JOURNAL READING
An Autopsy Study of Death Due to Suicidal Hanging
Sex Identification and Reconstruction of Length of Humerus from Its Fragments
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dr. Liauw Djai Yen
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DAFTAR ISI
Halaman Sampul 1
Daftar Isi 2
An Autopsy Study of Death Due to Suicidal Hanging...3
Terjemahan An Autopsy Study of Death Due to Suicidal Hanging...11
Sex Identification and Reconstruction of Length of Humerus from Its
Fragments15
Terjemahan Sex Identification and Reconstruction of Length of Humerus
from Its Fragments..24
2
Egyptian Journal of Forensic Sciences (2016) 6, 248254
Dinesh Rao *
KEYWORDS Abstract The present study was carried out between 2010 and 2013, a total of 7968 Autopsies were
Hanging; conducted of which 3.31% (n 264) cases were deaths due to hanging. The most preferred ligature
Ligature mark; materials were Stole (n 79) and Bed spread/Sari (n 68). In 88% of the cases, hanging was complete.
Asphyxia; Females (n 136) and males (n 128) were equally affected. The major age group involved in both the
Neck; sexes was of 3140 years, contributing to 50.76% (n 136) of the self suspension. In 80.58% (n 213)
Knot; of the incidents, ligature mark showed discontinuity (incomplete). A Slip type of knot was used in
Fracture majority of the noose, contributing to 97.73% (n 258) of the suspensions. In 87.88% (n 232) of
hanging an oblique shaped ligature mark was noticed. The horizontal and near oblique ligature marks
were seen only in cases of partial suspension. In 95.45% (n 252) of the cases, the ligature mark showed
blackening of the skin (friction burn). Only 4.54% (n 12) showed intact skin. The outer layer of the
skin over the ligature mark showed displacement in majority of the cases. Married victims contributed to
70.45% of cases. Domestic issues were the commonest reason (n 82) for self suspension, of which
female (n 68) formed the majority of victims. In 70.83% (n 187) of cases damage to neck muscle
fibers and hemorrhage at the Sternal end of the Sternocleidomastoid muscle were present. In 85.61% (n
226) of cases the cervical vertebra was intact. In 52.27% (n 138) of the cases the internal carotid
artery showed transverse tear. In 99.42% (n 248) cases the thyroid cartilage was found intact. The
hyoid bone was damaged in 6.06% (n 16) of the victims. Majority of the victims, 59.09% (n 156)
belonged to low socioeconomic class.
2015 The International Association of Law and Forensic Sciences (IALFS). Production and hosting by
Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/
licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
3
1. Introduction
1
Death due to hanging is not unusual across the world, this makes the majority of Asphyxia deaths. Many a times
suspicions are raised with the manner of deaths in cases of sus-pension of the body (complete and partial) and position of lig-ature marks,
resulting in punishment of Innocent or sparing the Guilt. Hence this study is conducted to study in detail the Autopsy findings of deaths
2
due to hanging so as to put an end to these speculations surrounding the deaths in hang-ing. This study helps to differentiate self
suspension from other forms of hanging. This is a prospective study, conducted between 2010 and 2013. In this study only cases of
Suicidal
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ejfs.2015.01.004
2090-536X 2015 The International Association of Law and Forensic Sciences (IALFS). Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access
article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Autopsy study of death due to suicidal hanging 249
Hanging findings are analyzed and studied thoroughly, other i. The ligature material was always brought along with the
manners of suspension are excluded. All the information related dead body with the noose and knot intact (Table 1).
to the Circumstances was collected from the Police and from the
deceaseds family members. All factors deemed important to
conclude Suicidal Hanging had been considered as the elements 3. Results
of the study (Fig. 1).
1. The commonest ligature materials of choice were Stole (n
2. Materials and methods 79; 29.92%) and Sari (n 68; 25.76%). The least common
ligature material of choice was Waist Belt (n 2; 0.76%). The
a. The study was conducted between 2010 and 2013. A total other materials used were Plastic Rope (n 28; 10.68%), Bed
of 7968 Autopsies were conducted of which Sui-cidal Sheet (n 22; 8.33%) and Cotton Rope (n
Hanging contributed to 3.31% (n 264) of cases. 19; 7.20%) in decreased order of appearance. The major-ity
b. All the cases referred to the Legal Medicine Department of the noose had a Slip type of knot contributing to
for Autopsies were the material source for the study. 97.73% (n 258) of the suspensions and only 2.27% (n 06)
c. Crime scene examination was done in a few cases and in showed fixed knot (Table 2).
majority of the cases crime scene photographs and inves- 2. Females (n 136) and males (n 128) were closely the vic-
tigating officer records were the inputs. tims of self suspension. The major age group affected in both
d. Autopsies were conducted with enmasse removal of the sexes was in the range of 3140, contributing to 50.76% (n
Thoracic and Abdominal Organs and the neck was the last 136) of the self suspension. The age group pre-ferred for self
to be dissected after removal of the Cranial Structures. suspension was between 21 and 30 years, con-tributing to
31.06% (n 82) of the cases. The least affected ages were in
e. External findings of the ligature mark were described, children less than 10 years (n 01). There were no incidents
photographed and sketched. reported above 60 years of age (Table 3).
f. Internal findings of the neck by layer by layer dissection of 3. In 80.58% (n 213) of cases the ligature showed discontinu-
the neck. ity (incomplete) and only 19.32% (n 51) showed complete
g. Carotid artery damage to the Intimae was by gross ligature (Continuity) mark. The oblique shape of ligature mark
examination and Toluidine blue dye examination. was present in 87.88% (n 232) of hanging. 6.82% (n 18) of
h. Cervical vertebra fracture, thyroid, cricoid and hyoid bone cases showed horizontal ligature mark in partial suspension
fractures were confirmed by Radiological examina-tion and and 5.30% (n 14) of cases showed near oblique
further confirmed through the dissection method. ligature mark. The horizontal and near oblique ligature marks
were seen only in cases of Partial Hanging. In
COIR ROPE
COTTONE ROPE
PLASTIC ROPE
PLASTIC THREAD
SAREE
STOLE
SHOE LACE
BED SHEET
WAIST BELT
4
TOWEL FIXED KNOT
SLIP KNOT
5
250 D. Rao
6
Autopsy study of death due to suicidal hanging
Table 6 Comparison of results of the present study with similar studies conducted in different parts of the world.
Author Place of study No. of Ligature material Ligature, knot and Age Sex Ligature mark Site of ligature Skin and ligature Type of Suspension Marital status Socioeconomic Sternocleidomastoid Thyroid/cricoid/hyoid Internal carotid Cervical
cases its position shape mark mark class bone artery vertebra
Present Study Jamaica/India 264 Stole (n 79; Slip knot in 97.73; 2130 years, Females-51.5% 87.88%-oblique 82.58%-Above the 94.31%- 88% of the hanging Married- 59.09% (n 156) 70.83% 0.76% thyroid 52.27% 14.39%(n 38)
29.92%) and Saree Fixed knot in contributing to shape; 6.82%- thyroid cartilage. Excoriation, were Complete and 70.45% belonged to Poor or cartilage;6.1%; hyoid
(n 68;25.76%) 2.27% cases 31.06% Horizontal 10.22% across the Grooving, Leathery 12% were due to Low socioeconomic bone
Suspension, thyroid cartilage hard consistencies, Partial Hanging class, and 34.09%
remaining near Paleness and (n 90) belonged to
oblique suspension showed heaping Average class. Only
and displacing of 6.82% (n 18) were
the epidermis. from the high
80.58%- Income Group
Discontinuity
95.45%- showed
blackening-friction
Kurtulus et al. Turkey 108 52.9% -Typical 40.97 17.41 years 71.6% 67.6%
1
Jayaprakash , India 189 49%[saree, shawl, Middle age in 70.9% 94.2%-Oblique 19.6% thyroid cartilage-5.3%; 1.1% 1.6%
Sreekumari lungie] 29%[ coir 64.9% 78%-Non hyoid bone-2.7%
rope, Plastic Rope, continues
telephone cable]
Abd-Elwahab et al. Kuwait 118 21 and 50 years 73%
(87.3%) 3rd
Decade-43%
Dean et al. USA 229 Partial suspension-
83.4%
Al Madni et al. Saudi Arabia 133 21 and 50 years 86.46%
(88.7%), 4th
Decade (about
36%)
Pradhan et al. Nepal 44 47.72%-ROPE; 47.37% Partial suspension
31.81%- used 56.81%
shawl; 9.09% -used
Sari; Belt-2.27%
Sharma et al. India 72 Sari (32%) or Atypical in 88% 2130 years-57% 63% Above thyroid Complete 54% 21% cases
chunni (24%) cartilage-58% cases suspension-68%
*
Saisudheer , India 200 86%-the ligature 11%-Typical 32% 88% the mark was 38%-Complete Complete 82% Married Middle Income 28% 4%
Nagaraja cases material was soft hanging 59%-Slip present above suspension-64% Group-78%. Lower
knot; Fixed knot- thyroid cartilage, in income group 34
32% 20 cases (10%) it (17%) and least
was present over common is in
the thyroid higher income
cartilage group 04 (2%)
Olive Bennewith, UK 162 Rope-98.8% Cord- Males (40.6 years) Complete
et al. 49.4%Belt -13.1% and females suspension-52%
Electric cable- (42.2 years)
11.9%
Suminska - Poland 61 Males-89%
Ziemann,
Bloch-Bogusawska
1
Nikolic , Zivkovic Serbia 3.3%
Charoonnate N Thailand 20 60% typical 42.40 years Complete 25%
et al. Suspension-45%
NikolicS et al. Belgrade 557 Average age of 74%-Males 15.1% had only hyoid
52.4 17.8 years bone fracture, 26% had
only thyroid cartilage
fracture and 16.2% had
both types of injury at
the same time
Hejna Czech Republic 178 16.1%
Suarez-Penaranda Spain 228 75.3% 9.1%
et al.
251
7
252 D. Rao
material [(Stole (n 79) and Sari (n 68)] constituting to 55.68% Partial Hanging. The type of knot, continuity of mark and
(n 147) cases and the least preferred choice was the Waist Belt, completeness of hanging are important in determining the lig-
reported in only 2 cases (0.76%), similar were the observations ature mark over the neck. In a Complete Hanging wherein the
6 7 body is completely suspended with a slip knot the ligature mark
made by Jayprakash and Sreekumar Sharma et al. , they had
opined 47% and 56% of their victims respec-tively preferred Soft will be oblique and continues without disruptions, whereas in
ligature material like sari, Stole, shawl. These results were fixed knot non continuity of the mark is common though
8 Obliquity is maintained in Complete Hanging. In Par-tial Hanging
contrary to the observations made by Prad-han et al. wherein
they had observed that only 9.09% (n 4) used sari. Whereas the with Slip knot the continuity is maintained but the mark is
9 situated horizontally whereas in fixed knot with partial suspension
study conducted by Saisudheer and Nagaraja concluded with
horizontal mark is present over front of the neck and missing over
86% of Soft material used for liga-ture. In the present study hard
the nape of the neck. Hence the type of knot and type of
ligature materials like Plastic Rope, Coir Rope and Cotton Rope
suspension determine the ligature mark and its continuity over the
comprised 22.72%, similar were the observations made by
6 neck. The morphology of the liga-ture mark highlighted that
Jayprakash and Sreekumar. This wide nature of deviations in the 94.31% (n 249) of the ligature mark showed grooving, contrary
choice of ligature mate-rial depends on the dressing fashion of the 9
population and occupation. It is observed that Sari in the southern to the claims made by Saisudheer and Nagaraja wherein they had
part of India and Stole [Chunni] among females from northern observed grooving in 54% of their cases. In the present study a
India are widely used and are easily available in the house and unique pattern was noticed with grooving that the grooving was
hence the obvious choice in these regions. Whereas in the UK associated with heaping up of the epithelium due to displacement
10 of the superficial skin in a directional fashion.
(Bennewith) the commonest choice was hard materials like
Rope, Belt, Cord and Cable, soft materials like Sari or Stole were
least found in that region. Hence factors like sex of the victim, Majority of these displacements were toward the right side
culture, geographic location and place of the act play an important neck (n 162) and in 18 cases there were no such displacements
role in this. The present study also indicated the fact that 88% of observed. The displacement was due to the friction movement of
the hangings were complete [n 232], these results are close to the ligature against the skin surface of the neck during the process
7
the observations made by Sharma et al. and Saisudheer and of decorticate and decerebrate rigidity during the pro-cess of
9 Suspension by a ligature around the neck. This also indirectly
Nagaraja, in their study, 68% and 64% of the cases respectively confirms the ante mortem nature of Suspension, however further
were due to Complete Hang-ing, however these observations are study in this area is required. The blackening or darkening of the
5 8
contrary to those made by Dean et al. and Pradhan et al. . They displaced skin noticed in 95.45% (n 252) of cases was due to
observed that 83.4% [n the heat generated during the friction of ligature material against
the skin surface. The author considers these observations as one
229] and 47.37% of their cases were due to Partial Hanging, all
of the factors in determining the ante mortem nature of hanging;
these observations highlight the regional influence, lifestyle and
these observations were not found in similar studies done
to a certain extent the type of residence. In the present study
elsewhere. 70.45% of the victims were married, similar were the
females and males were equally affected contributing to 136 and 9
128 cases respectively, and the majority belonged to 3140 years observations made by Saisudheer and Nagaraja wherein 82% of
(50.76%; n 136) and the least affected age group was from his victims were married. The major motivating factors observed
those below the first decade and above 6th decade, these results in the study were Domestic/Family related issues comprising 82
are contrary to the claims made by Jayp-rakash and Sreekumar
6 cases (31.06%), similar were the observations made by
9
7 Saisudheer and Nagaraja , who concluded that 18% of cases were
and Sharma et al. wherein, the male to female victim ratio was
due to family related issues. The other major factors were the dis-
2:1. However their observations clo-sely matched with the age
11 ease conditions contributing to self suspension, comprising
group involved. The observations made by Kurtulus et al., 20.45% (n 54) of cases. These observations were contrary to the
6 3 9
Jayaprakash and Sreekumaran, Abd-Elwahab et al., Suminska- claims made by Saisudheer and Nagaraja they had claimed 6%
12 13
Ziermann and Al Madni et al. are more deviating as they of their victims had died due to diseased condi-tions. Other
found that the Males were more affected than females in the ratio factors like relationship crisis (n 49), financial worries (n 38),
3:1. This wider varia-tion in the sex group is possibly due to the career issues (n 18) and work stress (n 18) also contributed to
cultural, religious, economic and lifestyle factors driving the the cause. Hence the psychological state, economic state of the
individual to Suicidal Hanging. In the present study, 80.58% (n individual and his health issues are the major driving force behind
213) of the victims ligature mark showed discontinuity Suicidal Hanging. Since these issues are closely associated in
(incomplete), similar were the observations made by Jayprakash married individuals, Sui-cidal Hanging is common among them.
6 9 The most preferred Places to commit the act in 91.67% (n 242)
& Sreekumar and Sai-sudheer & Nagaraja . They had concluded
that 78% and 82% of their victims, respectively showed of cases were the places of residence, similar were the views of
14
incomplete ligature marks. In the present study the most preferred Uzun et al. . In their study of 761 cases, 634 victims preferred
knot was the Slip knot, contributing to 97.73% (n 258) of cases. places of res-idence. The reason is privacy and easy
7 manipulations to com-mit the act apart from non interference in
These results were contrary to those made by Sharma et al
wherein they had concluded 71% of their victims had fixed knot. the process of Suicide. In the present study, 82.58% (n 218) of
9
The observation made by Saisudheer and Nagaraja was close to the victims had their knots over the sides of the neck (atypical
9
the observations made in the present study. Obliquity of the hanging), similar were the views of Saisudheer and Nagaraja and
ligature mark was noticed in 87.88% (n 232) of cases and 7
Shar-ma et al. who had opined that 89% and 88% of the cases
Horizontal ligature mark was noted in 6.82% (n 18) of cases, respectively, were Atypical Hanging [knot over the sides of
similar were the observations made by Jayprakash and Sreeku-
6
mar, however the Horizontal ligature mark was noted in
8
Autopsy study of death due to suicidal hanging 253
6 19
neck]. This is possibly due to the victim tying the noose around Sreekumar and Nikolic, Zivkovic claimed 1.6% and 3.3% of
his neck during the time of suspension and then jumping over it, victims with cervical fracture. These wide variations in the
the other possibility is that the knot position changing after Incidences are possibly due to factors like age of the victim,
suspension during the terminal phases of hanging. The major-ity Weight of the victim, type of suspension and height of suspen-
of the ligature marks over the neck were situated above the sion. The study highlights the influence of regional, religious,
thyroid cartilage in 82.58% (n 218) of cases, whereas in only cultural, socioeconomic factors and demographic factors
7.20% of cases the ligature mark was situated below the thy-roid responsible for Suicidal Hanging. It also encourages further
9
cartilage, similar were the views of Saisudheer and Naga-raja research into these factors so as to prevent the incidences of
who in their study observed that 88% of their cases showed the Suicidal Hanging.
marks above the thyroid cartilage, however the views expressed
7
by Sharma et al. were contrary, in their study they had observed Conflict of interest
that in 58% of their cases the ligature marks were situated above
the thyroid cartilage. The presence of lig-ature mark above the
thyroid cartilage is due to the yielding soft tissue between upper The present study has no financial or personal relationship with
bony margin of the jaw and the lower protruding thyroid cartilage any person or organization.
besides the concentration of a lar-ger force on small area of the
neck. The study of neck struc-tures indicated that the Funding
Sternocleidomastoid muscle was involved in 70.83% (n 187) of
7
cases, similar were the views of Sharma et al. , however these None.
observations were contrary to the claims made by Jayprakash and
6
Sreekumar, who had concluded that only 19.6% of their cases
showed damage to the Sternocleidomastoid fibers, however they Ethical approval
had also indi-cated that 1.1% of the internal carotid artery showed
intimal tears which is contrary to the observations made in the
present study wherein 52.27% of the victims showed intimal tears
15 16
in the carotids. Suarez-Penaranda, Hejna and Jayprakash
6
and Sreekumar, made contrary claims to the present study. They
observed that 9.1%, 16.1% and 9.1% of cases respec-tively had
intimal tears of carotid. In cases of hanging and more preferably
in Complete Hanging there is always the Ster-nocleidomastoid
muscle subjected to Shear movement from external large
indenting pressure on its belly causing a tear of its attachments
from the sterna end besides this, the con-stricting force squeezes
the impending carotid artery causing sudden constriction of the
wall and its rupture. Other factors like the decorticate, decerebrate
and conclusive phase on the ligature also contribute to this
process. This may not be the case in all Partial Hanging wherein
part of the body force acts on muscles and vessels. The present
study also highlighted the fact that in majority of the victims,
Thyroid [99.42%] and Hyoid [93.94%] bones were unaffected,
6
similar were the views of Jayprakash and Sreekumar, Nikolic et
17 18 9
al., Charoonnate et al. and Saisudir and Nagaraja wherein
their observations are close to those made in the present study.
These observa-tions are disputed by those made by Suarez-
15
Penaranda wherein he observed that 75% of the victims had
fractures involving the thyroid and hyoid. This is because of the
fact that majority of his victims were in 4th and 5th decade of life
wherein the bones are ossified leading to the fracture unlike the
present study wherein the majority of the victims were between
21 and 30 years. The other factors like height of suspension and
type of hanging also play an important role. The majority 59.09%
(n 156) of the victims in the present study belonged to the low
socioeconomic group, contrary to the claims made by Saisudheer
9
and Nagaraja, who had observed that 78% of their victims
belonged to the Middle income group. In the present study 14.4%
of the cervical vertebra showed fractures and observations
11
contrary to those made by Kurtulus et al. They observed 67.6%
of their victims with cervical vertebra fracture. But the study
conducted by Jayaprakash and
9
Necessary ethical approval was obtained from the institute
ethics committee. 4. Kumar S, Verma A. A study of elderly unnatural deaths in
medico-legal autopsies at Lucknow locality. Med Sci Law 2013
Oct 28.
Acknowledgements
5. Dean DE, Kohler LJ, Sterbenz GC, Gillespie PJ, Gonzaga NS,
Legal medicine unit, Ministry of National security, Kingston Bauer LJ, et al. Observed characteristics of suicidal hangings: an
Public Hospital, Roberts Funeral Home, Bureau of Special 11-year retrospective review. J Forensic Sci 2012 Sep;57(5):
Investigation, Major Investigation Team. 122630.
10
akibat asfiksia. Banyak
Terjemahan kecurigaan yang berhubungan
dengan cara kematian dalam
Sebuah studi autopsi kematian karena kasus gantung diri (lengkap
gantung diri dan parsial) dan posisi tanda
Abstrak Penelitian ini dilakukan pengikat, mengakibatkan
antara rahun 2010 dan 2013, dengan hukuman bagi yang tidak
total jumlah 7968 otopsi , terdapat bersalah atau rasa bersalah.
sebanyak 264 kasus akibat gantung Oleh karena itu studi ini
diri. Dan alat yang paling sering dilakukan untuk studi secara
digunakan adalah selendang (79) dan rinci temuan autopsi kematian
sari (68). Dalam 88% kasus terjadi akibat gantung diri untuk
gantung diri komplit. Dengan jumlah menghindari spekulasi ini
korban 136 wanita dan 128 laki laki. sekitar kematian gantung diri.
Sedangkan kelompok usia yang paling Studi ini membantu untuk
banyak adalah rentang 31-40 tahun membedakan gantung diri dari
dengan jumlah 136. Terdapat 213 bentuk lain dari keadaan mayat
insiden tanda ligature menunjukkan tergantung. Ini adalah sebuah
diskontinuitas. Jenis simpul slip penelitian prospektif,
adalah jenis simpul yang paling sering dilakukan antara tahun 2010
digunakan dengan jumlah sebanyak dan 2013. Dalam hal ini yang
258. terlihat tanda pengikat berbentuk dipelajari hanya temuan kasus
miring sebanyak 232. Tanda vertikal gantung diri untuk dianalisis
dan berbentuk miring terlihat hanya dan dipelajari secara
dalam kasus suspensi parsial. Di menyeluruh, cara kematian
95.45% (252) dari kasus, tanda yang lain dikesampingkan.
pengikat menunjukkan kulit Semua informasi berkaitan
menghitam (gesekan terbakar). Hanya dengan keadaan ini
4,54% (12) menunjukkan kulit dikumpulkan dari polisi dan
utuh. Lapisan luar dari kulit di atas dari anggota keluarga yang
tanda pengikat menunjukkan meninggal. Semua faktor-
perpindahan di sebagian besar kasus. faktor yang dianggap penting
Korban menikah sebanayak 70,45% untuk menyimpulkan gantung
kasus. Isu-isu domestik adalah alasan diri telah dianggap sebagai
paling umum (82) untuk gantung diri, unsur studi.
Mayoritas korban di dominasi oleh 2. Bahan dan Metode
perempuan (68). Di 70.83% (187) dari
kasus kerusakan serat otot leher dan a. Sebanyak 7.968 Otopsi
perdarahan pada akhir Sternal dari dilakukan pada korban gantung
sternokleidomastoid. Dalam 85,61% diri dengan presentase
(226) kasus vertebra serviks masih 3,31% (n - 264) kasus.
utuh. Di 52,27% (138) dari kasus b. Semua kasus dirujuk ke
internal arteri karotis menunjukkan air departemen hukum
mata melintang. Dalam 99,42% (248) kedokteram untuk otopsi dan
kasus kartilago tiroid ditemukan sebagai sumber bahan
utuh. Tulang hyoid rusak di penelitian
6,06% (16). Sebagian besar korban, c. Pemeriksaan TKP dilakukan
59,09% (156) memiliki kelas ekonomi dalam beberapa kasus dan juga
sosial yang rendah. terkait foto, data dan catatan.
1. Pendahuluan d. Otopsi dilakukan dengan
Kematian akibat gantung ini penghapusan emmase dari
tidak biasa di seluruh dunia, ini dada dan organ perut, leher
membuat mayoritas kematian adalah organ terakhir yang
11
dibedah setelah pengahpusan Kelompok usia yang lebih
struktur cranial sering untuk gantung diri
e. Silakukan penggambara, antara 21 dan 30 tahun,
pemotretan dan pembuatan memberikan kontribusi
sketsa untuk temuan tanda 31.06% (82) dari kasus.
ligatur eksternal Yang paling terkena
f. Untuk temuan internal pada dampak usia itu pada anak-
leher dilakukan diseksi lapis anak kurang dari 10 tahun
deni lapis di bagian leher (1). Terdapat insiden tidak
g. Pemeriksaan gross dan dilaporkan di atas 60 tahun
toluidine digunakan untuk (Tabel 3).
memeriksa kerusakan arteri 3.) Pada 80.58% (213) kasus
karotis ikatan menunjukkan
h. Fraktur serviks vertebra, tiroid, diskontinuitas (tidak
krikoid dan patah tulang hyoid lengkap) dan hanya
dikonfirmasi oleh pemeriksaan 19.32% (n-51)
radiologi dan selanjutnya menunjukkan tanda
dikonfirmasi melalui metode pengikat lengkap
diseksi. (Continuity). Bentuk
i. Pengikat selalu dibawa miring dari tanda pengikat
bersama dengan mayat dengan terdapat 7.88% (232) dari
simpul dan simpul utuh. kasus. 6.82% (18) kasus
menunjukkan tanda
3. Hasil pengikat horisontal i dan
1.) Bahan-bahan pengikat 5,30% (14) dari kasus
yang paling umum menjadi menunjukkan tanda
pilihan yaitu selendang pengikat miring. Tanda
(79; 29.92%) dan Sari (68; pengikat horizontal dan
25.76%). Yang paling miring terlihat hanya dalam
umum bahan pengikat kasus menggantung parsial.
pilihan adalah ikat Di 94.31% dari kasus tanda
pinggang (2; 0,76%). pengikat (249) ditandai
Bahan lain yang digunakan oleh pengelupasan (abrasi),
adalah tali plastik (28; berlekuk, konsistensi kasar,
10.68%), sprei tempat tidur pucat dan menunjukkan
(22; 8,33%) dan tali katun penumpukan dan
(19; 7,20%) di urutan penglupasan permukaan
terbawah. Mayoritas dari kulit di sekitar bekas
jenis simpul slip pengikatan. Di 82.58%
berkontribusi 97.73% (n- (218) dari kasus tanda
258) dari gantung diri dan pengikat berada di atas
hanya 2,27% (6) tulang rawan tiroid. Hanya
menunjukkan simpul tetap 7,20% berada di bawah
(Tabel 2). tulang rawan tiroid,
2.) Jumlah korban gantung diri sedangkan 10,22% (27)
perempuan (136) dan laki- yang terletak di atas tulang
laki (128) hampir sama. rawan tiroid. 95.45% (252)
Kelompok usia utama tanda pengikat
terpengaruh kedua jenis menunjukkan kulit
kelamin adalah dalam menghitam (gesekan
kisaran 31-40, terbakar). Hanya 4.54% (n-
berkontribusi 50.76% (136) 12) menunjukkan kulit
dari kasus gantung diri. utuh. Pengelupasan epitel
12
adalah searah, 162 kasus 6.) 70.83% (187) kasus
menunjukkan pergeresan menunjukkan memar,
arah kanan dan 84 kasus kerusakan serat otot dan
menunjukkan pergeseran perdarahan pada akhir otot
ke kiri, dan 18 Sternokleidomastoid.
menunjukkan ada tanda- 85.61% (226) kasus
tanda perpindahan jaringan menunjukkan tulang leher
epitel (Tabel 4). utuh, hanya 14.39% (38)
4.) Dari total 264 kasus menunjukkan fraktur
gantung diri, 88% dari melibatkan tulang leher.
menggantung lengkap dan 52.27% (138) kasus
12% karena menggantung menunjukkan robekan
parsial. Sebagian besar melintang arteri karotid.
korban, 59.09% (156) 99.42% (248) kasus
orang miskin atau kelas menunjukkan rawan tiroid
sosial ekonomi rendah, dan utuh, hanya 0,76% (2)
34.09% (90) pada kelas menunjukkan kerusakan
rata-rata. Hanya 6.82% tulang rawan tiroid,
(18) dari golongan demikian pula pada
penghasilan tinggi. Di 93.94% (248) kasus adalah
91.67% (n-242) kasus, tulang hyoid utuh. Tulang
insiden terjadi di dalam hyoid rusak dalam 6.06%
rumah, dan tempat yang (16) para korban. Tidak
paling sedikit di tempat ada korban menunjukkan
kerja di 2,27% (06). Dan kerusakan krikoid tulang
tempat pilihan lainnya rawan dalam kasus gantung
berada di luar rumah di diri .
9,85% (26). Mayoritas 4. Diskusi
korban menikah terdiri dari
70.45% dari kasus dan Penelitian prospektif ini dilakukan
hanya 29.55% dari kasus antara 2010 dan 2013. Total 7968
yang belum menikah kasus otopsi kematian yang
(Tabel 5). dikarenakan gantung diri 3.31% (n-
5.) Isu-isu domestik adalah 264) dari otopsi. Studi serupa yang
faktor yang paling umum dilakukan oleh Hassan et al. dalam
yang bertanggung jawab waktu dua tahun di Kuwait
(82) untuk gantung diri, melaporkan total 118 kasus. Dalam
wanita (68) dibentuk studi lain yang dilakukan oleh Kumar
berbagi besar korban. Hal dan Verma di Lucknow (India) total
ini diikuti oleh hubungan dari 4405 kasus yang otopsi dalam
percintaan (n-64), sebagian periode lima tahun yang hanya 10%
besar korban adalah kasus adalah karena gantung diri.
perempuan (49). Penyebab Dean et al. telah belajar pada kasus-
lain adalah dampak dari kasus 229. Maka sosial ekonomi dan
penyakit (54) korban budaya faktor regional memainkan
menarik untuk gantung peran penting dalam gantung diri.
diri. Faktor-faktor lain Oleh karena itu Penelitian ini unik
seperti masalah keuangan karena jumlah tertinggi studi kasus
(38), masalah pendidikan dibandingkan dengan studi lain di
karir (18) dan masalah tempat lain di dunia. Penelitian ini
pekerjaan (10) dibandingkan dengan studi lain yang
berkontribusi terhadap dilakukan di tempat lain dalam
gantung diri. kaitannya dengan berbagai insiden
13
sekitarnya di Tabel 6 bunuh diri. keras seperti tali plastik, tali sabut dan
Dalam penelitian ini mungkin pilihan tali katun terdapat 22.72%,
bahan pengikat yang digunakan adalah pengamatan serupa dilakukan oleh
gaun wanita (lembut), selendang (79) Jayprakash dan Sreekumar. Hal ini
dan Sari (68) dan jumlahnya 55.68% terjadi berbagai penyimpangan dalam
(147) kasus dan pilihan yang paling pilihan bahan pengikat tergantung
tidak disukai adalah ikat pinggang, pada mode pakaian masyarakat. Hal
dilaporkan dalam studi tersebut hanya ini menunjukkan bahwa Sari di bagian
2 kasus (0,76%), pengamatan yang Selatan India dan selendang antara
dilakukan oleh Jayprakash dan perempuan dari India Utara secara
Sreekumar Sharma et al. , mereka luas digunakan dan tersedia dengan
telah berpendapat 47% dan 56% dari mudah di rumah dan karenanya
korban mereka masing-masing pilihan pilihan yang jelas di daerah ini.
bahan pengikat lembut seperti sari, Sedangkan di Inggris (Bennewith) 10
syal, selendang. Hasil ini adalah pilihan paling umum adalah bahan-
bertentangan dengan pengamatan yang bahan keras seperti Tali, sabuk, kabel
dilakuan oleh Pradhan et al. dimana dan kabel, bahan-bahan yang lembut
mereka telah mengamati bahwa hanya seperti Sari atau selendang tidak
9,09% (4) menggunakan sari. ditemukan di wilayah itu. Karena
Sedangkan studi yang dilakukan oleh faktor-faktor seperti jenis kelamin
Saisudheer dan Nagaraja korban, budaya, lokasi geografis dan
menyimpulkan dengan 86% dari tempat bermain tindakan peran
bahan yang lembut digunakan untuk penting dalam hal ini.
pengikat. Dengan bahan pengikat
14
Egyptian Journal of Forensic Sciences (2016) 6, 4855
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
KEYWORDS
Abstract: The aim of this study was to calculate the total length of the humerus and identify the sex from
Sex estimation; its fragments in Egyptians. One hundred and fifty dry adult right humeri (75 male and 75 female) were
Length; studied. The humeri were divided into seven fragments according to specific anatomical landmarks. Data
Humerus; obtained was subjected to descriptive statistical analysis. The longest fragmentary portion revealed a
Fragments; good result with closest proximity to the total length of humerus. All fragments showed significant
Egyptian sexual differences (P < 0.001) between males and females except H2. Total length of humerus revealed
the highest percentage of accuracy (93.3%) followed by H4 (86.7%) and H7 (83.3%) for sex
identification. Finally, from measurements of different humeral fragments in Egyptian population; the
length of the humerus can be estimated and the sex can be identified.
2016 The International Association of Law and Forensic Sciences (IALFS). Production and hosting by Elsevier
B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/ licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/).
15
1. Introduction
Several factors are essential for forensic experts to be able to identify an unknown dead body in many anthropological cases and
traumatic events. Identifying the sex of a body and esti-mating the bodys stature are considered the most important factors in
1
establishing the identity of indefinite dead bodies, parts of bodies, or even skeletal fragments.
In forensic examinations, sex determination is considered the simplest assignment because the external and internal gen-italia can
2
directly assert the sex of the deceased. On the other hand, in cases of severely decomposed, commingled, and dis-membered dead
bodies, determining the sex of the deceased
is a challenging task. In addition, sex determination is impor-tant to evaluate other parameters of a biological profile, such as stature and
3
age.
There are many techniques to determine the demographics (e.g., sex and race) from skeletal remains in the field of forensic
anthropology. A qualitative morphological examination (non-metrical method) is the simplest and fastest method with 95100%
accuracy if the whole skeleton is available and the observer is an expert. This method depends on visual inspec-tion of the sexual and
4
physical characteristics of the bones, which are distinctive to the elements of the human skeleton.
A second technique, a morphometric method, relies on measurements and statistical techniques. These methods are considered more
5
advantageous for data evaluation and its application to the skeleton. However, many indices depend on direct distances between two
6,7
bony landmarks, and the com-plicated pattern of an osseous curve cannot be studied.
Later, a combination of morphometric and meristic charac-teristics is used as a new technique. Geometric morphometrics is a method
that can compute the differences of the shape of bones in a two- or three-dimensional (2D or 3D) coordinate system by obtaining the
8 9,10
mean. Recent advances in geometric morphometrics allow analyses of bone configurations and sex determination.
It was difficult to estimate a bodys stature from available bone fragments following mass disasters or even from archeo-logical
remains. Some forensic experts neglected fragments of bones, thinking that no benefit could be gained from such frag-ments; however, in
11
1935, Muller recorded a scientific basis for estimating long bone length from fragments.
1
It has been reported that the stature of an individual can be estimated from the length of the long bones of the limbs. The femur was
12,13
considered the most ideal bone to estimate stature in the majority of past studies. However, populations dif-fer in the relationship
14
between stature and lengths of limb bones. Therefore, specific equations for stature estimation are required for each population.
1517 18,19 20,21
Many researchers studied the sexual dimorphism of adult skeletons using the dimensions of the skull, face , long bones ,
2224 25,26
hands, feet , and pelvis. Scholars proved
27
that a specific study is needed for each population to gain accu-rate results for the sexual identification of a skeleton. Dis-
28,29
criminant function analysis had been used to estimate the sex from bones if they are suspected to be sexually dimorphic.
30
The pelvis was considered to be the most accurate bone for sex determination, as it allows for parturition in females.
The humerus is one of the important long bones of the skeleton due to its strength, even in a fragmented state, and it is possible to be
recovered in a forensic case. Classical osteo-metric techniques have been used to realize the value of esti-mating the humerus length
31,32 33,34
from its fragments and confirming the existence of sexual dimorphism in the humerus. In anthropometric studies, the humerus
is a moderately studied bone. It plays an essential role in sex iden-
35
tification, stature estimation of the individual, forensic studies, etc.
The aim of this study was to derive regression equations for establishing the total length of the humerus and discriminant function
equations for sexual identification using different humerus fragmentary measurements in Egyptian populations.
The humerus bone collection used in this study was obtained from the dissected cadavers of Egyptians in the Forensic Med-icine
Department of the Justice Office in Minia Governates-Egypt and also from the Anatomy Department of Minia and Cairo universities.
These bones were selected in a dried and fully ossified state. The deformed, atrophied, or pathological bones were not included in this
study. The age and sex of the cadavers were recorded; however, full information about the individuals was unavailable.
By a simple random sampling technique, 150 humeri (75 males, 75 females) of an Egyptian population were chosen. The age for both
sexes at death ranged between 20 and 60 years. The period of human history from which the bones have been collected is not recorded in
the archives of the anat-omy department of Minia and Cairo Universities. The right humeri only were used in this study because both
humeri of the same individual were unavailable and the right side was the dominant side.
Eight measurements were taken from each humerus. Each humerus was fragmented by drawing imaginary lines at differ-ent
anatomical landmarks (Fig. 1).
The anatomical landmarks are:
16
d: is at the upper margin of the olecranon fossa
e: is at the lower margin of the olecranon fossa
f: is at the most distal point on the trochlea
g: is the most lateral protruding point on the lateral epicondyle
h: is the most medial protruding point on the medial epicondyle
i: is the most superior point on the margin of the articular surface of the head
3. Statistical analysis
17
Table 1 Descriptive statistics for humerus measurements, Corr-coef (r), and P-value irrespective of sex.
Total number 150 Mean SD Proportion in % Corr-coef (r) P-value
H1 31.37 1.33 100 0
H2 3.14 0.3 10.02 0.98 0.166 0.042
H3 1.98 0.29 6.31 0.78 0.637 <0.001
H4 22.65 0.95 72.2 1.4 0.895 <0.001
H5 1.91 0.23 6.07 0.61 0.590 <0.001
H6 1.68 0.17 5.37 0.46 0.603 <0.001
H7 4.28 0.36 13.63 0.95 0.568 <0.001
H8 5.9 0.31 18.84 1.01 0.405 <0.001
H1(af): is the total length of humerus, H2 (ab), H3 (bc), H4 (cd), H5 (de), H6 (ef), H7 (ib) is the vertical head diameter and H8 (gh) is the
biepicondylar width.
Table 2 Morphometric humerus measurements among males and females in Egyptian population.
Fragment Male/female Mean SD Proportion to the total length (%)
H1 Male 32.42 0.81 100 0
Female 30.32 0.81 100 0
H2 Male 3.15 0.24 9.73 0.83
Female 3.13 0.35 10.32 1.04
H3 Male 2.12 0.28 6.54 0.77
Female 1.84 0.22 6.08 0.73
H4 Male 23.31 0.72 71.89 1.29
Female 21.98 0.63 72.51 1.44
H5 Male 2.05 0.18 6.33 0.58
Female 1.76 0.17 5.82 0.53
H6 Male 1.78 0.16 5.48 0.47
Female 1.59 0.13 5.25 0.42
H7 Male 4.46 0.32 13.77 0.96
Female 4.09 0.3 13.49 0.94
H8 Male 6.07 0.16 18.73 0.64
Female 5.74 0.33 18.94 1.27
H1(a-f): is the total length of humerus, H2 (a-b), H3 (b-c), H4 (c-d), H5 (d-e), H6 (e-f), H7 (i-b) is the vertical head diameter and H8 (g-h) is the
biepicondylar width.
Sex identification and reconstruction of length of humerus 51
1.33 cm; correlation coefficients for all humerus measure-ments
given while calculating the length of a humerus to correlate the versus total lengths (H1) were significant (P < 0.05) (Table 1).
different fragments to the total humerus length.
Mean values for males and females and proportions of the
3.2. Sex estimation measurements to total length of humeri are presented in Table 2.
The longest fragment (H4) revealed the closest prox-imity to the
A Students t-test was performed to establish the significant total length of the humerus in both sexes (males 71.89 1.29%
differences between male and female measurements. A univari- [23.31 0.72 cm] and females 72.51
ate discriminant function analysis was performed for signifi-cant 1.44% [21.98 0.63 cm]) (Table 2).
measurements to test its efficiency in sex estimation. Coefficients Table 3 provides a correlation coefficient (r), t-ratio, P-
and constants were obtained for calculating dis-criminant function value, and regression equations for all measurements of males and
scores and equations. In addition, demark-ing points, which are females. The humerus fragments showed significant posi-tive
the average of male and female mean values, were obtained. correlations with the total length of humeri (P < 0.05); however,
the H3 and H8 fragments in females and the H2, H5, and H8
All the statistical calculations and comparisons have been fragments in males were insignificant (P > 0.05).
carried out at a 5% level of significance (i.e., P = 0.05).
4. Results
18
of males and females (P < 0.001) (except the H2 fragment where
there was an insignificant difference, P > 0.05), which indicates
Table 4 Significant statistical variables for humerus lengths
differences among males and females. the presence of sexual dimorphism in the measure-ments of
humerus fragments for the Egyptian population (Table 4).
Fragment Wilk lambda P value
H1 0.375 <0.001 Discriminant function statistics that estimated the sex of
H2 0.999 0.686 unknown humerus fragments are presented in Table 5. Sex can be
H3 0.772 <0.001 estimated from humerus fragments by calculating a dis-criminant
H4 0.511 <0.001 score ([measurement coefficient] + constant). The sectioning point
H5 0.616 <0.001
for all functions is zero; if the score is P0, it is considered male;
H6 0.720 <0.001
however, if the score is <0, it is considered female.
H7 0.740 <0.001
H8 0.711 <0.001
The most effective measurement for sex estimation by uni-
H1(af): is the total length of humerus, H2 (ab), H3 (bc), H4 (c d), variate discriminant analysis was the H1 fragment (the total
H5 (de), H6 (ef), H7 (ib) is the vertical head diameter and H8 (g length of a humerus), which had the highest percentage of
h) is the biepicondylar width.
accuracy (93.3%). This was followed by the H4 fragment (86.7%
accuracy), H7 fragment (vertical head diameter, 83.3%), H8
fragment (biepicondylar width, 76.7%), H5
By Students t-test, all measurements of the humerus frag-
ments revealed significant differences between the mean values
Table 3 Simple linear regression statistics for reconstruction of humerus length from its fragments.
Fragment Sex Corr-coef (r) T ratio P value Regression equation Y = a + bX
19
52 D.M. Ali, F.A.F. Abd Elbaky
Table 5 Univariate discriminant function analysis with demarking points for sex identification of humerus in Egyptians.
Fragment Constant Coecient Sectioning point Accuracy (%) Demarking point
In males In females Total
H1 38.288 1.22 0 93.3 93.3 93.3 Male > 31.37 > female
H3 7.668 3.86 0 60 66.7 63.3 Male > 1.98 > female
H4 33.179 1.465 0 80 93.3 86.7 Male > 22.645 > female
H5 10.44 5.466 0 66.7 80 73.3 Male > 1.905 > female
H6 11.183 6.63 0 73.3 66.7 70 Male > 1.685 > female
H7 13.483 3.15 0 80 86.7 83.3 Male > 5.275 > female
H8 22.47 3.804 0 80 73 76.7 Male > 5.905 > female
H1(af): is the total length of humerus, H2 (ab), H3 (bc), H4 (cd), H5 (de), H6 (ef), H7 (ib) is the vertical head diameter and H8 (gh) is the
biepicondylar width.
20
Sex identification and reconstruction of length of humerus 53
The humerus fragments in this study showed significant Sexual dimorphism in the humeral measurements may be due
positive correlations with the total humerus length; the H3 and H8 to differences in body size, muscular activity, discrepancy in bone
fragments in females and the H2, H5, and H8 frag-ments in male remodeling between the sexes, and greater develop-ment of
36 56
were insignificant. On the other hand, Mohanty et al. revealed cortical bone during adolescence in males than in females.
that in males, all humerus fragments were sig-nificant except the Some authors suggested that the differences in the sexes and
H2 fragment, but in females, all humerus fragments were statures among different populations may be due to extremely low
57
significant for estimating the total length of the humerus. Mall et or extremely high protein consumption. Others showed that
1 sexual dimorphism may be due to the
al. showed significant vertical head diameters and epicondylar
widths of humeri. There are no sim-ilar studies available for effect of physical activity on bones that influence the diaphy-seal
58,59
Egyptian populations that can be used to compare with our study. dimensions of the long bones.
21
54 D.M. Ali, F.A.F. Abd Elbaky
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mass disaster. Forensic Sci Int 2010;199, 112.e1-6. and a review of the literature. J Forensic Sci 2009;54:9961000.
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25. Russo EG. Sex determination from the talus and calcaneus 4. Basic Z, Anteric I, Vilovic K, Petaros A, Bosnar A, Madzar T, et al.
measurement. Forensic Sci Int 2007;171:1516. Sex determination in skeletal remains from the medieval
22
Sex identification and reconstruction of length of humerus 55
Eastern Adriatic coast discriminant function analysis of humeri. Croat 4. Trinkaus E, Churchill SE, Ruff CB. Postcranial robusticity in Homo.
Med J 2013;54:2728. II: humeral bilateral asymmetry and bone plasticity. Am J Phys
57. Gray JP, Wolfe LD. Height and sexual dimorphism of stature among Anthropol 1994;93:134.
human societies. Am J Phys Anthropol 1980;53:44156. 5. Ruff CB, Walker A, Trinkaus E. Postcranial robusticity in Homo. III:
ontogeny. Am J Phys Anthropol 1994;93:3554.
23
Terjemahan forensik Antropologi. Pemeriksaan
morfologi kualitatif (bebas-berirama
Seks identifikasi dan rekonstruksi panjang metode) adalah metode termudah dan
humerus dari fragmen tulang tercepat dengan akurasi 95-100% jika
kerangka keseluruhan tersedia dan
Tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah untuk pengamat adalah seorang ahli. Metode ini
menghitung total panjang humerus dan bergantung pada inspeksi visual
mengidentifikasi jenis kelamin dari fragmen di karakteristik fisik dan seksual dari tulang,
mesir. Dengan mempelajari 150 humerus kanan khas untuk unsur-unsur skeleton manusia.
dewasa (75 pria dan 75 wanita). Hunerus dibagi Teknik yang kedua, metode
menjadi 7 fragmen menurut anatomi. Data yang morphometric, bergantung pada
diperoleh menjadi sasaran analisis statistik pengukuran dan teknik statistik. Metode
deskriptif. Porsi fragmentaris terpanjang ini dianggap lebih menguntungkan untuk
menunjukkan hasil yang baik dengan paling evaluasi data dan aplikasi untuk skeleton.
dekat dengan total panjang humerus. Semua Namun, banyak indeks bergantung pada
fragmen menunjukkan perbedaan seksual yang langsung jarak antara dua batas tulang,
signifikan (P <0,001) antara pria dan wanita dan rumit pola kurva osea tidak dapat
kecuali H2. Panjang total humerus menunjukkan dipelajari.
presentase akurasi tertinggi (93,3%) dikuti H4 Kemudian, kombinasi dari morphometric
(86,7%) dan H7 (83,3%) untuk identifikasi jenis dan meristic karakteristik digunakan
kelamin. Akhirnya, melihat dari hasil pengukuran sebagai teknik baru. Geometris
humerus yang berbeda di penduduk mesir maka morphometrics adalah metode yang dapat
panjang humerus dapat diperkirakan dan jenis menghitung perbedaan bentuk Koordinat
kelamin dapat diidentifikasi. tulang di dimensional dua atau tiga (2D
1. Pendahuluan atau 3D) sistem dengan mendapatkan
Beberapa faktor penting bagi ahli forensic mean. Terbaru kemajuan geometris
mampu mengidentifikasi mayat tak morphometrics memungkinkan analisis
dikenal dalam banyak kasus antropologi tulang konfigurasi dan determinasi seks.
dan peristiwa traumatis. Mengidentifikasi Sulit untuk memperkirakan bentuk tubuh
jenis kelamin dari tubuh dan dari potongan tubuh yang tersedia yaitu
memperkirakan perawakan tubuh yang fragmen tulang yang mengikuti massa
dianggap paling penting faktor-faktor bencana atau bahkan dari arkeologi tetap.
dalam membangun identitas mayat-mayat Beberapa ahli forensik mengabaikan
yang terbatas, bagian-bagian tubuh, atau fragmen tulang, berpikir bahwa ada
bahkan kerangka fragments. manfaat yang bisa diperoleh dari fragmen
Pemeriksaan forensik, penentuan jenis tersebut; Namun, pada tahun 1935, Mu
kelamin dianggap tugas sederhana karena ller merekam secara ilmiah untuk
genitalia internal dan eksternal dapat memperkirakan panjang dari fragment
langsung menyatakan jenis kelamin. Di tulang.
sisi lain tangan, dalam kasus pembusukan Telah dilaporkan bahwa perawakan
parah, bercampur aduk, dan mayat yang individu dapat diperkirakan dari panjang
dipotong-potong, menentukan jenis tulang panjang limbs. Tulang paha
kelamin almarhum adalah tugas yang dianggap tulang yang paling ideal untuk
menantang. Selain itu, penentuan seks memperkirakan bentuk tubuh di sebagian
penting untuk mengevaluasi parameter besar studi masa lalu. Namun, populasi
lain profil biologis, seperti sebagai bentuk berbeda hubungan antara gerak-gerik dan
tubuh dan usia. panjang ekstremitas tulang. Oleh karena
Ada banyak teknik untuk menentukan itu, persamaan khusus untuk estimasi
demografi (misalnya, seks dan ras) dari
sisa-sisa potongan tubuh dalam bidang
24
bentuk tubuh diperlukan untuk setiap informasi penuh tentang individu ini tidak
populasi. tersedia. Dengan teknik sederhana
Banyak peneliti mempelajari dimorfisme sampling acak, 150 humeri (75 Laki-laki,
skeleton seksual dewasa menggunakan perempuan 75) dari populasi Mesir yang
dimensi tengkorak, wajah, panjang dipilih. Usia untuk kedua jenis kelamin
tulang, tangan, kaki, dan tulang pelvis. pada kematian berkisar antara 20 dan 60
Para sarjana mengatakan bahwa studi tahun. Periode sejarah manusia yang
tertentu yang diperlukan untuk setiap tulang telah dikumpulkan tidak dicatat
penduduk untuk mendapatkan hasil dalam arsip dari anatomi Departemen
akurat identifikasi seksual skeleton. Minia dan Universitas Kairo. Tulang
Diskriminan fungsi analisis telah humeri hanya digunakan dalam penelitian
digunakan untuk memperkirakan jenis ini karena kedua humeri dari individu
kelamin dari tulang jika mereka diduga yang sama tersedia dan sisi kanan sisi
menjadi seksual dimorphic. Panggul yang dominan. Delapan pengukuran
dianggap tulang yang paling akurat untuk diambil dari masing-masing tulang lengan
seks, karena memungkinkan untuk atas. Masing-masing tulang lengan atas
persalinan pada wanita. Kesimpulannya adalah terfragmentasi dengan
adalah salah satu tulang panjang penting menggambar garis imajiner di berbeda
karena kekuatannya, bahkan dalam 3. Analisis statistik
keadaan terfragmentasi, dan Data yang diperoleh dianalisis
dimungkinkan untuk dipulihkan dalam menggunakan paket statistik, SPSS, versi
kasus forensik. Teknik klasik osteometric 20,0. Maksud dan standar deviasi
telah digunakan untuk menyadari nilai dihitung untuk semua pengukuran.
memperkirakan tulang lengan atas 3.1. Panjang Tulang lengan atas.
panjang dari para fragments dan Regresi formula adalah metode yang
mengkonfirmasi keberadaan dimorfisme paling diterima dalam menentukan
seksual dalam humerus. Dalam tubuh yang bertubuh dari berbagai
anthropometric studi, menyebutkan dimensi anthropometric. 38 dalam
bahwa cukup belajar tulang. Ini studi ini, analisis regresi linear
memainkan peran penting dalam sederhana sudah dilakukan untuk
identifikasi seks, estimasi perawakan memperoleh persamaan regresi untuk
individu, forensik. memperkirakan total tulang lengan
Tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah untuk atas dari fragmen yang panjang.
memperoleh persamaan regresi untuk Parameter yang signifikan, t-rasio, P-
membangun panjang total tulang lengan nilai dan korelasi koefisien, diberikan
atas dan diskriminan persamaan fungsi sambil menghitung panjang humerus
seksual identifikasi tulang menggunakan dihubungkan dengan fragmen tulang
berbeda pada lengan atas fragmentaris lengan atas total panjang.
pengukuran dalam populasi Mesir. 3.2. Estimasi Jenis Kelamin
Siswa t-tes dilakukan untuk
2. Bahan dan Metode membangun yang perbedaan
Koleksi tulang humeri yang digunakan signifikan antara pria dan wanita
dalam penelitian ini diperoleh dari mayat pada hasil pengukuran. Univariat
bedah dari mesir. Tulang-tulang ini diskriminan fungsi analisis ini
dipilih dalam keadaan kering dan dilakukan untuk signifikansi
sepenuhnya diketahui negara. Tulang pengukuran untuk menguji efisiensi
yang cacat, mengecil, atau patologis tidak dalam estimasi seks. Koefisien dan
termasuk dalam studi ini. Usia dan jenis konstanta yang diperoleh untuk
kelamin mayat tercatat; Namun, menghitung diskriminan fungsi nilai
25
dan persamaan. Selain itu, menandai menghitung diskriminan Skor
beberapa poin, yang rata-rata laki- ([pengukuran koefisien] + konstan). The -
laki dan perempuan diperoleh. Semua sectioning untuk semua fungsi adalah nol;
statistik perhitungan dan Jika Skor adalah P0, dianggap sebagai
perbandingan telah dilakukan di 5% laki-laki; Namun, jika Skor < 0, itu
tingkat makna (yaitu, P = 0.05). dianggap Laki-laki. Pengukuran yang
4. Hasil paling efektif untuk seks estimasi oleh
Studi ini meneliti 150 tulang humerus (75 univariat Analisis diskriminan sudah H1
laki-laki dan 75 Laki-laki). Delapan fragmen (total panjang humerus), yang
pengukuran diambil dari masing-masing memiliki persentase tertinggi akurasi
tulang lengan atas. Terlepas dari jenis (93,3%). Hal ini diikuti oleh fragmen H4
kelamin, panjang total tulang lengan atas (akurasi 86.7%), fragmen H7 (vertikal
adalah 31.37 1.33 cm; korelasi diameter kepala, 83.3%), H8 fragmen
koefisien untuk semua pengukuran tulang (biepicondylar lebar, 76.7%), fragmen H5
lengan atas versus total panjang (H1) (73.3%), fragmen H6 (70%) dan H3
yang signifikan (P < 0,05) (Tabel 1). fragmen (63.3%) (Tabel 5).
Nilai-nilai mean untuk laki-laki dan Tabel 5 juga menyajikan poin demarking,
perempuan dan proporsi pengukuran yang jumlah nilai berarti untuk pria dan
panjang total humeri disajikan dalam wanita yang dibagi oleh 2. Jika diukur
Tabel 2. Fragmen terpanjang (H4) nilai lebih besar dari titik demarking, Ia
mengungkapkan kedekatan terdekat ditugaskan sebagai seorang laki-laki,
panjang total hasil di kedua jenis kelamin sementara nilai-nilai yang lebih rendah
(laki-laki71.89 1.29% [23.31 0,72 cm] yang disarankan Laki-laki.
dan perempuan 72.51 1.44% [21.98
0,63 cm]) (Tabel 2). 5. Diskusi
Tabel 3 menyediakan korelasi koefisien Pengukuran panjang tulang panjang
(r), t-rasio, Pvalue, dan persamaan regresi sangat penting alat untuk memperkirakan
untuk semua pengukuran laki-laki dan bentuk tubuh individu. Estimasi ini
perempuan. Ikhtisar fragmen memainkan peran penting untuk
menunjukkan signifikan positif korelasi penyelidikan medico-legal dalam
dengan total panjang humeri (P < 0,05); mengidentifikasi orang hilang. Karena
Namun, H3 dan H8 fragmen dalam hasilnya adalah terpanjang, terbesar dan
wanita dan H2, H5, dan fragmen H8 pada terkuat (bahkan dalam keadaan
laki-laki yang tidak signifikan (P > 0,05). terfragmentasi) tulang dari tubuh bagian
Oleh siswa t-tes, Semua pengukuran atas, postur tubuh estimasi dapat
fragmen tulang lengan atas dilakukan dari tulang lengan atas dalam
mengungkapkan perbedaan yang ketiadaan panjang lain tepat tulang,
signifikan antara nilai-nilai rata-rata Laki- seperti tulang paha. Oleh karena itu,
laki dan perempuan (P < 0.001) (kecuali sangatlah penting untuk mengidentifikasi
fragmen H2 mana ada perbedaan yang panjang humerus dari measurements.
signifikan, P > 0,05), yang menunjukkan Yang fragmental penting dari tulang
adanya dimorfisme seksual dalam lengan atas total panjang dalam
pengukuran tulang lengan atas fragmen mengidentifikasi fitur tertentu dari
bagi penduduk Mesir (Tabel 4). Statistik populasi telah dilaporkan. Analisis regresi
diskriminan fungsi yang diperkirakan lebih cocok untuk memperkirakan
jenis kelamin tulang lengan atas tidak hubungan antara variabel: antara
diketahui fragmen disajikan dalam tabel ketinggian individu dan panjang tulang
5. Jenis kelamin diperkirakan dari panjang dan antara panjang maksimum
fragmen tulang lengan atas dengan tulang panjang dan pengukuran
26
fragments. Mereka telah diusulkan bahwa
setiap penduduk memiliki spesifik regresi
persamaan yang tidak harus diterapkan
populasi lain, seperti ini dapat
mengakibatkan pengabaian atau terlalu
tinggi stature. Mysorekar et
al.melaporkan perbedaan yang signifikan
dalam tulang lengan atas panjang antara
kanan dan kiri sisi dan dihitung
persamaan yang berbeda untuk setiap sisi.
Di masa sekarang belajar, kami
memformulasikan persamaan regresi
untuk setiap fragmen humerus, dengan
seks diidentifikasi di sisi kanan pada
populasi Mesir. Ini adalah untuk
memperkirakan panjang humerus untuk
mendapatkan hasil yang akurat.
6. Kesimpulan
Penelitian kami telah menunjukkan
bahwa hasil berguna pada tulang, bahkan
dalam sebuah negara yang terfragmentasi,
untuk mengidentifikasi seks dan
memperkirakan panjang humerus.
Mengidentifikasi mayat yang bercampur
dan mayat yang dipotong-potong , seperti
dalam kasus dari ledakan, bencana udara,
bencana alam, mutilasi, atau dalam kasus
tertentu pembunuhan, dapat membantu
untuk memperkirakan tubuh dan
membedakan jenis kelamin individu
dengan persentase tertinggi akurasi
menggunakan total panjang dari humerus
(93,3%). Oleh karena itu, penelitian kami
membantu untuk forensik dan
anthropometric dalam mengidentifikasi
sisa-sisa orang mati tidak diketahui
bentuk badannya di Mesir. Karena tidak
adanya tubuh orang yang termasuk dalam
studi ini, itu sulit untuk menguji makna
dari hasil dengan fragmen-fragmen
tulang. Oleh karena itu, lebih lanjut studi
diperlukan ketika informasi lebih lanjut
tentang individu yang tersedia, dan tulang
lengan atas kedua tulang, kanan dan kiri
diminta.
27