Unit X.
Drilling Fluid Program
What drilling fluids do
1. SAFETY FIRST -
Essential Tool for Well
Control -
Select density to provide
sufficient hydrostatic head
Two means to control
density
-- Fine dense solids
Drilling Engineering
1. Functions of Drilling Fluids
Functions of Drilling Fluids
This section summarizes the critical functions performed by drilling
fluids. Depending upon the specific well application, some functions
will be more important than others.
The primary means of well control is the hydrostatic head provided
by the column of drilling fluid in the hole, which is controlled by the
drilling fluid density (DFD) or mud weight (MW).
MW is usually specified in pounds per gallon (ppg) or in specific
gravity (sp gr). Specific gravity of liquids and solids is calculated by
dividing the density of the substance by the density of water at 4C in
the same units. Specific gravity is dimensionless. To convert from
mud weight to density in specific gravity units,
SP GR = ppg / 8.34
[Note that specific gravity of gases is calculated by dividing the
density of the gas by the density of air.]
Hydrostatic head is calculated by:
Head (psi) = (0.052) Vertical depth (ft) Mud weight (ppg)
103) Vertical depth (m) DFD (sp gr)
Head (MPa) = (9.8110
Drilling fluid density is controlled either by adding weight material
of a fine enough grind to remain in suspension or by using brines of
selected density as the continuous phase of the fluid.
Examples of common weight materials are:
barite (API sp gr = 4.2)
calcium carbonate (sp gr = 2.7-2.8)
hematite (API sp gr = 5.05)
1 revised March 1999
 Unit X. Drilling Fluid Program

Functions of Drilling Fluids (contd)

-- Dense liquids Examples of common brines are:

NaCl (10 ppg at 26 wt% saturation at room temperature - RT)
CaCl2 (11.6 ppg near 40 wt% saturation at RT)
NaBr (12.5 ppg near 48 wt% saturation at RT)
KCl (9.7 ppg at 24 wt% saturation at RT)
Na-formate (11.1 ppg near 45 wt% saturation at RT)
K-formate (13.1 ppg near 75 wt% saturation at RT)
CaBr2 (14.2 ppg near 52 wt% saturation at RT)

But, to suspend fine weight To suspend solids (both weight material and cuttings) when
material ... circulation ceases, a drilling fluid must provide suspension character
that is both solid-like and time-dependent.
Viscoelastic and
Thixotropic properties must Viscoelastic refers to the fluid property of behaving
exist simultaneously like a liquid and like a solid. Depending upon
shear rate regime, liquid-like or solid-like behavior may
dominate. For drilling fluids, liquid-like behavior dominates at a
few sec-1 and greater shear rate, while solid-like behavior may
dominate in an ultra-low shear rate regime.
Thixotropic refers to the property of time-dependent fluid
rheology, where the viscosity will increase with time under zero
shear. At a constant rate of shear, effective viscosity will
decrease with time until an equilibrium is reached.

Density also provides The drilling fluid density also provides the buoyancy factor used in
Buoyancy for tubulars tubular calculations.
BF = 65.5 - MW
65.5

Drilling Engineering 2 revised March 1999

1. Functions of Drilling Fluids
 Unit X. Drilling Fluid Program

Functions of Drilling Fluids (contd)

2. NEXT, CARRY
CUTTINGS -
If drilling fluids exhibited a Newtonian rheological profile in laminar
Begin with a Rheology flow, then viscosity would be constant at all shear rates.
primer
Viscosity = Shear Stress (SS) Shear Rate (SR)

SS = viscosity SR
Temperature-dependent
Note that rheology is a strong function of temperature, so that
temperature must always be well-defined.

Non-Newtonian rheology However, drilling fluids are designed with a non-Newtonian, shear-
models are used to thinning rheological profile under laminar flow conditions. This
characterize drilling fluid means that because viscosity varies with shear rate, effective
rheology viscosity must be defined at a specific shear rate. Recall that
viscosity is defined as shear stress (SS) divided by shear rate (SR).
Drilling fluid viscosity in laminar flow is most often modeled by:
Bingham Plastic
Two-parameter Bingham Plastic model (Plastic Viscosity {PV},
Yield Point {YP})
SS = PV SR + YP
Power Law Two-parameter Power Law model (Power Law Exponent {n},
Consistency Index {K})
SS = K SR n
Three-parameter Yield-Power Law or Herschel-Buckley model
Yield Power Law
(n, K, Yield stress {YS})
SS - YS = K SR n

Interpretation of rheology The Bingham Plastic model does not represent the rheogram (that is,
models shear stress vs shear rate plot) of a drilling fluid sample as well as
does the Power Law or Yield-Power Law models.
However, the Bingham Plastic model is convenient for interpreting
and treating drilling fluids. Plastic Viscosity and Yield Point each
are controlled by different constituents of the drilling fluid, which are
listed in the Table below. By understanding these different controls,
it is easier to prescribe drilling fluid problems and treatments.

Drilling Engineering 3 revised March 1999

1. Functions of Drilling Fluids
 Unit X. Drilling Fluid Program

Functions of Drilling Fluids (contd)

PV and YP Influences Plastic Viscosity (PV) Yield Point (YP)

Liquid phase viscosity Electrostatic interactions

Quantity of suspended solids
Size of suspended solids
Shape of suspended solids
Concentration of colloidal
fraction
Size of colloidal size fraction
Shape of colloidal size fraction

Field measurement of Because there are several rheology models that can be used, and
rheology because the drilling fluid is subjected to many different shear rates
when circulating, six-speed rheometers should be used to monitor the
fluid rheogram if possible. This would provide readings at rpm-
values of 600, 300, 200, 100, 6 and 3, corresponding to the range of
shear rates from 1022 sec-1 to 5.1 sec-1.
In addition, note that rheology readings are most commonly
Common temperature of measured at a temperature of 120F. (Occasionally oil-base /
120F synthetic drilling fluids are measured at 150F). Another value can
be specified, but must be so-indicated.
Drilling fluid behavior downhole at a significantly different
temperature may or may not be well-represented by the behavior at
120F. In general, bentonite clay-base fluids may significantly
thicken at higher temperature, while polymer-base fluids will
likely thin at higher temperature.

Conversion of Dial Reading A Table to convert dial readings from a Fann-style viscometer to
to Effective Viscosity effective viscosity in centipoise (cP) is provided below. The
conversion factor is {RPM/300}.

Drilling Engineering 4 revised March 1999

1. Functions of Drilling Fluids
 Unit X. Drilling Fluid Program

Functions of Drilling Fluids (contd)

Conversion Table SR SR SS SS Effective

(rpm) (sec-1) (dial reading) Conversion Viscosity (cP)
Factor EXAMPLE
EXAMPLE
{300/RPM}
600 1022 54 x 0.5 27

300 511 33 x 1.0 33

200 341 26 x 1.5 39

100 170 17 x 3.0 51

6 10.2 9 x 50 450

3 5.1 8 x 100 800

Rheogram plot of A plot of shear stress as a function of shear rate will show gradually
decreasing dial readings with decreasing shear rate. However, a plot
SS vs SR compared to of effective viscosity as a function of shear rate clearly shows
Effective Viscosity vs SR increasing viscosity with decreasing shear rate. This means that:
Drilling fluids are non-Newtonian: viscosity changes with shear.
Drilling fluids are shear-thinning: viscosity decreases with
increasing shear, or viscosity increases with decreasing shear.

60

Rheogram: Shear Stress vs

Shear Rate 50
Shear Stress (Fann dial readings)

40

30

20

10

0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Shear Rate (Fann RPM)

Drilling Engineering 5 revised March 1999

1. Functions of Drilling Fluids
 Unit X. Drilling Fluid Program

Functions of Drilling Fluids (contd)

1000

Effective Viscosity vs Shear

Rate

Effective Viscosity (cP)

100

10

1
1 10 100 1000 10000
Shear Rate (sec- 1 )

Why concern with multiple The Chart below shows the various shear rates that the drilling fluid
shear rates encounters during circulation.

Shear rates experienced by 10000

the drilling fluid during

circulation
Pit
1000
Viscosity (cP)

Drill String

100 Annulus

Bit

10
1 10 100 1000 10000 100000
Shear Rate (sec-1)

Drilling Engineering 6 revised March 1999

1. Functions of Drilling Fluids

Functions of Drilling Fluids (contd)
Transmit hydraulic energy
down the drill string
[SR range:
100 - 500 sec-1]
Remove cuttings beneath
the bit
[SR range:
10,000 - 100,000 sec-1]
Carry cuttings up annulus
[SR range:
10 - 100 sec-1]
Release cuttings at surface
[SR range:
100 - 1000 sec-1]
Suspend fine solids in the
surface compartments
[SR range:
1 - 10 sec-1]
Drilling Engineering
1. Functions of Drilling Fluids
Unit X. Drilling Fluid Program
At high shear rate, drilling fluid viscosity should be low, approaching
the value of the PV in cP (centipoise). Hydraulic energy from the
mud pumps is transmitted down the drillstring by the drilling fluid,
which may be in turbulence. Viscosity at higher shear rate should be
as low as possible to transmit energy.
At the very high shear rate in the bit nozzles, drilling fluid viscosity
should be approaching the value of the PV in cP (centipoise). High
fluid velocity is needed to most efficiently remove cuttings from
beneath the bit, up to the bit founder point.
The largest shear rate in the circuit of the drilling fluid is through the
bit nozzles, where shear rates are typically between 10,000 sec-1 and
100,000 sec-1. Recent Exxon work showed that shear rates greater
than 100,000 sec-1 may contribute to hole washout.
In the annulus, shear rates next to the drillpipe are low, in the 10 sec-1
to 100 sec-1 range, during circulation. Here, fluid viscosity should be
higher, in order to aid the lifting of cuttings up the hole. In addition,
suspension character is important to prevent cuttings from falling
through the fluid column to create fill or a cuttings bed in the hole.
At the surface, the fluid is circulated over vibrating screens, through
a degasser and hydrocyclones and perhaps through a decanting
centrifuge. Structural viscosity would impede the ability of the
cuttings particles to be released at the surface. Thus, the shear-
thinning nature of the fluid allows both cuttings and entrained air or
gas to be released at the surface: the shear rate regime of the solids
processing equipment is greater than in the annulus.
Finally, an active volume of drilling fluid resides at the surface in the
surface compartments, experiencing only mild agitation. The fluid
must have sufficient high viscosity at low shear rate to keep the
weight material and other added solids in suspension.
7 revised March 1999
 Unit X. Drilling Fluid Program

Functions of Drilling Fluids (contd)

3. CONTROL INVASION -
Create low-permeability
filtercake
Decrease friction between
drillstring & formation
Drilling fluids are designed to contain a sufficient quantity of solids
of the correct size, shape, flexibility and compressibility to create a
filtercake when circulated across a permeable borehole wall.
A typical drilling fluid filtercake will exhibit a room temperature
(RT) filtercake permeability in the 1-5 d (microdarcy) range.
Because permeable rock has a permeability in the 1-10,000 md
(millidarcy) range (or 0.001-10 darcy range), filtration from the
wellbore into the permeable rock is controlled by the filtercake. In
the case of shales, however, where permeability is known to be in the
nanodarcy (nd) range, the filtercake does not control filtrate invasion.

Materials that control Well-deflocculated bentonite, with its fine particle size (<1 m)
filtration rate into permeable and anisotropic shape (like a piece of paper)
rock
Fine (<10 m) particles, such as low-gravity drill solids, the fine
fraction of barite or hematite
Fine particles, such as specially-sized ground calcium carbonate
or sized salt (NaCl)
Organic colloids, such as starch and specialty starch
Filtration control polymers that work with bentonite and drill
solids, such as PAC (polyanionic cellulose), and other synthetic
polymers, especially HT polymers
Hydrocarbon-dispersible materials, such as gilsonite, asphaltene
Fine seepage loss additives, such as mica, cellulose fibers

Filtration Rate or Although monitoring of filtration control often focuses primarily on

Filtercake? filtration rate, the filtercake is of most concern to the drilling
operation. Optimum filtercake properties are:
Low-permeability: <1-2 d at RT and 100 psi P
Thin: 1/32-in to 2/32-in at RT/100 psi P, 2/32-in to 4/32-in at
HT/500-1000 psi

Drilling Engineering 8 revised March 1999

1. Functions of Drilling Fluids
 Unit X. Drilling Fluid Program

Functions of Drilling Fluids (contd)

Slick: no formal measurement exists, but torque meters,

Stickometers, or Stickance meters are available.
Compressible: A compressible filtercake will control filtration
rate to much lower values at higher pressure than traditional
engineering theory would predict.

Thin filtercake A thin, low-permeability filtercake will reduce the risk of differential
sticking by minimizing the contact area between drillpipe collars and
the filtercake. This filtercake characteristic is extremely important
across permeable zones, particularly where there is high overbalance
pressure.

Slick filtercake A slick filtercake will be comprised of lots of fine, soft materials, and
may contain some surfactant-type additives. In the case of oil-base /
synthetic fluids, oil will be coating the particles in the filtercake.
This filtercake characteristic is extremely important in extended-
reach and horizontal drilling.

Compressible filtercake A compressible filtercake will maintain low filtration rate, even as
differential pressure (P) increases. The simple engineering theory
of filtration with non-compressible particles predicts a P
relationship between pressure and filtrate volume. That is, if
filtration rate is measured at P of both 100 psi and 500 psi, then the
500 psi rate would be predicted to increase to 2.2 the 100 psi rate
because 5 = 2.2. However, a good filtercake created by a drilling
fluid at 500 psi overbalance rate will only show an increase of 1.0 to
1.2 times the 100 psi rate.
Mobile Bay experience Recent filtration rate data measured at 300F and both 700 psi and
3900 psi P for HT drilling at Mobile Bay (Alabama, U.S. Gulf of
Mexico) showed a ratio between the 3900 and 700 psi rates of only a
factor of 1.0-1.2, rather than the predicted 2.4. Such data only result
from an extremely compressible filtercake.

Drilling Engineering 9 revised March 1999

1. Functions of Drilling Fluids
 Unit X. Drilling Fluid Program

Functions of Drilling Fluids (contd)

Always demand an accurate As part of planning the drilling fluid program with the service
measurement of the company, ensure that accurate filtercake thickness measurements are
filtercake being made. Require that a ruler accurate to 32nds-in is provided to
the mud engineer. If on rigsite, ask to see the filtercake, particularly
the one from the HTHP test.

How to calculate filtercake Filtercake permeability is approximated at room temperature and

permeability 100 psi P, when API filtration rate is measured in cm per
3

30 minutes (Volfiltrate) and filtercake thickness measured in 32nds of

an inch (Thickfiltercake) by:
kfiltercake-RT-100psi = (0.11) Volfiltrate Thickfiltercake
This assumes that the filtercake was a constant thickness throughout
the measurement, which is incorrect. However, it is a simple but
reasonable darcy-style approximation.
To calculate for a different P,
Variable differential
pressure kfiltercake-RT-P = kfiltercake-RT-100psi {(
P/100)}1/2

Variable temperature To calculate for a different, higher temperature (HT), approximate

the decrease in filtrate viscosity with temperature by the decrease in
water viscosity (water) with temperature, as listed in the Table below.
kfiltercake-HT-100psi = kfiltercake-RT-100psi (
HT / RT)

Table of Water Viscosity Temperature Viscosity (cP) Temperature Viscosity (cP)

vs Temperature 32F / 0C 1.787 150F / 66C 0.427

39F / 4C 1.567 200F / 96C 0.304
50F / 10C 1.307 225F / 107C 0.27
68F / 20C 1.002 250F / 121C 0.24
100F / 38C 0.678 275F / 135C 0.21
120F / 49C 0.556 300F / 149C 0.19

Drilling Engineering 10 revised March 1999

1. Functions of Drilling Fluids

Functions of Drilling Fluids (contd)
Graph of Water Viscosity vs
Temperature
Allow adequate formation
evaluation
Minimize formation damage
Drilling Engineering
1. Functions of Drilling Fluids
Unit X. Drilling Fluid Program
2
1.6
Viscosity (cP)
1.2
Water
0.8
0.4
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Temperature (oF)
Filtration rate only becomes important when across the actual
payzones, because filtration rate impacts the extent of invasion of
drilling fluid filtrate into the reservoir. Some filtrate invasion is
assumed for most log interpretation schemes that use resistivity or
conductivity tools. A low-permeability filtercake usually
corresponds to a lower filtration rate.
Filtrate invasion may damage the formation, although minimum
invasion is not critical, in a cased and perforated well situation. The
primary damage concern besides filtration rate is spurt loss, the
initial continuous flow of whole drilling fluid across fresh, porous
rock. In the standard API filtration measurements that employ filter
paper as the filtration medium, spurt loss is not usually very large.
For spurt loss monitoring, a permeable filter medium is usually
required, such as 1/4-in thick aloxite discs that are used in the
modified HTHP filtration cell apparatus called the PPA, permeability
plugging apparatus. Because there is a selection of pore throat sizes
available, the pore throat size should be matched to the anticipated
reservoir pore throat and permeability characteristics.
11 revised March 1999

Functions of Drilling Fluids (contd)
High permeability zones
Protect borehole wall -
Low permeability shales
Drilling Engineering
1. Functions of Drilling Fluids
Unit X. Drilling Fluid Program
In special situations, the drilling fluid must provide further protection
to the borehole wall, by incorporating specialty additives, based upon
a set of laboratory tests. Some examples are:
Unconsolidated sand: incorporate 10-20 lb/bbl mixed seepage
loss additives such as cellulose fiber, graphite, gilsonite to build a
strong filtercake
Fractured, illitic siltstone: incorporate 5-10 lb/bbl cellulose
fiber or graphite, or 3-5 vol% sodium silicate, or asphalt / glycol
products to seal microfractures
Although shales are known to have nanodarcy permeability, one
current theory assumes the existence of hydraulic invasion due to the
differential pressure. This initial pressure front is then followed by
actual filtrate invasion and ion exchange. These three mechanisms
then can lead to swelling of the shale interlayers and resultant shale
weakening and failure. These mechanisms were discussed in the
Wellbore Stability Section of Unit III.
To mitigate this situation, there are two approaches, which are
optimum when combined:
Plug microscopic pores: Silicate-base drilling fluids have been
shown to plug microscopic shale pores by precipitating as fine
calcium silicate in the presence of calcium exchange ion on clays.
A typical additive level is up to 5 vol%. Alternate inorganic
materials may be phosphates or aluminates. Cloudpoint glycols
are also believed to contribute to a plugging mechanism, if the
cloudpoint has been correctly selected to be above the circulating
temperature but below the shale static temperature, also at about
a 5 vol% level.
12 revised March 1999
 Unit X. Drilling Fluid Program

Functions of Drilling Fluids (contd)

Pull water out of the shale - water-base fluids: Studies have

shown that shales exhibit partial membrane behavior, even with
water-base drilling fluids, so that osmotic forces apply.
Therefore, the drilling fluid filtrate can be designed for lower
activity by introducing high concentrations of salts and glycols /
glycerols. The WBSD program specifically calculates a range of
recommended KCl concentration, from 5 to 18 wt%, as a
function of shale strength, which is currently characterized by
surface area.
Pull water out of the shale - oil-base / synthetic fluids: Oil-
base fluids have been known to exhibit osmotic membrane
behavior for several decades, based upon the balanced activity
concept developed at EPR by M. Chenevert. For these fluids,
low activity can be readily achieved with CaCl2 brines emulsified
as the internal phase.

Drilling Engineering 13 revised March 1999

1. Functions of Drilling Fluids

Functions of Drilling Fluids (contd)
4. ADDITIONAL
FUNCTIONS -
Decrease friction between
drillstring & casing
Lubricate & cool bit
Drilling Engineering
1. Functions of Drilling Fluids
Unit X. Drilling Fluid Program
In highly-extended reach wells, or wells that have accumulated
severe doglegs, the friction between the drillstring and the casing or
impermeable rock may become large enough that pickup and
slackoff weights are increasing at a critical rate or that rotating torque
is reaching rig limits. In these cases, employing the drilling fluid to
reduce the friction coefficient (COF) is one means to reduce torque
and drag.
If water-base fluids are being used, COF = 0.28 - 0.34, based
upon both field and laboratory measurements, in the absence of
any specific lubricants.
To reduce water-base fluid COF, selected water-dispersible film-
forming lubricants are available, that have been tested both at
EPR and in the field. These include TekMud 8588, IDLUBE XL,
Finagreen EBL, Barolube Goldseal and other products. Friction
reduction of 20% to 50% may be possible, to reduce to COF =
0.20 - 0.25.
If further COF reduction is required, then the fluid should be
switched over to an oil-base or synthetic drilling fluid that
employs surfactant and emulsifiers in the additive package. In
this case, based upon field and laboratory measurements, COF
can be lowered to COF = 0.15 - 0.18.
Both water and oils and synthetics are effective liquid heat transfer
media, to aid in cooling the drill bit. With roller cone bits, cooling
by the drilling fluid protects the bearings within the bit, as well as the
bit-rock contact. With fixed cutter (PDC) bits, cooling is critical at
the bit-rock contact.
Bottomhole circulating temperature (BHCT) is often 50-plusF less
than bottomhole static temperature (BHST). It often takes 24 to 36
hours for the well to equilibrate to BHST, once circulation ceases, in
the presence of drilling fluids.
14 revised March 1999

Functions of Drilling Fluids (contd)
Example circulating
temperature profile
Protect tubulars from
corrosion
Neutralize H2S effects
JEB / X-Drilling Fluid Program / 1-Functions of Drilling Fluids
Drilling Engineering
1. Functions of Drilling Fluids
Unit X. Drilling Fluid Program
Temperature (oF)
50 100 150 200 250 300
0
2000
Annular Temperature
4000
Profile
Depth (ft)
6000
Geothermal Gradient
8000
10000
12000
Drilling fluid alkalinity is the primary method of preventing
corrosion of tubulars, if water-base drilling fluids are used. Drilling
fluid pH is maintained in the typical alkaline range of pH 9 to 10, but
can range up to pH 12, in some situations. Alkaline pH is required to
provide colloidal stability, but high pH also benefits tubulars.
If oil-base drilling fluids are used, the surfactants and emulsifiers
exhibit film-forming and coating behavior on the tubular, protecting
it from corrosion.
For water-base drilling fluids, both alkalinity and zinc-based sulfide
scavengers are used to neutralize H2S. H2S is converted to bisulfide
anion, HS-, with a pH of at least 10.5, and then monitored with the
Garrett Gas Train to determine the correct amount of zinc-based
scavenger, such as zinc oxide or zinc basic carbonate, to irreversibly
remove the sulfide.
With oil-base drilling fluids, lime is available to convert H2S to
bisulfide anion, HS-, at the emulsion interface, and then zinc oxide is
used to irreversibly remove the sulfide.
15 revised March 1999