UN Peacekeeping specific conflicts
International History: The United Nations (SBQ)
UN SECRETARY-GENERALS
Guy/Period
Trygve Lie (1946-52, Norwegian)
Started his term before
the Cold War period.
Kept a high political
profile and annoyed both
the USSR and USA.
Dag Hammarskjold (1953-61,
Danish)
Quiet diplomacy release of 17
US airmen from China,
establishment of UNEF
Conceptualised preventive
diplomacy (vs corrective) in
peacekeeping
U Thant (1961-71, Burmese)
1st SG from a Third World
country, giving him an advantage in
dealing with colonialism issues
Continued Hammarskjolds
quiet diplomacy but acted with
circumspection after the USSRs
strong reaction to Hammarskjolds
boldness
Best e.g. of Cold War rivalries and
limitations, superpower interests
impeding UNSG role
Kurt Waldheim (1971-81, Austrian)
Compliant with major
powers (headwaiter)
Anti-Israeli sentiment and
problem of forced
Events
Korean War
Sought recognition for the
PRC
Allowed US to screen, dismiss
suspected pro-Communist
Americans amid McCarthyism
1956 Suez Crisis: Planned,
implemented UNEF I (new
precedent in peacekeeping)
1959 Thai-Cambodian border
dispute: independent action
to settle dispute despite lack
of UNSC/UNGA authorisation
(though no one opposed)
1960-66 Congo crisis: Invoked
Article 99, authorising him to
raise the issue to the UNSC
1967 Arab-Israeli War: withdrew
UNEF I, permitted Egypt invasion
Dispute between the Netherlands
and Indonesia over West Irian
Jaya
1962 civil conflict in Yemen
Dispute over Cyprus (Turks &
Greeks in 1964)
Conflict between Philippines and
Malaysia over Sarawak and North
Borneo
1968 Soviet invasion of
Czechoslovakia:
1971 Indo-Kashmir conflict
Ending the Congo conflict
Only 3 new peacekeeping
operations: 2 from 1973 Yom
Kippur War (UNEF II, UNDOF on
Isarel-Syria) and UNIFL in Lebanon
post-1978 Israel invasion. Largely
Limitations/ Evaluation
1950 Uniting for Peace: More
active political role due to the
paralysis of the UNSC amid Cold
War
Resignation within 1 term due to
Soviet opposition plus pro-US
measures reveals superpower
reliance
1950 Uniting for Peace: More
active political role due to the
paralysis of the UNSC amid Cold
War
Hampered by USSR and French
refusal to fund GA-authorised
peacekeeping operations in
Congo
Hampered by extreme USSR
hostility: 1960 proposal to
replace UNSG office with troika
of 3 representatives with built-in
veto
Deferent to superpowers,
exercised little independence:
Inability to resolve
Vietnam War (e.g. 3-
stage proposal to
restore order to
Vietnam in Paris Peace
Talks, 1968 ignored by
the US as well as UNSC,
UNGA)
U Thant led 10 SC
members in
condemning 1968
Soveit invasion of
Czechoslovakia, vetoed
by Soviet Union
Withdrew UNEF forces pre-1967
Arab-Israeli War
Failure to resolve refugee crisis
post-1971 Bangladesh War
Cold War limitations: limitations
in initiating peacekeeping in
Cold War strategic arenas e.g.
US veto in support of Israel, US
hostility to stance on Vietnam
 involvement with Nazis
Only 3 new peacekeeping
missions (relative passivity
and reliance on US-led
action)
Javier Perez de Cuellar (1982-91,
Peruvian)
Boutros Boutros-Ghali (1992-96,
Egyptian)
Arguably failed as diplomat: lack of
close relations with ambassadors,
communication skills (lack thereof)
alienated media, refused to attend
closed-door UNSC consultations (vs
Cuellar) to maintain independence
US vetoed his second term
candidacy!!!!!!
Kofi Annan (Ghanaian)
Good administrator, chiefly
criticised for pro-US slant (maybe),
US favourite for position
US efforts.
Cold War-linked limitations:
Vietnam War, Soviet invasion of
Afghanistan, Yom Kippur War (US
vetoed enforcement of
UNSCR242)
In 1980, flew to Iran in an attempt
to negotiate the release of the US
hostages held in Tehran, but
Ayatollah Khomeini refused to see
him
Successes: mediation in Cyprus,
between India and Pakistan and
in Southern Africa (Namibia)
Considerable success in resolving
long-standing problems in
Namibia, Western Sahara
between Morocco and Polisario
Front, Cyprus, South Africa and
Nicaragua
Brought an end to the Iran-Iraq
war, the Cambodian war and the
war in El Salvador.
Gulf War intervention: Operation
Desert Storm success
All The Failures (though not really
his fault, poor frond)
Somalia, Rwanda, Haiti,
Yugoslavia
Successes: Cambodia, Camp David
breakthrough (major role),
Slovenia and Croatia ceasefire
negotiation where EC failed
Non-political/security
successes: 1997, formulated
the Kyoto Protocol, reformed
UN bureaucracy, HIV-AIDS
Peacekeeping: East Timor
independence (UNAMET,
UNTAET), Yugoslavia (Bosnia,
Kosovo; authorising NATO
bombing of Yugoslavia 1999)
Non-peacekeeping: easing
transition to civilian rule in
Nigeria (1998), visit to Iraq on
Iran compliance with
Corollary: few peacekeeping
operations, most undertaken
were created through heavy US
involvement
Post-Cold War Secretary General:
greater P5 and superpower
cooperation eased UNSGs rise to
greater prominence
Closed-door negotiations with P5:
effective in Gulf War, but questions
collective security
1992 Agenda for Peace: favoured
preventative deployments,
peacekeeping and peace
enforcement,
Emblematic of post-Cold War
problems: new civil intrastate
conflicts, lack of superpower will to
commit/restrain
Continued dependence on major
powers: Failure to balance UNSC
interests with own role, US
dependence
Some success in independence:
exhorted UN to act in Somalia
Non-political successes: UN
Reform Plan (admin overhaul
though proposed restructuring
of UNSC rejected),
humanitarian/social efforts eg
Kyoto, HIV-AIDS
Minor peacekeeping successes
Lack of independence from US
(Pax Americana):
Authorising 1999
Yugoslavia bombing
despite USSR pro-Serb
stance, UNSC not being
 weapons inspections in full agreement
resolutions, certified Israels
2000 withdrawal from
Lebanon
Major criticisms: Blocking
proactive measures and
logistical support to prevent
Rwandan genocide
SIGNIFICANT CONFLICTS

List A: Might-actually-come-out
Conflict Significant facts/background
1960-1966 First use of Article 99 allowing
Congo Crisis UNSG to recommend dispute to
(ONUC) SC
withdrew 1964 USSR pro-Uniting for Peace due
Hammarskjold to Third World pro-Soviet new
members in UN during 1960s
Assassination of Lumumba by
rebels with CIA involvement
USSR interference: refusing to
fund Congo, opposition to
Hammarskjold (the troika in
1960 HAHA)
1992-1995 Failed state due to civil war by
Somalia competing clans (Said Barre vs
(UNOSOM I, II; Aideed) Cold War arms
UNITAF - US) proliferation stored potential
Boutros-Ghali for violence after removal of
superpower restraint
UNOSOM I, UNITAF deemed
inadequate for lasting peace
UNOSOM II saw UN/US forces
involved in Somali Civil War
against Gen. Aidid Battle of
Mogadashi (1993); violation of
neutrality led to local Somali
support for Aidid
Premature withdrawal in 1995
led by US, UN left to negotiate
shaky peace with intransigent
warlords
Boutros-Ghali blamed by
Clinton administration for
entire failure
Exacerbated US-UN distrust and
general state reluctance to
commit own troops to UN
missions (see 1994 Presidential
Decision Directive on vital
national interest criterion for
involvement): hence led to
Positive Negative
UNSG role: first use 1) Cold War split:
of Article 99 Lumumba/USSR vs
Kasavubu/US (and
seemingly, UN) hence
Lumumba hostility to
ONUC
2) Ambiguous mandate:
lack of clarity re. ONUC
purpose
3) Inadequate manpower
1) UNSG role: Pressure UNOSOM I
from Boutros-Ghali to act 1) Limited mandate:
(accused of greater humanitarian aid delayed
attention to Bosnia white by absence of host state
Muslims vs black (thus no legal status)
Muslims ouch) inadequacy of UN
2) UNITAF: fulfilled interstate aid and
limited humanitarian peacekeeping framework
objectives, negotiated in intrastate conflict
1993 Addis Ababa 2) Ill-armed, ill-equipped
Agreement to end etc etc: UN food-
violence distributing forces
harassed by warlord
militia, <900 personnel
3) Inadequacy of UN
peacekeeping framework
in dealing with
intransigent local factions
who simply refused to
adhere to ceasefire
UNITAF
3) Big power difficulties:
reliance on US offer of
UNITAF to supplement
UNOSOM I (>3/4 UNITAF
personnel were US)
Conflict over Boutros
Ghalis elaborate
 failure to respond in Rwanda reporting
1994 requirements etc for
US force to UN
Communication
errors: UN thought
disarmament part of
UNITAF mandate, US
thought distribution of
aid only due to vague
UNSC reso
Addis Ababa
agreement could not
be enforced
4) Vague mandate by
UNSC (as above)

UNOSOM II
5) Problematic neutrality,
big power involvement:
UNOSOM II with heavy US
involvement drawn into
Somali Civil War against
Aidid e.g. October 1993
Olympic Hotel attack by US
6) Big power reliance: early
withdrawal forced by US

1992-1995 Breakup of former 1) Neutrality a flawed

Bosnia Yugoslavia (Communist principle: NATO/UN
(UNPROFOR) federation of 6 republics) airstrikes that may have
Boutros-Ghali UNPROFOR mandate to been effective
create conditions for peace compromised by UN
talks, ensure security, representative on the
provide humanitarian relief gorund who would warn
in 3 UN Protected Areas: Serbs beforehand in
Croatia, Slovenia, Bosnia interests of neutrality
Limited humanitarian 2) Ineffecient framework:
success: 1992-1993 Bosnia dual key (i.e. UN and
airlifts of medical, food NATO both had to
but eventually halted by approve) for air support
Serbian paramilitary prevented it from
attacks materialising
Ethnic cleansing mainly by 3) Peacekeeper state
Serbs though used by all: interests: Gen Janviers
Operation Storm (Croatia refusal to authorise air
by Croatian Army), strikes for Dutchbatt,
Operation Horseshoe suspected gentlemens
(Slovenia), 1995 Srebrenica agreement with Serb
massacre by Bosnian Serbs general on return of
1995 Srebrenica massacre detained French
occurred due to failure to peacekeepers, Dutchbatt
arm Dutchbatt, provide abandoned Srebrenica
 sufficient air support,
Dutchbatt yielded to UNSC
NATO interference: 1992-
1993 Operation Deny
Flight, 1993 onwards air
support; 1994 bombings on
Serb targets at UN request
Neutrality: by 1995 NATO
and UN roles indistinct,
both engaged militarily
against Bosnian Serb Army:
Sec-Gen authorised 1995
NATO airstrike without
consulting civilian UN
officials
3 peace plans failed before
Dayton Agreement reached
1947-1948 US
First Arab-
Israeli War
(UNTSO)
Trygve Lie
1956 UK and France proceeded
Suez Crisis with military intevention
(UNEF I) after ostensibly raising it
Dag and seeking solution via UN
Hammarskjold USSR, US both condemned
France, UK showed
limited Cold War influence
Israel made no effort to
facilitate UNEF task
1967 U Thant withdrew UNEF 1) Even weakest-willed
Six-Day War troops from Egypt
(UNEF I) completely on eve of
invasion upon request from
Muslims essentially
4) UN under-equipped,
ground-troop weakness:
<5000 troops mustered up
by Boutros-Ghali in 9
months
Israeli 1) US reversal in position:
UNITSO: genuine UN trusteeship of Palestine
international vs Partition Plan (UN GA
character, longest Resolution 181) Sec-Gen
continuous UN helplessness
peacekeeping
operation
Weakness of UNTSO: US reversal of stance
First and only use of UN trsuteeship of
Uniting for Peace: Palestine as opposed
successfully to partition
overcame UK, French Attempt by UNSC P5
resistance/ national (UK, Frnace) to pursue
self-interest own agenda using
UNEF persisted until UN as wold forum to
1967 despite Israel expose Nassers
non-cooperation/ intransigence,
hostility disguising intention
Fulfilment/success of for armed interention
classic Article 6: Weak basis for
temporary, enforcement
noncoercive, limited demonstrated by 1967
brief, no aggressor withdrawal by U Thant
identified (not depsite good faith
collective security) clause/ Hammarskjold
vs. UN inability to memorandum
STOP aggression in
1956 Hungarian
Revolution and USSR
tanks
1) Secretary-General
Sec-Gen exercised some weakness,
indep powers: U Thants
attempt to ease tensions:
 Nasser for partial flew to Cairo after Egypt
withdrawal despite had carried out blockade
Hammarkjold to ask that they lift for
memorandum (limiting two weeks, flew to Israel
Nassers authority to expel to halt its use of Gulf of
UN troops until completion Aqaba for 2 weeks to
of resolution-set tasks allow negotiation time
U Thants complete
withdrawal and failure to
exercise right to call
emergency meeting of
UNSC, UNGA to consider
issue further mistakes
US pressure failed to lift
Egypts May 1967 blockade
of Isareli access to Red Sea
U Thants attempt to ease
tensions: flew to Cairo after
Egypt had carried out
blockade to ask that they
lift for two weeks, flew to
Israel to halt its use of Gulf
of Aqaba for 2 weeks to
allow negotiation time
1973 UNEF II formed at behest
Yom Kippur of US, USSR; direct
War Gromyko-Kissinger talks
(UNEF II) UN was simply vehicle to
rubberstamp established
agreement
Softening of neutralist
principle: USSR sent
military observers to
UNTSO, USSR accepted
UNEF II as regular expense
of UN and its share of the
costs, Poland formed part
of UNEF II relaxing of
strict neutrality principle
of USSR
1978, 1982 UNIFIL lacked a robust 1) Lack of means: 1) Lack of means: Could
Lebanon mandate due to dtente not muster forces to
(UNIFIL) conditions confront both Palestinian
Ineffectiveness shown by and Phalangist forces who
1982 Isareli invasion were very much hostile to
(again!) each other
Isarel installed Christian 2) Lacked freedom of
Phalangist militias as rival movement due to non-
focus of power to the UN compliance; Palestinian
as a more effective defence refusal to withdraw from a
than the long-suspect UN number of htier own
against Palestinian border positions within UNs area
 incursions
List B: Worth-knowing
Conflict
1950-1953: Korean War
[UNC]
Tryvge Lie
1956: Suez Crisis [UNEF I]
Dag Hammarkjold
1979-1989: Afghanistan
[UNGOMAP]
Javier Perez de Cuellar
of command
3) Superpower
intervention (but also
ineffective!) created the
Multinational Force amid
UNIFIL incompetence, but
also impotent
Facts-worth-knowing
1950 Uniting for Peace resolution transfer of power to UNGA passed amid
USSR boycott
US dominance (MacArthur reported to Washington, not UN), USSR distrust
First and only use of Uniting for Peace
Backed by both US and USSR against UK, French intransigence in UNSC
Effect of ending Cold War: UN impotence ended by 1988 Soviet withdrawal;
UNGOMAP formed 1988
Growing USSR good citizenship - ha