TC05: STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Introduction to structural design

Structural Engineering involves planning for the static forces that will act on a building. Until 1750, Structural
Engineering was considered part of the Architects task, Rules of thumb, intuitive solutions, and collected
wisdom created an unofficial and not always successful approach. While humans instinctively recognize
some forms as structurally sound, the complexity of static behavior in building structures demands a
professionals knowledge and care.
Since the founding of the Ecole Polytechnique in Paris in the mid-18th century, engineering has become its
own discipline. Structural engineers are licensed to build a variety of structures, and must be consulted for
medium- to large-size buildings.
The history of Structural Engineering and its relationship to architecture is a complex one, with occasionally
successful integration (Figs. 1 and 2).

Figure 1: Structural Engineering and Architectural design fully integrated the Gothic Cathedral.

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Figure 2: While the split of engineering and architecture in the 18th century had serious consequences for
the discipline of building, the two fields have a history of subsequent collaboration, often producing
conceptually seamless buildings. Here, a skyscraper rises in Chicago in the 1890s, a pure statement of
structure that would be clad in a minimal architectural skin.

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Forces

A force is that which produces, or tends to produce, a change in the motion of a physical body. Newton
defined a force as mass times acceleration, or:
f =ma
where m is the mass of the object and a is the resulting acceleration. Heavier masses accelerate more
slowly, while larger forces make things accelerate more quickly.

A force consists of three separate, quantifiable variables (Fig. 3):

Magnitude, or the amount of force. This is measured in units of mass that is kilograms, pounds, kips (a kilo-
pound, or 1000 lb), or tons, and represents the push imparted to an object.
Direction, or the orientation of the force. This is usually measured by an angle from a reference axis.
Sense, or whether the force is acting positively along its orientation, or negatively essentially, whether the
force is pushing or pulling the object.

Figure 3: A vector representation of a force, showing magnitude, direction, and sense.

These variables may all be graphically represented by a vector, that is, an arrow whose length is keyed to
the magnitude, and whose direction and orientation are keyed to the direction and sense of the force in
question. Figure 3 shows a vector representing a force of 4.5 kg (10 lb) pushing point P at an angle of 30
from the horizontal. Note that, from Newtons equation, this will cause P to accelerate in the direction of the
arrow. As long as the force is continually applied, and as long as we dont do anything to stop it, P will
continue to not only move, but accelerate in this direction. Note, too, that the arrow doesnt represent
anything spatially, except for a direction and sense. Its length is strictly indicative of the forces magnitude.
This ability to quantify forces as mathematical entities allows us to simulate structural behavior, and we can
use vector geometry to figure out how forces will affect structural elements.

Loads
Loads are external forces acting on a structure. They can be abstracted into simple forces acting on a
structure using vectors, as described above. Loads deform or change the shape of the structure in the
worst case, they will cause the structure to fail, or break. The structure resists and channels two basic

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types of loads:
Dead Loads (Fig. 4) include the weight of the structure itself, and any elements carried by the structure that
are intended to remain in place permanently.
Also referred to as Static Loads.
Live Loads (Fig. 5) include all elements supported by a structure that move, or will move during the life of the
structure. Live loads that change over time are referred to as Dynamic Loads.

Figure 4: Dead loads arise from the structure itself and permanently fixed building elements.

Figure 5: Live loads arise from movable or temporary elements from occupants to snow.

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Two additional important types of loading are Repeated Loads, which occur again and again, often with a
regular rhythm, and Impact Loads, which occur on a structure during a very brief period of time.

Dead and Live loads may be concentrated, or applied essentially at a point, or distributed over a continuous
area of the structure (Fig. 6). Concentrated loads take the form of a single vector one push acting at a
more or less discrete point in space. Distributed loads are represented by a two-dimensional vector a
push that is spread along a line, or across a plane. However, a distributed load can be summarized as a
single concentrated load that will have similar macro-effects on a system. Figure 6 shows two loads one
concentrated, one distributed that have similar effects on the structural system being considered. In both
cases, the structure will have to carry a load of 300 kg concentrated in the first case, distributed in the
second to its supports on either end. The structures supports wont know whether the load is
concentrated or distributed; but, as well see, these two loads will be handled differently within the structural
element itself.

Figure 6: Dead and live loads can be further classified into concentrated (point) loads and distributed loads.
Here, two loads of the same magnitude, but applied differently.

All types of load may be calculated by adding all of the anticipated weights on or in a structure. However
there are specified loadings in most building codes. Most commonly, building codes provide live load figures
for various types of occupancy, since these loads can only be guessed at or assumed. Live loads are also
usually specified for wind, snow, and rain. Dead loads are typically specified for various structural materials.
While most structural calculations involve gravity loads, there are also typically a number of lateral loads
acting on a given structure that push or deform the structure more or less sideways. Lateral loads include
wind, seismic forces, and soil pressure. Tables 13 show some common assumptions for typical building
loads.

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 Table 1: Typical assumptions for live loads.

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 Table 2: Typical weights of architectural materials.

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 Table 3: Typical weights of architectural assemblies.

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Equilibrium
Fundamentally, Structural Engineering in architecture is concerned with equilibrium, or the state of being at
rest. While all buildings move to some degree, the desired state for most structures and structural elements
is one of limited or no movement thus the distinction between statics and dynamics.
We are generally interested in finding ways to counteract external forces on a structure to produce
equilibrium. This means developing systems and techniques that will react against forces, or cancel them out
with internal forces within the elements themselves. An example is shown in Figure 7 In the scenario on the
left, a person pulling with 67.5 kg (150 lb) of force on a rope with no resistance will not be in equilibrium. The
person and the rope will translate, or move, in a predictable way. On the other hand, a person pulling with
67.5 kg (150 lb) of force on a rope, against another person pulling with 67.5 kg (150 lb) of force will produce
equilibrium. That is, the two forces will resist one another equally, and no translation, or motion, will occur.
While the rope (and the people pulling) will experience internal stresses, the outside observer will not notice
any movement; the system will be in equilibrium.

Figure 7 Applying a force can result in translation or the development of a reaction in a structural system.

Likewise, a person pulling with 67.5 kg of force on a rope that is anchored, or fixed, to a structure may also
experience equilibrium. In this case, reactions develop within the structure, and between the structure and
the ground. In the case shown, the persons pull is resisted by the solid mass of the wall, and the friction
developed between the wall and the ground. Again, both the wall and the person pulling will feel internal
stresses and pressures, but there will be no visible movement to an outside observer.
These two cases can be represented by the vector diagrams shown in Figure 8. In the first instance, the pull
is not resisted, and motion occurs due to F = ma; an external force is introduced into the system without a
reaction, and thus acceleration will occur. In the second instance, the pull is resisted by a simultaneous,
equal and opposite pull. No motion occurs, and we say that the system is in equilibrium. In the third instance,
the pull is passively resisted by the mass and friction of the wall, and again the system is in equilibrium.

Figure 8 A graphic representation of the two conditions in Figure 7

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Slabs and Plates
Slabs are more complex than beams or columns, as they work in two dimensions instead of one, but the
loads they carry individually are relatively small compared with larger structural members.
While not as glamorous as beams or columns, slabs can play a key role in architectural expression floors
often constitute the bulk of a building structures weight, and thus their performance often needs to be
particularly efficient.
Floors and other horizontal planes are described structurally as slabs or plates. Their mathematical behavior
is complex, but the basics are quite simple, and slabs have been in use for long enough that an extensive
body of empirical evidence makes it possible to specify, rather than engineer, slabs for most situations (Figs.
9 and 10).

Figure 9 Floors and plates made of non-monolithic materials will often be layered to gain as
much two-way performance as possible. Four common types are shown here.

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Figure 10: Because of its monolithic nature, concrete is a naturally efficient choice for floor and roof
construction.

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Foundations
With the term Substructures we include foundation walls around basements, as well as structural elements
designed to transmit the building load to the earth around and under it. Because of this, the nature and
condition of the soil in and around the building site is critically important, and we often rely on the expertise of
geotechnical and civil engineers to do the actual design of our foundations.
However, a basic knowledge of how these elements operate is critical to understanding the termination of
our building structures, and to appreciate the cost and resources that must be devoted to a buildings
substructure.

Soils resist loading by a combination of compression and shear. Soil particles develop friction as they move
past one another under loading, and the surface shapes and roughness of these particles determines their
ability to resist loads.
Soils are usually divided into five types. Rock (or bedrock) is monolithic, solid and depending on its
composition either fiercely resistant to crushing or vulnerable to point loads. Sands and gravels are coarse,
granular and non-plastic that is, they do not give easily. Rather, they fail by crushing of the material
itself, and therefore they tend to be good load-resistive soils. Clays are fine, granular and (usually) plastic,
meaning that they fail gradually, and that they cease deformation if a load is removed. They are vulnerable to
settlement.
Silts behave unpredictably, like sand or clay depending on their grain size.
Finally, organics are composed of decaying vegetation, with little or no resistance to crushing.
Soils originate in either residual or sedimentary processes. Residual processes involve the gradual
weathering of rock, and tend to leave reliable, undisturbed soils. Sedimentary processes bring soil to a site
from other sources through rivers, glaciers, etc., and while they often leave good tillable earth, they are
often unreliable structural soils.
Rock, sand, or gravel tend to be the best soils for basic foundations (Fig. 11).
Their non-plastic nature means that their resistance to crushing is reliable, and they will provide a generally
stable base. Silts and clays, because of their plasticity, settle immediately upon application of loading, and
their final overall strength and resistance to settling is, at best, guesswork. Likewise, silts and clays are
vulnerable to liquefaction. If they get wet, their grains get covered with a lubricating film of water, and their
strength is greatly reduced. As they become saturated, silts and clays act more like a liquid than a solid,
meaning that buildings built on top of them will float.
The transition from solid to liquid is gradual as a soils moisture content increases.
Intermediate, viscous stages are dangerous as well as the final, liquid state. Thus, clays and silts are
generally considered poor soils on which to build.

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Figure 11: Simple soil physics. Bearing capacity depends on the size of an average soil grain, its
compressive capacity, and the friction it can develop with its surrounding grains. Soil that is coarse, rough,
and densely packed (e.g., gravel) performs better than soil that is fine, smooth, and loosely packed (e.g.,
clay). Soil that is subject to liquefaction (sand, for example) may lose most of its bearing capacity and
behave more like a fluid than a solid, likely resulting in extensive damage or failure.

In addition to a wide variety of potential soil types, we tend to put a number of different types of structural
load into the ground. The pattern of support for a house, for example, is dramatically different from that of a
large office building. In general, we have two types of foundations distributed and point load that support
walls, slabs, and columns respectively.
The simplest type of foundation is a spread footing (Fig. 12). This is usually a concrete pad that seeks to
spread the load from a wall or column out over an area of soil sufficient to support it. This can be visualized
as the design of a column capital in reverse; once again we are concerned with the tendency of the column
or wall to punch through the footing, although here we are concerned with taking the concentrated vertical
load of the column and spreading it out into what essentially is a reverse slab. The footing must be very rigid,
so that it distributes the load of the column evenly.

Figure 12: A typical spread footing works like a column capital in reverse, spreading a point load out over an
area large enough to absorb the weight without settling excessively or failing.

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Mat foundations provide a spread footing for the entire structure at once, connecting all columns and walls
with a single, monolithic concrete slab. This has the advantage of equalizing pressure on the soil throughout
the site, and it is thus good for sites with varying or locally unpredictable conditions. Mat foundations are also
quite good for silt or clay soils, as they are supported not only by the soils resistance to compression, but
also by displacement essentially the building can be made to float in viscous or liquid soil. (This is usually
called a raft foundation or, in extreme cases, a tank.) Generally, careful calculation is needed to determine
the final settlement of the finished building, and care needs to be taken when planning for utility interfaces in
the foundation walls.
Small-scale foundation types are shown in Figure 13.

Figure 13: Simple foundation techniques that rely on simple bearing. From left, a simple slab on grade,
spread footings (wall or column) and a mat foundation.

Pile Foundations support loads either by carrying them deep into the ground to bedrock, or by friction with
surrounding soil. In either case, they usually consist of woodpiles or steel or concrete shafts that are inserted
through the soil by excavation, drilling, or pounding.
Pile Caps are spread footings under columns or walls that sit atop a group of piles, rather than just on
ground. These are necessary as placement of piles is inexact at best; the cap allows some tolerance for the
piles final positions in relation to the column (Fig. 14).

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Figure 14: Axonometric of a typical pile system, showing the thick concrete pile cap that transfers loading
from columns to the numerous soil pilings.

Bearing piles are essentially long columns that carry loads past poor soil to rock. Occasionally these need to
be supplemented by bells or cones to spread the load out across the surface of the rock. This is
accomplished by remote excavating machinery that is sent down a drill shaft. More common are friction piles,
which are simply driven into the ground until the friction between the soil and the pile itself becomes great
enough to support building loads. Pile foundations present some problems, in that their end conditions can
only be assumed the pile might be sitting on bedrock, or it might have simply reached a particularly dense
strata of hardpan. For tall buildings, caissons are usually drilled, and an inspector (either mechanical or
human) is lowered into the void to sample the base condition. The caisson is later filled with concrete. Pile
foundations and other larger-scale types are shown in Figure 15.
Retaining Walls are built to separate a basement from soil and moisture outside. They are usually load
bearing, and are supported by spread footings, mats, or pile caps. Because they resist soil pressure, or the
tendency of loose soil to spread under its own weight, retaining walls must be designed as vertical

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cantilevers. Often, the area around them must be cleared of unacceptable soil, and backfilled with sand or
gravel that allows moisture to percolate and drain away from the building face.
Sheet Piles are piles driven to provide an underground wall. These are often formed of bent steel plate, and
while usually temporary, they can be used to retain undesirable soil away from a foundation wall. Any
retaining wall or sheet pile must be adequately shored, or prevented from collapse by tipping.
This can be accomplished by diagonal bracing, by dead men drilled into the earth from the wall, or by soldier
beams and anchors that work by tension.

Figure 15: For larger buildings or for poor soil, more complex foundation techniques may be required. Piles
may support the buildings weight by developing friction with the surrounding soil, or caissons may be dug
down to a reliable rock strata and filled with concrete. In extreme situations, a displacement foundation may
literally float the building in very poor or liquefied soil.

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