well as access to
meaningful information and studies on the projects to enable potential bidders to
assess the opportunity in an efficient manner.
Governments must be accountable for their decisions (PPP procurement), which
implies that information must be available to be audited, including information
related to the fairness of the process itself and the performance of the PPP
project. Such audits are of interest to the political community, the general public,
and potential investors. This is discussed in section 1.9.
165 Partnerships Victoria (2001) Practitioners' Guide. State of Victoria.
101

Information disclosure can be proactive and reactive, and it can refer to the pre-
procurement phase and the post procurement phase. According to the World
Bank, the types of disclosure are as follows.
Reactive disclosure (also known as responsive disclosure) occurs in
response to a request for information, usually under a Freedom of
Information or Right to Information Act. Proactive disclosure includes all
information that is disclosed by governments either voluntarily or under a
mandate provided by legislation or policy.
Pre-procurement disclosure pertains to disclosure prior to the signing of
the contract. Post-procurement disclosure pertains to disclosure after the
signing of the agreement.
Information disclosure is so important that it becomes highly desirable to
institutionalize it through a specific framework which overlaps with other elements
of the PPP framework. The main challenge is in developing proactive disclosure
practices: reactive disclosure is more common in existing frameworks.
The benefits of information disclosure are very significant and may include
increased appetite from the private investor community, increased public
confidence in how tax payers money is being spent and whether the government
is achieving Value for Money, and above all (and interrelated with all those
objectives) a proper disclosure approach will be extraordinarily helpful to tackle
corruption.
A number of countries have developed structured and institutionalized
approaches to PPP information disclosure, including developed and EMDE
countries.
A paramount factor that promotes disclosure is the existence of Freedom of
Information Act (FOI) legislation, or equivalent requirements, that mandates
proactive disclosure and that applies to PPPs. The other most significant factor is
the imperative and pressure to create new infrastructure which links to the
objective of increasing private sector involvement and, consequently, with the
larger objective of reducing corruption. This may be the most relevant factor that
explains why practices relating to PPP disclosure have developed more rapidly in
some emerging countries, Colombia in particular.
There are many challenges to effective PPP information disclosure. These
include the reluctance of public bodies to share information in the absence of a
clear mandate or framework for proactive disclosure, the lack of clarity on
disclosure specific to PPPs, and the confidentiality issues with respect to
contracts and the interest of the private partner.
A framework for proactive PPP disclosure is similar to any general proactive
disclosure policy in terms of the broad elements (that is, what should be
disclosed, when and in what form, what should not be disclosed and the
102

responsibilities for disclosure). However, the special circumstances and
sensitivities associated with PPP projects (for example, the long contract period,
complex structure, provision of public services by the private party, multiplicity of
stakeholders and their sensitivities, and so on.) require a PPP disclosure policy to
go beyond a general disclosure policy in terms of the level of detail.
In this sense, Freedom of Information Acts, preferably with requirements for
proactive disclosure, along with PPP specific legislation/guidance, guidance on
confidential information, provision of standard contract clauses, and templates for
disclosing information from the full suite of instruments that can enable sound
disclosure and induce better disclosure practices.
Source: Adapted from A guide to disclosure in public-private partnership
projects (WBG and PPIAF).166
1.9.4 Promoting Procurement and Good Governance, and Reducing

Corruption
High value transactions attract the risk of corruption. Private players may attempt
to improperly influence transactions and public officials may attempt to extract
private profit from public office. Corruption in PPPs can be minimized using the
mechanisms outlined above clear processes and criteria, clear assignment of
responsibilities, oversight of the legislature and Supreme Audit Bodies, and
transparency of information and public involvement.
Probity advisors and auditors, as well as government procurement agencies, can
be used as additional mechanisms to further strengthen anti-corruption efforts.
Probity advisors and auditors

Probity advisors and auditors can be used to ensure that organizations act with
integrity and impartiality, that suppliers are treated equally, that there are
consistent and transparent processes, that intellectual property remains
confidential, that conflicts of interest are resolved, and that procurement
processes are aligned with capability. For example, the Victorian government in
166The new World Bank Group guidelines on disclosure of information (Guide to Disclosure in Public-Private
Partnership Projects) is based on the former report Disclosure of Project and Contract Information in Public-
Private Partnerships with further analysis, widening the scope to include both pre and post-procurement
information disclosure. It includes an analysis of reasons, benefits, and challenges as well as specific
intelligence on handling confidentiality issues and detailed guidelines to develop a disclosure framework
(including standard clauses and templates). These guidelines are complemented by a detailed study on a list
of jurisdictions and an analysis of case studies.
103

Australia, requires independent probity advice where the complexity of the
procurement activity warrants independent process oversight.167
In British Columbia and most of the other jurisdictions in Canada, fairness
advisors are used on every PPP project to provide an independent assurance of
fairness for both the public and market participants. The role of the fairness
advisor is described in procurement documents. In British Columbia, there is also
a Conflict of Interest Advisor who provides opinions on issues of conflict of
interest that may arise with the bidding teams.
Government procurement agencies

Government procurement agencies can be responsible for checking that
procurement processes have been followed. This is a role played by the
Contractor General in Jamaica (see box 28). In Romania, there are several
governmental agencies responsible for checking the procurement process from
different angles. The Unit for Coordination and Checking of Public Acquisitions is
responsible for checking the public procurement process in relation to public
acquisitions (including PPPs). The National Authority for Regulating and
Monitoring the Public Acquisitions is the entity currently in charge of promoting
and implementing public acquisitions policies in Romania. There are currently
discussions at the governmental level to unify the two entities under the
government General Office authority.
BOX 2.26: Public Role in Procurement Process Audits

In Jamaica, the contractor general undertook a detailed investigation of the
procurement process for a proposed Natural Gas Regasification project. This
was prompted by a letter from a concerned citizen noting that the project had
been the subject of direct negotiations. The 2011 report reviewed the entire
process of the procurement process, examining each of the actors and
highlighting potential conflicts of interest.
Source: Office of the Contractor General of Jamaica (2011) Special Report of Investigation: Allegations
Regarding the Proposal for the Financing, Development, Ownership, and Operation of a FSRU LNG
Re-Gasification Terminal and Natural Gas Transportation System available online at
http://www.japarliament.gov.jm/attachments/628_OCG%20LNG %20Special %20Investigation
%20Report%20Part%201.pdf.
167
State of Victoria (2014) Managing Probity Procurement Guide. [Online] Available at
www.procurement.vic.gov.au
104

105

References
The table below lists some of the most useful PPP guidance documents,
including those published by governments with successful PPP programs.
2 PPP Framework
1 Infrastructure Australia (2011) Detailed guidance material for implementing
National PPP Guidelines, Volume 2: agencies on how to implement PPP projects
Practitioners Guide, Commonwealth under the national PPP policy. This includes
of Australia project identification, appraisal, PPP
structuring, the tender process, and contract
management. There is detailed guidance in
the annexes on technical subjects.
2 Government of Colombia (2014) Guides for civil servants from national,
Gua de Asociaciones Pblico regional, and local governments. It sets out
Privadas, Departamento Nacional de in detail the processes and requirements for
Planeacin (Guidance for PPP identifying, assessing, preparing, tendering,
Development) Departamento and implementing PPP contracts.
Nacional de Planeacin
and
Government of Colombia (2010)
Manual de Procesos y
Procedimientos para la ejecucin de
Asociacin Pblico Asociaciones
Pblico Privadas (Process and
Procedures Manual for PPP
Projects) Ministerio de Hacienda y
Credito Publico Subdireccion de
Banca de Inversion
3 Ministry of Finance, Government of Online toolkit describing the PPP process

India (2011) PPP Toolkit for and providing sector specific guidance and
Improving PPP Decision-Making tools for practitioners on all stages of
Processes Department of Economic managing a PPP.
Affairs, Ministry of Finance,
Government of India
4 Government of Rio de Janeiro A guide for civil servants of the state of Rio
(2008) Manual De Parcerias de Janeiro on developing and implementing
Pblicoprivadas - PPPs (PPP PPPs. It defines PPPs and provides
Manual) guidance on drafting a preliminary proposal,
carrying out detailed technical studies,
managing the tender, and managing the
contract.
5 National Treasury, PPP Unit (2004) Manual for implementing agencies. It sets
Public Private Partnership Manual out, in detail, the process and requirements
Government of South Africa for developing and implementing PPPs in
106

accordance with the national PPP
regulation. Includes modules on PPP
inception, the PPP feasibility study, PPP
procurement, and managing the PPP
agreement. The annexes have tools and
templates used at each stage.
6 Kerf, Gray, Irwin, Levesque, and Describes and provides examples on
Taylor, under the direction of several of the important steps in developing
Michael Klein (1998) Concessions and implementing PPPs focusing on user-
for Infrastructure: A Guide to their pays PPPs, or concessions. Includes
Design and Award World Bank sections on detailed design, the tender
Technical Paper No. 399, World process, and the institutional (regulatory)
Bank and the Inter-American structure for contract management.
Development Bank
7 Farquharson, Torres de Mstle, and Describes and provides guidance on the
Yescombe, with Encinas (2011) How whole PPP process, highlighting the
to Engage with the Private Sector in experience of EMDE countries. Briefly
Public-Private Partnerships in covers project selection; the focus is on
Emerging Markets PPIAF, World preparing and bringing the project to market
Bank and engaging with the private sector.
8 PPIAF (2009) Online Toolkit for Module 5: Implementation and Monitoring
Public Private Partnerships in Roads provides guidance and links to further
and Highways, World Bank material on project identification, feasibility
studies and analysis, procurement, contract
award, and contract management.
9 World Bank and PPIAF (2006) Provides guidance on the PPP process,
Approaches to Private Participation from planning and upstream policy, to the
in Water Services: A Toolkit detail of structuring a PPP and
implementing a transaction. Focus is on
user-pays PPPs in the water sector.
10 World Bank and PPIAF (2007) Port Provides guidance on several aspects of
Reform Toolkit Second Edition PPPs in the port sector including guidance
on risk identification, financial analysis,
contract structuring, and contract
management approaches.
11 HM Treasury, UK (2015) The Green HM Treasury guidance for public sector
Book: Appraisal and Evaluation in bodies on how to prepare, appraise, and
Central Government evaluate proposals before committing funds
to a policy, program or project.
12 Construction Industry Council (1998) Highlights the benefits of PPPs to
Constructors Key Guide to PFI businesses engaged in construction.
Discusses pertinent topics to those buying
from the PPP market as well as those
supplying it, including the corporate risk of
over reliance on PPP concessions.
Dealing with Privately-Initiated Projects (unsolicited proposals)
Reference Description
107

1 PPIAF (2009) Online Toolkit Module 5: Implementation and Monitoring, Stage
for Public-Private Partnerships 3: Procurement includes a section on unsolicited
in Roads and Highways, World proposals which describes their benefits and
Bank challenges, and provides examples of both
successful and unsuccessful PPPs from
unsolicited proposals.
2 World Bank PPP in Section on procurement processes and
Infrastructure Resource standardized bidding documents briefly describes
Center, online at: the World Banks view on unsolicited proposals,
http://ppp.worldbank.org/pppirc and provides examples from and links to some
countries relevant law and policies.
3 Reddy and Kalyanapu Describes the approach to dealing with unsolicited
(undated) Unsolicited Proposal proposals in several Indian states which have
New Path to Public-Private adopted a Swiss Challenge process, and draws
Partnership: Indian lessons from Indias experience.
Perspective, Technische
Universiteit Eindhoven
4 Hodges and Dellacha (2007) Describes commonly used rationales for
Unsolicited Infrastructure advocating direct negotiation on the basis of
Proposals: How Some unsolicited proposals, and describes the systems
Countries Introduce and policies that some countries have instead
Competition and introduced to promote competitive tension.
Transparency, PPIAF Working Appendices describe the approach and
Paper No. 1, 2007 experience with unsolicited proposals in several
countries in Africa, the Americas and Asia, and
includes links to the relevant laws and regulations.
5 Hodges (2003) Unsolicited Provides an overview of important issues
Proposals: The Issues for governments face when dealing with unsolicited
Private Infrastructure Projects, proposals including when and how they should be
World Bank Public Policy for accepted, and why and how competition should
the Private Sector Note be introduced into the process.
Number 257
6 Hodges (2003) Unsolicited Describes the experience of four countries dealing
Proposals: Competitive with unsolicited proposals: Chile, the Republic of
Solutions for Private Korea, the Philippines, and South Africa.
Infrastructure Projects, World
Bank Public Policy for the
Private Sector Note Number
258
7 UNCITRAL (2001) Legislative Section E provides guidance on both policies and
Guide on Privately Financed procedures for dealing with unsolicited proposals.
Infrastructure Projects, United Distinguishes between proposals that do or do not
Nations require proprietary technology.
108

8 PPIAF (2014) Unsolicited This study discusses a series of global trends
Proposals An Exception to related to USP processes, including lessons
Public Initiation of learned from the management of such proposals,
Infrastructure PPPs: An and some key implications for further
Analysis of Global Trends and considerations.
Lessons Learned, World Bank
Institutional Responsibilities
1 Castalia (2009) Benchmarking Report examining the progress of Indonesias
Indonesias PPP program PPP program and offering recommendations for
Report to the World Bank growth based on comparisons with programs in
Institute Colombia , Netherlands and South Africa.
2 Akitoby, Hemming, and A short booklet describing the implications of
Schwartz (2007) Public PPPs for public investment, including how PPP
Investment and Public-Private commitments should be managed and controlled.
Partnerships, IMF Economic
Issues No. 40
3 World Bank Sustainable This report provides a comprehensive
Development Department in assessment of the effectiveness of PPP units in
East Asia and Pacific (2007) developed and developing countries. The report
Public-Private Partnership offers lessons in the context in which PPP units
Units: Lessons for their Design have been most effective.
and Use in Infrastructure,
World Bank, PPIAF
4 Sanghi, Sundakov, and Summary of lessons from source #3 above.
Hankinson (2007) Designing
and Using Public-Private
Partnership Units in
Infrastructure: Lessons from
Case Studies Around the
World, Gridlines Note No. 27,
Sept 2007
5 Dutz, Harris, Dhingra, and A short note reviewing several country
Shugart (2006) Public-Private experiences with PPP units. It provides high-level
Partnership Units: What Are recommendations to improve governance and
They, and What Do They Do? their effectiveness.
World Bank Public Policy for
the Private Sector Note 311
6 Energy and Infrastructure Unit More details on case studies presented in source
and Finance and Private #5 above, including their applicability to India.
Sector Development Unit,
South Asia Region (2006)
India: Building Capacities for
Public-Private Partnerships,
World Bank
109

7 Farrugia, Reynolds, and Orr A review of PPP units with a focus on experiences
(August 2008) Public-Private of developed countries. The report includes case
Partnership Agencies: A studies and reviews the key aspects of eight
Global Perspective. Stanford different agencies.
University Collaboratory for
Research on Global Projects,
Working Paper
#39
8 OECD (2010) Dedicated Provides an overview of dedicated PPP units in
Public-Private Partnership OECD countries, including case studies of the
Units: A Survey of Institutional experiences of five jurisdictions (state of Victoria,
and Governance Structure Australia, Germany, Korea, South Africa and the
OECD United Kingdom).
[ISBN: 9789264006515]
9 Burger (2006) The Dedicated This paper provides a review of the PPP program
PPP Unit of the South African in South Africa and its dedicated PPP unit.
Treasury Paper presented at
the OECD Symposium on
Agencies and PPPs
10 M Muller, R Simpson and M Case studies on user participation in PPPs.
van Ginneken (2008) Ways to
improve water services by
making utilities more
accountable to their users: a
review. World bank /BNWP
Note 15 May 2008
11 State Secretariat for Economic Addresses the challenges in the proper definition
Affairs SECO of governance structures for all actors. How roles
Economic Cooperation and and responsibilities must be assigned. How
Development (2005) Public- regulatory mechanisms must be established from
Private Partnerships for Water the outset. In addition, it examines how the
Supply and Sanitation involvement of civil society can be ensured.
Public financial management of PPPs
1 Irwin (2003) Public Money for Describes different payment mechanisms for
Private Infrastructure: Deciding subsidies to infrastructure projects including
When to Offer Guarantees, output-based payments and upfront capital
Output-Based Subsidies, and subsidies and how the government can decide
Other Fiscal Support, World which is most appropriate.
Bank Working Paper No. 10
2 Irwin (2007) Government Chapter 3 describes lessons from history of
Guarantees Allocating and government guarantees to private infrastructure
Valuing Risk in Privately projects, with cautionary tales of governments that
Financed Infrastructure experienced significant fiscal exposure. Chapter 4
Projects World Bank describes why governments can make bad
decisions on providing guarantees.
110

3 Castalia and WBI (2011) The report provides a framework for why
Subsidy Funding Mechanisms subsidies are sometimes needed for PPPs. The
for Public Private Partnerships report has case studies of PPP subsidy programs
in Latin America in Brazil, Colombia, India and Mexico.
4 Schwartz, Corbacho, and A collection of papers on managing the fiscal
Funke (eds.) (2007) Public impact of PPPs, drawing from an IMF conference
Investment and Public-Private held in Budapest in 2007. Part Two: Fiscal Risks
Partnerships, IMF [available from PPPs, and Part Four: PPP Accounting,
from Palgrave in hard back, Reporting, and Auditing are particularly relevant to
ISBN-13 978-0-230-20133-0] public financial management for PPPs.
5 OECD (2008) Public-Private The book identifies best practices for maximizing
Partnerships: In Pursuit of Risk Value for Money for PPP projects, including
Sharing and Value for Money accounting for fiscal impacts and affordability. The
Organization for Economic book also covers issues with regulatory reform,
Cooperation and Development governance, and developing institutional capacity.
[ISBN-9789264042797]
6 Cebotari (2008) Contingent A seminal paper on managing contingent
Liabilities: Issues and Practice,
liabilities, including for PPP projects. It includes
IMF Working Papercase studies to illustrate management challenges
WP/08/245 and practices from different countries and issues.
These case studies also highlight best practices.
7 Akitoby, Hemming, and A short booklet describing the implications of
Schwartz (2007) Public PPPs for public investment, including how PPP
Investment and Public-Private commitments should be managed and controlled.
Partnerships, IMF Economic
Issues No. 40
Oversight of PPP Programs
1 Machado PPP Audits in A collection of papers on managing the fiscal
Portugal, and Bager Hungarys impact of PPPs, drawing from an IMF conference
Audit Experience with PPPs held in Budapest in 2007. Part Four: PPP
Both in Schwartz, Corbacho, Accounting, Reporting, and Auditing examines the
and Funke (eds.) (2007) Public role of different institutions to ensure
Investment and Public-Private accountability.
Partnerships, IMF [available
from Palgrave in hard back,
ISBN-13 978-0-230-20133-0]
2 INTOSAI (2007) Guidelines on Provides guidelines on best practices for
Best Practice for the Audit of evaluating PPP projects throughout the entire
Public/Private Finance and lifecycle.
Concessions (revised)
3 United Nations Economic This guidebook does two things:

Commission for Europe 1. Demonstrates how governments and the private
(2008), Guidebook on sector can improve governance in
Promoting Good Governance PPPs.
in PPPs 2. Creates a basis for the elaboration of training
modules for PPPs.
111

112

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The APMG Public-Private Partnership (PPP) Certification Guide

RIGHTS AND PERMISSIONS

ADB, EBRD, IDB, IsDB, MIF, PPIAF and WBG 2016

ADB, EBRD, IDB, IsDB, MIF, PPIAF and WBG 2016

ADB, EBRD, IDB, IsDB, MIF, PPIAF and WBG 2016

ADB, EBRD, IDB, IsDB, MIF, PPIAF and WBG 2016

BOX 2.1: Learning Objectives

ADB, EBRD, IDB, IsDB, MIF, PPIAF and WBG 2016

ADB, EBRD, IDB, IsDB, MIF, PPIAF and WBG 2016

ADB, EBRD, IDB, IsDB, MIF, PPIAF and WBG 2016

BOX 2.2: Conflicting Objectives and Risks in PPPs

Increasing the capability of government agencies to deliver PPPs:

Providing a structured way of reconciling disparate objectives:

ADB, EBRD, IDB, IsDB, MIF, PPIAF and WBG 2016

Making sure that whole-of-government risk is limited: Sector

Generating market interest: A key factor for a successful PPP is a

Facilitating probity and oversight of the PPP program: As with any

ADB, EBRD, IDB, IsDB, MIF, PPIAF and WBG 2016

Step Dabhol Better approach

Identification of a By a private party on From an integrated sector plan

Selection of a By negotiation with a Through competitive processes

Appraisal Advice by the World Projects that are not affordable

Contractual Negotiation based Contract developed by the

ADB, EBRD, IDB, IsDB, MIF, PPIAF and WBG 2016

It is desirable to initially establish general principles and then provide the

1.2 What is in a PPP Framework?

ADB, EBRD, IDB, IsDB, MIF, PPIAF and WBG 2016

Procedures: What things need to be done, by whom, in what order, to

Decision criteria: How will decisions be made at each step? Again, at

Institutional responsibilities: Which entities are responsible for which

1.3 Objectives of the PPP Framework

ADB, EBRD, IDB, IsDB, MIF, PPIAF and WBG 2016

Enabling more investment in infrastructure by increasing project

Achieving Value for Money in the provision of infrastructure and public

Improving accountability in the provision of infrastructure and public

Harnessing private sector innovation and efficiency;

Ensuring that the long-term delivery and management of PPPs is

Stimulating growth and development in the country.

ADB, EBRD, IDB, IsDB, MIF, PPIAF and WBG 2016

TABLE 2.2: Examples PPP Policy Objectives

Country PPP Objectives

ADB, EBRD, IDB, IsDB, MIF, PPIAF and WBG 2016

Country PPP Objectives

ADB, EBRD, IDB, IsDB, MIF, PPIAF and WBG 2016

1.4 Scope of the PPP Framework

ADB, EBRD, IDB, IsDB, MIF, PPIAF and WBG 2016

ADB, EBRD, IDB, IsDB, MIF, PPIAF and WBG 2016

Government-pays contracts: The government agrees to pay the private

ADB, EBRD, IDB, IsDB, MIF, PPIAF and WBG 2016

Summary Examples of Scope Definitions

TABLE 2.1: Example Definitions of PPP Framework Scope

Country PPP Policy Scope

ADB, EBRD, IDB, IsDB, MIF, PPIAF and WBG 2016

Country PPP Policy Scope

ADB, EBRD, IDB, IsDB, MIF, PPIAF and WBG 2016

Country PPP Policy Scope

Difficult to develop and inflexible to change: The greater the scope

ADB, EBRD, IDB, IsDB, MIF, PPIAF and WBG 2016

Unable to address unique infrastructure challenges: Specific laws

ADB, EBRD, IDB, IsDB, MIF, PPIAF and WBG 2016

1.5 Choice of Legal and Administrative Instruments to

How will the PPP framework be made binding on government officials?

How will the PPP framework be communicated to all stakeholders? and