Applied Linguistics 2013: 34/1: 106119 Oxford University Press 2012

REVIEWS

Glayol Ekbatani: MEASUREMENT AND EVALUATION IN

POST-SECONDARY ESL. Routledge, 2011.

Unlike previous book publications in the area of language assessment and

testing, Measurement and Evaluation in Post-Secondary ESL offers a practical and
concise introduction to English as a second language assessment and testing. It
does not include intricate theoretical themes nor complicated mathematical
calculations, but rather it focuses on the core elements of the subject matter.
This book enables both ESL professionals and advanced ESL learners to inter-
pret second language testing theories appropriately and it allows a better
understanding of what is being discussed through selected examples. There
are seven chapters in the book and they cover essential concepts of second
language assessment and testing, various testing techniques, test development
procedures, effective and innovative methods of evaluating second language
skills, and they also discuss assessors roles and responsibilities. This book has
an appendix which provides selected examples from a few international
high-stakes proficiency tests.
Chapter 1 provides an overview of the principal concepts of language
testing, such as the functions of language testing. It clearly describes key test
types, such as placement, achievement, diagnostic tests as well as different
approaches to language testing, including direct and indirect, communicative
language testing, performance testing, and task-based testing. This chapter also
contrasts the differences between criterion-referenced and norm-referenced
testing. Besides using traditional testing approaches, the author highlights
the role alternative language assessment plays by focusing on testing learners
abilities of using the language for a specific purpose. For example, portfolio
writing is used to test purposeful writing skills of the learner. When writing a
learning portfolio, the learner plays a central role in recording and reflecting
on their learning experience, strengths and weaknesses, seeking consultation
from their teachers. Another form of alternative language assessment is
self-assessment which is argued to encourage and support autonomous learn-
ing. Examples are given to demonstrate how such assessments are conducted.
The author argues that traditional testing approaches should be used with
non-traditional testing approaches to get a better idea of an individuals lan-
guage learning progress.
In Chapters 2, 3, and 4, the author discusses measurement and theoretical
perspectives that form the foundations of second language assessment and
testing. Chapter 2 deals with basic statistics and the applications of Statistical
Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS). Instead of using the term average, the
author discusses measures of central tendency (i.e. the mean, the median,
and the mode, and measures of dispersion for the range, standard deviation,
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and variance). Once again, examples are given to demonstrate how to use
SPSS to calculate percentile ranks, standardized scores, and correlation.
Chapter 3 examines testing terminologies, such as construct validity and test
authenticity, content validity, criterion-related validity and it also touches on
how to make scoring more reliable and valid. In Chapter 4, the author dis-
cusses reliability with simple formulae used to help illustrate the concepts. The
general principle to follow is that the more comprehensive and representative
the test items are, the more valid and reliable the test will become. Two major
categories of factors may make the language assessment and testing reliable.
First, internal factors such as test candidates motivation, emotion, compre-
hension of directions, and test performance speed can affect test reliability.
Secondly, external factors such as test contents, subjectivity, and, for example,
poor room ventilation and lighting may contribute to making tests less reliable
(Brown 2005). Similarly, test developers can also contribute to making test
results unreliable if they fail to use appropriate test techniques, such as using
more subjective test formats (e.g. short answers) rather than more objective
test formats (e.g. multiple choice). But some statistical techniques, including
test and re-test, equivalent-form method, split-half method, standard error of
measurement, raters reliable evaluation, may be used to improve the reliabil-
ity of testing and assessment.
Chapters 5, 6, and 7 provide details of the various testing reading, writing,
and speaking skills. Chapter 5 focuses on development of testing approaches
based on various reading models, such as skills-centred, comprehension-based,
integrated, and schema-based models. Various testing formats and techniques
for reading comprehension include multiple-choice, true/false questions, short
answer, or extended response tasks. Testing vocabulary may be conducted in
different dimensions, for example, discrete/embedded, selective/comprehen-
sive, and context-independent/context-dependent dimensions. The specific
techniques for testing vocabulary are multiple choice, word matching, sen-
tence writing, and vocabulary in context.
Chapter 6 deals with writing assessment and examines three major issues.
First, it reveals stages in designing writing assessment tasks (p. 57) by defining
the construct (e.g. areas of knowledge: syntax, vocabulary, rhetorical organ-
ization, and topical knowledge) determining the purpose (e.g. large-scale
assessment like an international proficiency test or small-scale assessment
like a classroom quiz), genre (e.g. academic essays, personal or business letters,
informational or analytical reports), and discourse domains (e.g. expressive,
persuasive, or informational). Secondly, it discusses designing authentic assess-
ment tasks in writing. The focus is on two task-based assessment models,
independent writing tasks and integrated writing assessment tasks. The inde-
pendent writing tasks can include a graph- or table-based writing task in which
test-takers are expected to interpret an information-loaded graph or table
before working on it. It can also include a topic-based writing task in which
test takers are prompted to examine the topic given and then produce their
written response. The integrated writing assessment tasks combine listening or
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reading with writing testing. However, such combination may cause validity
issues as listening and reading comprehension skills are, to some extent, tested
together with writing skills. Therefore, the integrative writing task should be
used with care. Thirdly, it focuses on specific reliable scoring of writing which
involves holistic scales and analytical scales, each having its pros and cons
(Hughes 2003). A holistic scoring method is efficient but less reliable while
an analytical method is more reliable but more time-consuming. A generally
better and more reliable option is to use both methods at the same time.
Chapter 7 deals with assessing speaking abilities and listening skills.
Although test-takers listening and speaking skills are tested separately in
most high-stakes international proficiency tests, the author shares Hughes
(2003) viewpoint that the receptive and productive skills are inseparable,
and maintains they should be integrated. Furthermore, the author strongly
suggests that authentic approaches to testing be used. Specific techniques in-
clude individual/pair interviews, group testing, role play, group role plays,
verbal reports, and integrated speaking tests. Listening abilities can be effect-
ively tested through speaking interactions because they are inseparable. It is
more informative to test the learners language use and performance when the
two tests are combined.
A communicative context approach may be used in testing the learners
language and communicative competencies. For example, learners buy a
train/bus ticket or do some shopping at the supermarket and interact with
shop assistants while being observed and scored by a tester. It is important
that content specifications are clearly established and communicated to
the learners before they commence their task-based assessment. It would be
better if test contents could include socio-pragmatic competencies, such as
discourse completion tasks in which test-takers are provided with some scen-
arios or contexts where they are required to give a short answer. Alternatively,
they may be asked to participate in role plays to demonstrate their general
communicative competencies.
The appendix presents and analyses selected standardized tests. To keep
people unfamiliar with The Michigan English Language Assessment Battery
(MELAB) informed, the author describes MELAB composition and provides
sample tests in listening, grammar, cloze test, vocabulary, reading, and op-
tional speaking. Besides, the book describes information IELTS, including lis-
tening, speaking, and academic modules for reading and writing, and explains
how to interpret the band score scale (19). Finally, the Test of English as a
Foreign Language (TOEFL), or the computer-based TOEFL tests are described,
and, for ESL/EFL speakers and assess listening, speaking, reading, and writing
skills.
One of the shortcomings of this book is that the author fails to address
cross-cultural perspectives of language assessment and testing, including test
content, topic sensitivity, and cross-cultural awareness. Every year millions
of ESL/EFL learners from diverse language and cultural backgrounds take
international high-stakes standardized proficiency tests. This certainly is a
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challenge for test developers to create a technically authentic, reliable, valid,

and culturally appropriate test.
Short as it is, this book is worth reading. It clearly explains and discusses
issues in language assessment and testing through examples. It is a practical
guide providing useful information for second language teaching professionals
and research for students who wish to develop more valid and reliable tests.
Time-poor but interested people will find this book particularly helpful.

Reviewed by Ping Yang

The University of Western Sydney, Australia
E-mail: p.yang@uws.edu.au
doi:10.1093/applin/ams068 Advance Access published on 30 November 2012

REFERENCES
Brown, J. D. 2005. Testing in Language Programs: Hughes, A. 2003. Testing for Language Teachers,
A Comprehensive Guide to English Language 2nd edn. Cambridge University Press.
Assessment. McGraw-Hill.

Graham Hall: EXPLORING ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING.

Routledge, 2011.

The real world problems and practices of language learners, and therefore of
language teachers too, are Graham Halls starting point in Exploring English
Language Teaching, and his treatment of methods, approaches, and theory is
consistently mindful of the pedagogical, institutional, and social contexts in
which learners operate. To achieve this focus, Hall has intentionally adopted a
back-to-front perspective, exemplifying a central tenet of applied linguistics
by first exposing and establishing problematic areas of ELT, then exploring
ways in which empirical and theoretical investigation can inform and address
these.
The book is written for a postgraduate readership, and in particular for lan-
guage practitioners who are returning to academic study. It is appropriate,
then, that the author presents four broad themes in ELT in an order which
moves from what is probably most familiar to the practitioner/readerfeatures
of the classroomthrough perspectives on teaching methods and learner
characteristics, to less-often considered socio-cultural influences on ELT. The
reference to Teaching in the title is perhaps misleading; there is little doubt
that Learning is the paramount focus not only in the Learners section but
also throughout the volume, and consideration of the learner stretches beyond
standard discussions of learner differences, to address the complex and often
under-represented issues of learner identities and learners interactions with
the local and global settings which frame their activities.