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CHAPTER 8

CASTING DEFECTS AND THEIR REMEDIES

Under practical conditions castings contain voids, inclusions and other imperfections which contribute to a
normal quality variation. Such imperfections begin to be regarded as true defects or flaws only when the
satisfactory function or appearance of the product is in question: consideration must then be given to the
possibility of salvage or, in more serious cases, to rejection and replacement.
This type of decision is dependent not only upon the defect itself but upon its significance in relation to the
service function of the casting and, in turn, to the quality and inspection standards being applied. The present
chapter will be devoted to the causes and prevention of defects, to their significance, and finally to an appraisal
of the techniques of rectification.
The general origins of defects lie in three sectors.

1. the casting design.

2. the technique of manufacturethe method,
3. the application of the technique workmanship.
A defect may arise from a single clearly defined cause which enables the remedy to be sought in one of these
sectors. It may, however, result from a combination of factors, so that the necessary preventive measures are
more obscure. All foundry men are familiar with the persistent defect which defies explanation and finally
disappears without clarification of its original cause. Close control and standardisation of all aspects of
production technique offers the best defence against such troubles.
Although the logical classification of casting defects presents great difficulties because of the wide range of
contributing causes, a rough classification may be made by grouping the defects under certain broad types:

1. Shaping faults arising in pouring.

2. Inclusions and sand defects.
3. Gas defects.
4. Shrinkage defects due to volume contraction in the liquid state and during solidification.
5. Contraction defects occurring mainly or wholly after solidification.
6. Dimensional errors.
7. Compositional errors and segregation.

Although these groups are not mutually exclusive, they afford reasonably clear lines of division in most cases.
Causes and remedies of defects belonging to each of the above groups are discussed hereafter. A summary of
common casting defects is given in the Appendix A.

8.1 SHAPING FAULTS ARISING IN POURING

When the liquid metal enters the mould, the first requirement is that it should satisfactorily fill the mould
cavity and develop a smooth skin through intimate contact with the mould surface. Gross failure to meet these
conditions produces the most serious defect in this group, the misrun or short run casting, in which the metal
solidifies prematurely and some limb or section of the casting is omitted. Cold laps (see Figure X-1) are a less
severe manifestation of the same fault. These arise when the metal fails to flow freely over the mould surface;
the intermittent flow pattern is retained on solidification due to lack of coalescence of liquid streams. Cold
shuts are more serious, the discontinuity extending completely through a casting member in which streams of
metal have converged from different directions.
The first sign of conditions giving rise to such defects is the occurrence of rounded corners and edges and a
general lack of definition of sharp features and fine mould detail. The defects are most generally associated
with metal temperature, cold metal being the usual cause in castings for which the production method is
normally satisfactory. A further cause can be excessive chill from the mould face; this may arise from heavy
chilling or from too high a moisture content in greensand. Laps may be encountered, for example, when a
method developed for dry sand practice is used in conjunction with green sand instead.
A contributing cause to these defects can be an inadequate rate of mould filling relative to the freezing rate of
the casting: especially susceptible, therefore, are extended casting of high surface area to volume ratio. Slow
mould filling may result from low pouring speed, from an inadequate gating system, or as a result of back
pressure of gases in a badly vented mould cavity: several aspects of the casting method are therefore involved
in prevention.
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Figure 8.1 Cold laps and shut in a steel casting (courtesy of Institute of British Foundry men)

Alloys showing poor fluidity, especially those carrying strong oxide films, are particularly prone to defects
resulting form improper flow. In these cases special techniques of gating and high superheat are the principal
aids to sharp outlines and completely filled moulds.

8.2 INCLUSIONS AND SAND DEFECTS

Non-metallic inclusions in castings may be considered in two main groups. The first are the indigenous, or
endogenous, inclusions, the product of reactions within the melt. These are relatively small particles which
remain suspended in the alloy at the time of pouring, or which may be precipitated due to changes in solubility
on cooling.
The second group are the exogenous inclusions, which result from entrainment of non-metallics during
pouring. These vary widely in size and type and include dross, slag and flux residues, formed and separated in
the melting furnace but carried over with the metal stream; other sources are refractory fragments from
furnace and ladle linings. A further group of exogenous inclusions originates in the mould itself, consisting of
moulding material dislodged during closing or pouring.
8.2.1 Indigenous inclusions or Endogenous inclusions.
Indigenous or endogenous inclusions are normally dispersed through out the casting and to a large extent are
characteristic of the alloy and melting practice. These are formed by reactions involving common impurities
such as oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur together with more reactive metallic constituents of the alloy. Oxidation
reaction is deliberately promoted for refining in steel making and other metallurgical processes and final
oxygen is controlled by the addition of deoxidisers before pouring. The products of defoliation are eliminated
by gravity separation or fluxing and slagging which results in coalescence into large globules for a rapid
separation. In case of light alloys, owing to relatively small differences in the densities of the metal and the
inclusions, gravity separation is not very effective. In such cases it is important to disturb the metal surface as
little as possible during melting and also treatment with suitable fluxes which absorb and dissolve suspended
non-metallic. Filtration through a porous bed of granular material before casting also gives very low inclusions
contents in light alloys. Melting in vacuum or inert atmosphere also reduces the inclusion content.

Indigenous inclusions represent the general condition of cast metal rather than of a particular casting and
these can be minimised by maintaining soluble impurity content at low level by suitable selection of charge
melting and refining technique. To some extent, these are inevitable because of shifts in melt equilibria with
fall in temperature and precipitation and segregation of impurity elements can occur during freezing.

8.2.2 Exogenous Inclusions

These result from entrainment of non-metallics during melting and pouring, e.g. dross, slag and flux residues,
refractory fragments from furnace and ladle lining and inclusions originating in the mould itself consisting of
moulding material dislodged during closing or pouring. Such inclusions can be regarded in specific defects and
can be controlled and minimised by paying proper attention during melting, pouring, and mould making. Slag,
dross and refractory fragments can best be prevented by retention in the furnace and by careful skimming at
the pouring stage along with the use of well maintained tea pot or bottom pouring laddle.
Avoiding defects arising from moulding materials involves careful selection, proper ramming during mould
making, maintenance of mould properties and characteristics as per the alloy and \its overall casting
characteristics, proper design of the gating system to prevent impingement of metal against mould and core
surfaces and incorporate smooth curves rather than sharp corners and abrupt changes in direction.
Exogenous inclusions tend to be concentrated in certain regions of the casting such as at the upper surfaces
and adjacent to the ingates and are revealed on machining or after scaling in heat treatment.
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8.2.3 Erosion Scabs and Mould Crush

These defects are often associated with major inclusions. An erosion scab is a rough projection formed on the
casting where sand has been washed from the mould wall. Although the scab itself can be removed by fettling,
its presence implies widespread inclusions within the casting.
Mould crush occurs when a mould is closed over an ill fitting core or badly finished joint surface. When the
boxes are assembled and clamped, the pressure shears a section from the edge of the mould cavity, producing
a large inclusion and a corresponding projection on the casting. The defect can be avoided by careful
maintenance of pattern equipment to eliminate distortion and the need for manual patching.

8.2.4 Expansion Defects.

Expansion scabs result from partial or complete spalling of a section of mould face and penetration of liquid
metal behind the surface layer of sand. The defect is seen as an irregular metal scab (Figure 8.2), which can be
removed to expose the underlying sand trapped within the casting.

Figure 8.2 Expansion scab (courtesy of Editions Technique des Industries de la Fonderie)

In some cases the expansion is insufficient to bring about spalling and metal penetration, but bulging and
shear cracking of the mould face produce a surface fissure or line defect known as a rat tail (Figure 8.3). In
this case the casting surface shows either a step or a shallow indentation along the path of the incipient mould
failure, often with a short metal fin representing the original crack.
Expansion defects are associated mainly with siliceous moulding materials, which show high expansion on
heating to relatively low temperatures. The effect of temperature on the volume of quartx is illustrated in
Figure 8.4, which shows the sudden expansion accompanying the phase change occurring at 575 0 C.

The nature of the scabbing process is illustrated diagrammatically in Figure 8.5. During pouring, the upper
surfaces of the mould are subjected to intense radiation from the rising liquid metal, so that the surface layers
of sand can reach the transformation temperature before being submerged. Expansion of the mould face sets
up compressive stresses causing the surface successively to bulge, crack, peel and spall, enabling metal to
penetrate behind the original surface. Alternatively, the sand expands and shears along a plane close to the
edge of a zone of intense heating as shown in Figure 8.5.

Additives to counter expansion include wood flour, coal dust and other organic materials which soften or
decompose to cushion the sand grains. Cereal binders such as starch and dextrin exercise a similar effect,
additions of approximately 0.5% being frequently made to clay bonded sands for the purpose.
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Figure 8.3Example of rat tail defect in grey iron casting (courtesy of Institute of British Foundrymen)

Figure 8.4 Effect of temperature on volume stability of quartz (from McDowell)

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Figure 8.5 Mould expansion defects: a) scab and b) rat tail formation.

8.2.5 Surface Roughness and Sand Adherence

The ideal mould would posses a smooth, impervious surface capable of being faithfully reproduced on the
casting. This situation is closely approached with alloys of low melting point but at higher temperatures
surface roughness and sand adhesion can be encountered, with loss of appearance and increased dressing
costs. In the worst cases the moulding material becomes impregnated with metal to form a solid mass. This
can be difficult to remove and if the condition occurs in a confined pocket the casting itself may be scrapped.
Since metal flow depends upon superheat, a low temperature minimises surface roughness and sand
adherence. In castings of very heavy section and high thermal capacity, deep penetration may result from the
attainment of liquid metal temperatures to a considerable depth within the sand (Figure 8.6).
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Surface quality is directly influenced by the mould material and finish, the predominant characteristic being
the initial porosity: penetration is thus directly related to permeability. Low porosity can be achieved either by
fine grain size, continuous grading or the use of powdered filler materials. However, mould coatings or facings
enable surface porosity to be reduced without sacrificing the qualities required in the bulk material.
Carbonaceous dressings containing volatile matter improve casting surfaces by generating a back pressure
which opposes penetration.

a) (b)
Figure 8.6 Metal penetration (a) Direct view and (b) profiles of casting surface showing local penetration.

8.3 GAS DEFECTS

Gas defects may result from entrapment of air during pouring, from evolution on contact between liquid metal
and moulding material, or may be precipitated during solidification as a result either of chemical reaction or of
a change in solubility with temperature.
Defects take the form of internal blowholes, surface blows, airlocks, surface or subcutaneous pinholes or
intergranular cavities, depending upon the immediate cause. The gaseous origin is frequently evident from
rounded contours but in some cases the shape of the cavity is governed by other factors: in the case of
intergranular porosity, for example, concave walled cavities can result from constraint by solid-liquid
interfaces existing at the time of precipitation.
Gas defects may be considered in two main groups: those caused by physical entrapment on pouring and those
resulting form precipitation by the metal on cooling.

8.3.1 Entrapment Defects

These defects arise when air is trapped within the casting owing to excessive turbulence or aspiration during
pouring combined with molten metal with inadequate superheat or the failure of the mould to exhaust air
displaced by the liquid metal being poured at a faster rate. The permeability of the mould and the venting
system being unable to exhaust the gases leads to a cushioning effect of the entrapped air which delays further
flow of the molten metal into the recess, thereby producing an air locked defect in upward facing projections.
Confined air can also produce internal cavity by expanding sufficiently to blow back through metal and in
extreme cases metal may be ejected from the mould. The importance of effective venting of the mould cavity
and permeability to sustain high rate of gas flow can not be overemphasized to minimise the defects arising
from retention of mould gases.
Excessive moisture in green sands, volatile organic compounds in moulding mixtures, underbaked or damped
cores can cause gas cavity specially when associated with low permeability and insufficient venting.
Improperly dried mould coatings, porous chills, oxidised metal shots in reclaimed sand, rust on chills and
chaplets can cause surface blow holes and pin holes. These can be effectively reduced by precautions designed
to reduce gas forming substances in the mould and cores and insuring adequate venting in the mould.

8.3.2 Precipitation Defects-Gases Evolved by the Metal

These defects are caused by precipitation of gases which may have been dissolved during melting or may arise
because of interaction between liquid metal and mould surface or reactions involving elements already in
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solution.
The evolved gases may include hydrogen which shows appreciable solubility in most casting alloys. Aluminium
alloys are particularly susceptible to gas porosity from hydrogen. A solubility of 0.6 cm3 per 100 g just above
the melting point falls by a factor of about 20 to approximately 0.03 cm3 per 100 g. during freezing. This
represents about 1.54 pct. by volume of the metal by gas evolution from saturated solution. The behaviours of
nitrogen is similar in iron and steel although practically it is insoluble in most non-ferrous casting alloys. In a
way it can be used as a scavenging gas. Oxygen is not usually precipitated directly as it tends to form stable
oxide with many metals. However, it can lead to reaction porosity owing to the evolution of mainly carbon
monoxide and steam formed in combination with other solutes, particularly when appreciable residual oxygen
exists in the metal.
The compound gases may be formed by reactions between elements such as carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
which may be present at the outset or may get absorbed by reaction between the molten metal and its
surroundings. Such reactions include those between carbon and oxygen in iron and nickel alloys, between
sulphur and oxygen in copper and between hydrogen and oxygen where either or both elements have been
absorbed by the molten metal. These reactions occur by a change in temperature or by concentration due to
differential freezing or surface absorption, thereby disturbing the relationship between solute elements. The
main precautions against compound gas porosity is to minimise the final oxygen content of the melt. The
procedure usually involves strong oxidising conditions to eliminate hydrogen, carbon and other impurities
during melting and controlling residual oxygen at the final stage by the addition of appropriate deoxidiser
before pouring to form stable oxides. The presence of excess residual deoxidant in the molten metal prevents
surface pin holing caused by reaction between carbon and local oxygen concentration produced by surface
oxidation.

8.3.3 Gas Absorption in Melting.

Metallic constituents of the furnace charge and furnace refractory, fluxes, slag making additions and furnace
atmospheres may lead undesirable gas absorption. Finely divided material such as swarf and turnings
contaminated with hygroscopic corrosion products and lubricants can result in high hydrogen content in the
molten metal. Similarly metals from previous melting cycles or from electrolytic sources are liable to contain
high hydrogen resulting from the reducing conditions employed during smelting. Refractories such as furnace
spouts, tundishes, ladles, fluxes and slag making additions if not properly preheated before contact with liquid
metal may lead to gas adsorption through dissociation of steam at the contact surface. Humidity and gases
present in the atmosphere may also cause gas absorption which may be aggravated by conditions peculiar to
the melting furnace e.g. by dissociation of gas molecules in electric are melting.

8.3.4 Metal Mould Reaction.

Reactions between the metal and mould result in the formation of gases leading to porosity on the surface and
such reactions are prevalent in light alloys containing magnesium and in phosphor bronze. Such reactions are
caused by direct contact between an alloying constituent with high oxygen affinity and free or combined water
in the mould. Aluminium-magnesium alloys are susceptible to such unsoundness and pinholing may also
occur in magnesium treated spheroidal graphite cast iron which contains only minor amounts of magnesium.
The metal mould reaction can be suppressed by forming a continuous surface film by introducing an alloying
element with a still higher oxygen affinity than the offending element. An addition of 0.004 pct. beryllium can
eliminate metal mould reaction in light sections of Al-10% Mg alloy casting and addition of small quantities of
aluminium to phosphor bronzes is effective in eliminating metal mould reaction. The addition of inhibitors to
the moulding sand is commonly used to prevent metal mould reaction in light alloys by replacing the oxides
with another compound film. Boric acid and ammonium bifluoride are used as inhibitors and may be applied
as paint coatings. The strong metal mould reaction tendency in magnesium based castings in curbed by using
sands containing approximately 1 pct. sulphur along with boric acid.
Reaction pin holing in the case of magnesium treated iron castings can be prevented by the elimination of free
moisture with the aid of clay free moulding dressings and by the use of coal dust to provide a reducing
atmosphere. Metal mould reaction may cause pin holing in steel castings by the reaction of iron with free
moisture in green sand to produce hydrogen which diffuses into metal. This combines with dissolved oxygen
producing water vapour which leads to pin holing (Fig 8.7) . Effective deoxidation with aluminium can prevent
pinholing from this and other causes.

8.3.5 Influence of Gas in Solid State

Apart from the cavities formed during freezing, gas remaining in solid solution or as stable gas-metal
compound can result in lowered mechanical properties or even embitterment causing cracking of the alloy
owing to the reduction in solid solubility. On further cooling, the dissolved gas diffuses in existing voids and
imperfections. This may generate extremely high internal pressure, with consequent increased susceptibility to
fracture at much lower level of applied stress. Such stress to induce cracking may arise from the structural
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change or resistance tocontraction or in service itself. The embitterment caused by residual hydrogen in steel
is a typical case of damage caused in solid metal by dissolved gases. Conventionally such a susceptibility

Figure.8.7 Pinhole Porosity (Courtesy of W . J . Jackson)

was eliminated by prolonged high diffusion treatment in the solid state. However, it is now possible to produce
gas free metal by precautions and vacuum treatment during melting and casting.

8.3.6 Preventive Measures for Gas Defects

These may be broadly discussed as follows:
(i) Low gas content in the molten metal when poured can be achieved by carefully designed melting
techniques and precautions such as
(a) Using selected grade raw materials from known sources with low gas content. Contaminated
materials are processed separately for the preliminary removal of gas before they are used with the
main charge.
(b) Preheating the charge material to evaporate surface moisture and volatilise oils, paints or other
organic contaminants as well as water of crystallisation from hydrated corrosion product.
(c) Treatment of turnings and borings from machine shop in special degreasing plant incorporating a
centrifuge followed by treatment with organic solvents. Such a treatment is justified in case of
expensive alloys.
(d) Employing fast melting techniques and the use of compact charges to reduce the time of gas metal
contact in melting. Such a practice also minimises melting losses.
(e) In copper and nickel alloys as well as steels, maintenance of oxidising condition is beneficial for the
removal of dissolved hydrogen. However, this is not suitable for removing hydrogen from melts
containing appreciable amount of aluminium, magnesium or similarly reactive elements. Protective
fluxes are employed to minimise gas metal contact and undue absorption of hydrogen.
(f) Final alloy additions should be completely dry and gas free and the temperature of the molten metal
should be maintained at the lowest level to ensure adequate fluidity during pouring and casting. The
holding time should be reduced to minimum and furnace spouts, ladles, and furnace tools should be
preheated to eliminate moisture and the danger of gas absorption at the final stage.
Vacuum melting can be considered for the production of gas free metal by excluding atmospheric
contamination, extracting dissolved gas to the influence of reduced pressure, eliminating elements which
precipitate compound gases during freezing and preferentially evaporating elements with high vapour
pressure. Inspite of the clear technical advantages in vacuum melting, it has found limited application in the
production of castings because of the constraints of higher cost and scale of operation. Its use is confined for
the production of high duty precision castings in special alloys where quality requirements justify a substantial
premium on the selling price.

8.3.7 Degassing of Molten Metal

By careful material selection and observing proper precautions during melting, the absorption of gas can be
reduced, but it is difficult to avoid the presence of gases in melt under routine foundry conditions. Making use
of the equilibrium existing between melt and gas atmosphere, following types of degassing treatment before
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pouring are practised:

(a) Gas Scavenging
The flushing gas is bubbled through the melt, thereby providing a large gas metal interface and general
agitation. In the case of aluminous alloys, argon, nitrogen or chlorine can be employed to reduce hydrogen
absorption. Calcium carbonate which generates CO2 is used for gas scavenging in case of copper base alloys.
During steel making the oxygen injected for the removal of carbon and other elements also reduces the
hydrogen and nitrogen contents of the melt. The CO boil in steel making is also valued for its effect in
eliminating dissolved gases.

(b) Oxidation, Deoxidation and Precipitation of compounds.

During the melting of iron, copper and nickel alloys, the liquid metal is exposed to oxidizing conditions which
increase the concentration of dissolved oxygen in the melt. This is beneficial for the removal of hydrogen by
direct chemical reaction to from H2O molecules. Deoxidation before pouring is accomplished by the addition
of suitable elements which form stable oxides. Stabilisation of the impurity by precipitation as a compound
can be employed for reducing nitrogen particularly in nickel base alloys. Formation of stable nitrides of
lithium, titanium and zirconium effectively suppresses nitrogen pinholing in such alloys.

(c) Vacuum Degassing

General processes of vacuum degassing have been developed all of which depend on decreased gas solubility in
molten metal by reduction of the external pressure. This is in accordance with Sieverts law which can be
represented as following.

s = K (p1-p2)
where s = Amount of gas dissolved in an alloy cm3/100 gm.
K = solubility constant dependent on temperature
P1 = partial pressure of gas in the surrounding atmosphere.
and P2 = partial pressure of gas in the melt.
The rate of degassing depends partly on the geometry of the system, i.e. the surface area and the mass of the
metal and partly upon the extent of the agitation and stirring which help in the transport of the dissolved gas
to the nearest surface. A number of processes have been developed for use on an industrial scale which
include: (a) static bath treatment (b) induction degassing (c) fractional degassing and (d) stream droplet
degassing as illustrated in Fig. 8.8
The static bath treatment involves enclosure of the molten metal ladle in a chamber which is sealed and
evacuated, often assisted by induction stirring which helps in bubble formation. Fractional degassing involves
treatment of fraction of the molten metal which is raised through a section nozzle into a vacuum chamber by
alternate raising and lowering of the chamber. In stream droplet degassing, a ladle is tapped through a sealed
annulus into a second ladle kept in a previously evacuated chamber. Exposure of the falling stream to vacuum
results in gas evolution owing to the formation of small droplets.
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Figure 8.8. Techniques of vacuum degassing of liquid metals. (a) static bath,(b) inclusion degassing, (c)
fractional degassing, (d) stream droplet degassing
In special cases however, advantage is derived from limited gas evolution on freeing, e.g., in some copper
alloys with long freezing range, gas evolution obtained from controlled mould reaction can produce a wide
dispersion of microporosity rather than a more localised void concentration, this being beneficial for pressure
tightness. In case of die casting of aluminium alloys, controlled gas evolution is employed to cause slight
expansion of the casting. This helps to offset the linear contraction which may lead to hot tearing under
restraint.

8.4 SHRINKAGE DEFECTS

Shrinkage defects arise from failure to compensate for liquid and solidification contraction, so their
occurrence is usually a symptom of inadequate gating and risering technique. The actual form of defect
depends upon design factors, cooling conditions and the mechanism of freezing of the alloy. Various types of
internal cavity of surface depression are encountered: these are illustrated schematically in Figure. 8.9 and
some examples are shown in Figures 8. 10 to 8.11
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Figure 8. 9 Forms of Shrinkage defect. (a) Primary pipe. (b) Secondary cavities. (c) Discrete porosity. (d)
Sink. (e) Puncture.

8. 4.1 Major Shrinkage Cavities

Sharply defined cavities occur primarily in those alloys which solidify by skin formation and result either from
premature exhaustion of the supply of feed metal or from failure to maintain directional solidification
throughout freezing. The most conspicuous example is the primary shrinkage cavity or pipe resulting form an
inadequate feeder head: due to lack of feed metal the final pipe extends into the casting, becoming visible on
head removal (figure 8. 9 a).
Sporadic occurrence in a casting with a well established method must be attributed to some change in practice,
for example omission of a feeding compound or cessation of pouring before the head was completely filled;
drastic changes in pouring speed or casting temperature are other possible causes. Since the defect is localised
rectification by welding is sometimes feasible.
Unlike primary shrinkage, secondary shrinkage is wholly internal and occurs in positions remote from the
feeder head. Depending on the severity of the conditions, the defect may be a massive cavity or a filamentary
network. Typical sites include the central zones of extended parallel walled sections and local section increases
where no provision has been made either for direct fed or selective chilling (Figure 8.9b) Although this form of
cavity is inaccessible for repair, its location near to the neutral axis of stress diminishes its influence on the
strength of the casting. Typical examples of internal shrinkage cavities are seen in Figures 8.10 and 8.11

Figure 8.1o Centre line shrinkage in plate section

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Figure 8.11 Sectioned casting exhibiting internal shrinkage cavity and sink

8.4.2 Discrete porosity

Alloys such as bronzes, gun metal, many light alloys and phosphorous containing cast irons are susceptible to
scattered shrinkage porosity. These alloys have generally larger freezing range and the scattered porosity takes
the form of intercrystalline cavities occuring in a large zone and in many cases this extends to the surface. The
problem is further aggravated by the gases, rejected from the metal on freezing, which tend to oppose capillary
feeding.
Scattered porosity can cause leakage under hydraulic pressure and can also adversely influence mechanical
properties particularly the ductility. Micro shrinkage can neither be detected radiographically nor by visual
examination of machined surfaces. Such porosity can however be inferred from ultrasonic signals and density
measurement. Such porosity can be minimised considerably by appropriate design and chilling action.

8.4.3 Sinks and Surface Punctures

Deformation of the casting surface by atmospheric pressure can manifest itself as a depression which may
become evident only on dimensional checking. In extreme cases a local puncture on the surface can occur.
Such a situation arises when the residual liquid becomes isolated from the atmosphere by a continuous thin
envelope of solid. Owing to low pressure conditions occuring within the casting in such a case, the atmospheric
pressure causes sinking of the surface (Fig.8.11). The surface puncture is most likely to occur with high pouring
temperature. These defects can be avoided by accelerating the formation of strong surface layer by local
chilling and by ensuing access of atmospheric pressure to molten metal in the feeder head.
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8. 5 CONTRACTION DEFECTS

The cooling of cast metal from the solidus to room temperature is accompanied by considerable further
contraction. The magnitude of this contraction is indicated in Table 8. 1 where the coefficients of thermal
expansion of a number of metals provide the basis for a rough estimate of the total linear contraction in the
solid state.

TABLE 8.1 SOLID CONTRACTION OF SOME METALS

Metal Coefficient of linear* Melting point 0C Approximate total linear
expansion deg C-1x106 contraction to 200C %
Aluminium 29.2 660 1.9
Copper 20.6 1083 2.2
Iron 17.3 1537 2.6
lead 31.6 327 1.0
Magnesium 31.4 650 2.0
Nickel 18.4 1453 2.6
Tin 24.4 232 0.5
Zinc 35.9 420 1.4

Dimensional change due to solid contraction would be expected to begin as soon as a coherent solid mass is
formed, whether a surface layer or a more extensive network of crystals. Under practical conditions, however,
castings never contract completely freely and the metal must develop sufficient cohesive strength to overcome
significant resistance. Hindrance to contraction may be offered by the mould, by hydrostatic pressure of
residual liquid and by other parts of the casting itself due to differential cooling. Stresses can thus arise either
from external restraint or from thermal conditions alone. (Figure 8.12)

Figure 8.12 Typical design features giving rise to contraction stresses. 9a) Mould restraint, (b) core restraint
(c) Differential contraction of casting members.

8.5.1 Hot Tears

This is the outcome of contraction resistance at an early stage during cooling when the metal is unable to
withstand elastic strain due to the pressure of liquid films. Hot tears can cause partial or complete fracture and
are often located at changes in sections where stress concentration occurs (Figure 8.13). Alloys with very short
freezing range are comparatively free from tearing tendency whereas alloys with a comparatively large
temperature range of freezing are more vulnerable. Susceptibility to hot tearing is also influenced by
segregation of alloying elements and impurities. Micro segregation or coring aggravates the critical period of
weakness of hot tearing because of prolonged retention of intergranular liquid film with consequent increase
in the accumulated strain, e.g. the serious lowering resistance to hot tearing caused by high sulphur and
phosphorous contents in steel.
Design and production factors have significant influence on hot tearing owing to effects upon temperature
distribution which governs the distribution of mechanical properties and resistance to concentration. To
minimise susceptibility to hot tears, a number of specific precautions have to be observed in the casting design
namely section uniformity, gradual changes in section and providing adequate radii at all corners to reduce
stress concentration, Webs and brackets are provided as reinforcements across critical regions to accelerate
cooling through the critical temperature range and strengthen vulnerable zones. such reinforcements may be
removed in fettling or may be retained as permanent feature of the design. For sharing the stress
concentration in members vulnerable to hot tearing corrugated surfaces may provided.
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8.5.2 Cracking distortion and residual stress

After cooling below the tearing temperature, resistance to cooling of the casting for most alloys and rates of
cooling can be accommodated by continuous elastic deformation. During this stage fracture can occur only if
the cooling rate is so rapid as to cause the ultimate sterss of the alloy to be exceeded. Usually during such a
phase of cooling, dimensional errors can occur through failure so contract to rule and such minor errors on
critical dimensions are usually corrected satisfactorily by appropriate machining allowances.
The casting may retain a high level of residual stress specially where sections are of widely varying thickness.
These residual stresses are proportional to Youngs Modulus, coefficient of expansion and the temperature
difference between the members. In case of poor ductility of the alloy, the residual stresses can cause fracture
in extreme cases during the late stage of cooling (Figure 8.14). The residual stresses make the casting
vulnerable with respect to both strength and dimensional stability and a small super imposed stress such
rough handling or local heating during head removal, grinding or welding can lead to creaking/ fracturing.
Castings with residual stress are dimensionally unstable and many change either spontaneously with time or if
heating occurs in service. Residual stresses can be removed by heat treatment and the temperature required
for the rapid stress relief generally lies in the region 0.3-0.4 Tm where Tm is the melting temperature of the
alloy expressed in K. It is helpful some times to withdraw castings from the mould while still in the plastic
region and charge it immediately into a hot furnace where cooling can be controlled and equalised throughout
the critical period. Stress relief of castings has been attempted by ageing or weathering for long periods before
use. While ageing at an ambient temperature, brings about some dimensional changes, its effectiveness is
uncertain and probably accounts for the relief of only a small proportion of residual stress.

8.6 DIMENSIONAL ERRORS

Pattern making, moulding and casting or fettling, if not properly carried out, give rise to dimensional faults.
Major defects are due to misalignment of mould parts and cores such as cross jointing and displaced cores,
wornout pains and pinholes which produce lateral shift along the joint line. Dimensional errors can be
considerably reduced by a high standard of box maintenance and jig checking at regular intervals for pin

Figure 8. 13 Typical hot tear at change of section (courtesy of Editions Techniques des Industries de la
Fonderie)

centre dimensions and for pin and pin hole clearances. By proper attention to core print design and
clearances, defects from misplaced or ill fitting cores can be greatly minimised.
 15

Figure. 8.14 Typical cold crack or clink in a casting ( Courtesy editions Techniques des Industries de la
Fonderie)

Distortion of mould involving enlargement green of mould cavity during pattern withdrawal, manual patching,
low green strength and soft ramming, lack of rigidity in the assembled mould, inadequately reinforced cores or
badly rammed mould parts, core shifts, swelling, and growth across the joint line permit movement owing to
pressure and buoyancy force on casting. high pressure moulding and hardening of moulds and core in contact
with the pattern has reduced the incidence of such distortion considerably.

8.7 COMPOSITIONAL ERRORS AND SEGREGATION

These defects can arise: (a) from loss of reactive elements during melting and (b) compositional differences
arising during solidification and persisting in cast structure.
Alloys with strong segregation tendency usually have long freezing range, gentle liquids slope, and low solid
solubility. Such segregation may be present as intergranular or dendrite segregation (micro segregation)
following the form of the grain or substructure. These can affect tensile strength, ductility, impact and fatigue
resistance and other mechanical properties which are affected by intercrystalline conditions which differ from
the matri8.
Segregation on a macroscopic scale is produced by various mechanisms during freezing of the alloys. Normal
type of segregation may result from progressive concentration of the impurities towards the centre of the
casting. Differences in density of the precipitated phases as compared with the parent liquid can cause gravity
segregation where as non-metallic inclusions generally rise to from local concentration. Susceptibility to
gravity segregation is markedly enhanced in heavy sections because solid phases can be suspended in the
liquid for prolonged time. Another form of macrosegregation called inverse segregation occurs by flow of
solute rich liquid through interdendritic channels from deeper regions within the casting. Thus a high
concentration of a solute appears in the outer zone in place of central region of the casting. Coarse columnar
dendritic structure is particularly susceptible to inverse segregation because of the relatively straight capillary
feed passages. Local differences in composition get aggravated since the outside zone also contains the purest
solid in the first crystals to freeze.
Homogenisation treatment consisting of reheating the casting and keeping it at high temperature for a
prolonged period helps to remove concentration gradient by diffusion. The spacing of the compositional
variation and the highest possible temperature of homogenisation consistant with other metallurgical
requirements help to increase the diffusion considerably. However, because of the large distances involved,
practically there is no possibility of eliminating macro segregation by heat treatment.
 16

8.8 SIGNFICANCE OF DEFECTS

The significance of the casting defects has to be evaluated in the context of the function of the casting and its
appearance, the former being of overiding importance. The characteristics of importance are:

(i) Mechanical properties.

(ii) Hydraulic soundness and
(iii) Surface finish.

(i) Mechanical Properties

For a proper appreciation of the influence of defects on mechanical properties, the size, shape and position of
the defect have to be assessed in the context of the stress pattern in the casting. The following generalised
discussion will highlight the relevance and importance of the different factors involved.
(a) Freedom from surface defects and proper surface finish is particularly important under fatigue
condition because generally the skin of the casting contains regions of highest stress.
(b) A flaw on an extensive flat surface is generally regarded less harmful than one occurring at change
of section where an appreciable applied stress concentration is anticipated. Defects like centre line porosity or
segregation located close to a neutral axis of stress are considered less severe. However, their detection and
radical repair is more difficult because of inaccessible location.
(c) Any defect introduces a stress concentration, however, such a risk increases manifold with
irregularity of the defect, e.g., a fine crack as compared to a spherical defect such as a blow hole or slag
inclusions.
(d) The presence of a large number of small defects can influence the mechanical properties
depending upon metallurgy of individual alloy and the location and the distribution of the defect. Decision
regarding using the casting or discarding it can be taken in the context of specific service conditions.

(ii) Hydraulic Soundness

Castings like hydraulic cylinder, valves and pipe works are tested under pressure to demonstrate their capacity
for the retention of fluids under high pressure and many copper and nickel base alloys are prone to inter
granular porosity and resulting leakage because of their long freezing ranges. Proper control of feeding and gas
content can largely eliminate such defects.

(iii) Surface Finish

This is important to ensure proper appearance as also for castings which operate under corrosive conditions
where surface pits or inclusions can form nuclei for corrosive attack. Surface imperfections become more
marked after honing, polishing, enamelling, plating and anodising.

8.9 SALVAGE AND RECTIFICATION

Although salvaging of castings can be undertaken by restoring the properties and service performance to a
standard equivalent to that: (a) no defects were present or (b) to improve the appearance in such cases where
the defects do not impair the performance. However, such a consideration should not bring about an
indiscriminate relaxation of standard in the different stages of production. In general, rectification processes
in crease cost, consume time, and undermine the confidence of the user. In mass production of castings such
as light castings, a few defective castings are scrapped and replaced because of the high cost and inconvenience
of salvage operation. However, in case of heavy castings or when production of few castings of a particular type
is involved, it becomes more difficult to eliminate defects completely and the cost of rejecting the casting may
involve high financial loss. In such cases salvaging the castings and making them serviceable is justified.

Depending upon the objective in view regarding the salvaging of the casting i.e., restoration of properties and
for improvement in appearance, different techniques are used which include welding, brazing and soldering,
caulking and impregnation, patching and plugging, filling compounds etc.
 17

Welding
Rectification of defects by welding if properly carried out and followed by appropriate post welded heat
treatment can give properties fully equivalent to those of originally cast metal. By welding a true metallurgical
union between filler metal land the parent casting is achieved giving continuity of crystal structure across the
original interface. This is usually not possible with other methods of rectification including soldering and
brazing where the union is only superficial.

Rectification by welding involves the observance of the following steps and precautions.
(i) For proper matching of the weld with the parent casting, for good corrosion resistance, appearance as well
as mechanical properties, it is advisable to use a filler metal of approximately the same composition as that of
the casting. A difference in hardness or colour gets revealed on machined surfaces.
(ii) It is necessary to remove completely the defective material from the casting because any attempt to weld
over porous metal can result in gas evolution and porous weld deposit. Cracks if not completely removed can
get further aggravated owing to thermal stresses during welding. It is therefore imperative to remove the
defect completely by grinding or machining or by gouging with arc, gas flame, or chisel before executing the
repair successfully irrespective of the processes to be used.

Brazing and Soldering

Brazing is employed for such parts and components that tend to get distorted or cracked when welding at high
temperature. In such cases the entire process is carried out below the melting point of the casting using a low
melting alloy as filler. There is little penetration into the parent metal and the hardness and colour of the filler
alloy are usually different. This method is used for making castings water tight and to repair pipes and pipe
fittings and other thin plate tight castings, for filling crevices, porosity, fine cracks etc., Copper and nickel base
alloys and silver solders with melting temperatures above 4300C are employed as fillers for brazing. Use of
brazing flux is commonly based on borax and barites and fluorides of the alkali metals is necessary to remove
tenacious oxide film for satisfactory brazing. These fluxes being highly corrosive, are carefully removed before
the casting is put into service.
Soldering is carried out by employing lower melting point alloys based on tin, lead, cadmium and zinc which
melt at much lower temperature. The process is confined to filling of minor surface cavities and other
imperfections, when high strength is not required, such as making porous area in copper base alloys pressure
tight.

Patches and Plugs

In some cases, the defective zone of the casting is remove by machining or drilling and then inserting a plug for
final sealing of the aperture by tapping and threading and finally finishing by pinning or tack welding. Apart
from rectification of defective castings, this method is used for the final sealing of temporary core print
apertures in the original casting.

Impregnation
To fill pin holes blow holes, cracks, etc. resin impregnation under pressure is undertaken while the casting is
kept under vacuum. The compound is finally cured usually by thermal treatment to produce an inert and
stable filling. This method is widely accepted to make pressure tight castings in ferrous and nonferrous metals,
particularly for those alloys specially prone to micro porosity.

Filling Compound
Non-metallic compounds are compounds, containing metallic powders and epoxy plastic fillers are used for
rectifying surface finishes to improve appearance and also fill up pin holes, blow holes, cracks, etc. It is
possible to develop appreciable strength by using epoxy and acrylic resins which strongly adhere to metals.
However, such materials should not be regarded as suitable for structural repairs in view of their
fundamentally different characteristics from those of cast metals.

Metal Spraying
The process consists of blowing out small drops of molten metal (melted by an electric are or gas flame) using
compressed air with the help of spray fun. The metal coating obtained varies from 0.3 to 0.8 mm. in thickness,
each pass giving a coat of metal about 0.03 mm thick. The method is suitable for building up undersize casting
and all types of metals can be sprayed. As the bond obtained is of mechanical type with negligible diffusion,
the strength of the sprayed metal is inferior to the obtained by welding or brazing. This technique is also used
to improve the corrosion resistance or iron and steel castings by spraying anticorrosive metal layer.
 18

Straightening
Rectification of deformed or warped castings can be carried out by straightening in a press by applying
pressure. Since the procedure involves plastic deformation, this operation is possible only in case of metals
possessing reasonable ductility, Generally a hydraulic press is used with appropriate press fixtures and
packing to achieve the correct final dimensions.
 19

APPENDIX A TO CHAPTER X
CATALOGUE OF CASTING DEFECTS AND REMEDIES

DEFINITION
1. Blow holes or gas holes: They are generally rounded cavities spherical, flattened or elongated caused by the
entrapped air or gas formed during the casting process. These are generally found inside the castings.
Porosities are caused by steam or gas passing through the metal. Sometime pin hole size porosities may be
present on the entire surface or just below the surface.
Blisters are shallow holes on the surface with a thin film of metal over it.
2. Scars are generally caused on a flat surface where entrapped gas has prevented the mould cavity from
being filled completely. Plates are formed when metal oozes into a scar. Minor defects of the scar or cold shut
is known as seam.
Cold slots or shot iron (in case of grey cast iron) are small globules of metal embedded in due to the action of
the entrapped gas or air.
3. A shrinkage cavity or depression, large or small, results from varying rates of contraction while the metal
is changing from liquid to solid. A minor depression is known as sink.
4. Hot tears and cracks are surface discontinuity or fractures caused by either external or internal tresses or a
combination of both acting on the casting.
5. Hardness defects-mass hardness: It is caused when the entire casting is too hard. Localized hardness is
called hard spot and/or chilled spots.
6. A misrun is due to failure of the metal to fill the mould cavity. The cold shut defect is caused due to
imperfect fusion where two streams of metal have converged.
7. Inclusions are the non-metallic particles of materials embedded in the metal.
8. Sand defects:
(a) An erosion scab occurs where the metal has been agitated, boiled, or has partially eroded away the sand
leaving a solid mass of sand and metal at that particular spot. Cuts and washes are caused due to erosion of
sand causing rough spots from either excess metals or sand inclusions.
(b) Expansion scabs are rough thin layers of metal partially separated from the body of the casting by a thin
layer of sand and held in place by a thin vein of metal. They may be readily chipped off causing indentation
known as buckle. A raftail is a minor buckle occurring as a small irregular line or lines.
A pulldown is a buckle in the cope. A blacking scab is caused due to sand expansion. Expansion defects are
governed by the extent to which the initial expansion of the quartz can be offers by deformation of the sand
mass under compressive stresses. Thus the relationship between hot deformation and confined expansion test
results have been found to give a measure of scabbing tendency.
9. Mould metal reaction defects:
(a) Sticker or rat is a lump on the surface of a casting caused by a portion of the mould face sticking to the
pattern.
(b) Rough surfaces are caused due to minor mould metal reactions. Metal penetration is a surface defect which
looks as though the metal has filled the voids between the sand grains without displacing them. When sand is
fused on the surface of the casting the defect is known as fusion.
10. Defects due to faulty workmanship:
(a) A mould shift results in a casting which does not match at parting lines. A core shift results from
misalignment of cores in assembling. A specialized case of core shift known as core raise is caused due to
core movement towards the cope causing a variation in wall thickness.
(b) A ramoff or ramaway is a defect which results from a section of the mould being forced away from the
pattern by ramming sand after it has conformed to the pattern contour. It may be renewable on a localised
swell or shifts.
(c) Swells, fins, strains and sags result in the castings not being true to the pattern because the metal section
are greater or less than required. A swell is an increase in metal section due to the displacement of sand by
metal pressure. A fin is a thin projection of metal from the casting.
A strain is a type of swell wherein the mould surface has cracked and permitted the metal to form a fin.
A sag is a decrease in metal section due to sagging of the cope or core.
(d) Runouts and bleeders: Sometimes called breakouts, these defects result in a casting lacking completeness
 20

due to molten metal draining or leaking out of some part of the mould cavity either during (known as runouts)
or after pouring (known as bleeders).
(e) Crushes, push-ups and damp-offs: These defects occur as indentations in the casting surface due to
displacement of sand in the mould.
A drop is a defect in a casting due to a portion of the sand dropping from the cope or other overhanging
section.
11. Open grain structure is a defect wherein a casting when machined, appears too course grained for the
application. The structure may be general or it may be localised.
12. Miscellaneous defects like broken castings are caused during handling the metal and may be due to design
defect.
Inverse chills or reverse chills are caused due to inhomogeneity of metal.
Kish is a defect when in grey cast iron, free graphite has separated out from molten iron. Warpage defect is a
deformation in a casting other than due to contraction that develops between solidification and room
temperature.

Scrap diagnosis (for iron castings)
Defect Appearance
Misrun May appear as: Holes in the
thin sections of a casting.
Edges are smooth and well
rounded, surface of metal,
round holes, smooth and often
shiny.
Shrinkage Rough cavities entering a
and casting on heavy sections or at
draws the joint of change of sections.
Saucer shaped depressions on
heavy sections usually with
rough edges. Dark areas seen
in fracture.
Slag Pitted surface or inclusions
found on machining, cavities
are generally more saucer
shaped and smooth. Slag may
be seen before cleaning the
castings. Segregations of
manganese sulphide.
Porosity Casting, weep under
pressure test. Machined
surfaces show cavities in this
sections or series of fine holes
on machined shin.
Hard Bright areas on machined
metal surfaces often at corners or
edges of thinnest sections.
May occur as scattered hard
spots. Shows when broken, a
white fracture.
21
Causes
1. Low pouring temperature
2. Low fluidity
3. Inadequate venting of
mould
4. Faulty pouring practice
Core shift causing uneven
thickness
Incorrect gating and feeding
Unsuitable composition.
Dirty metal and ladle linings.
Incorrect gating causing
turbulence.
Excess of sulpher with high
Mn and low pouring
temperature.
Wrong composition of metal.
Incorrect running and
feeding system.
Impermeable mould.
Oxidized metals.
Wrong composition of metal
with high sulphur and low
manganese.
High moisture content.
Incorrect pouring practice.
Remedy
1. Provide hotter metal at
cupola spout. Reduce heat
losses in the ladle by using
flux coverings.
2. Increase carbon and
phosphorus.
3. Avoid excessive ramming
and increase vent by means of
vent wire.
4. keep runner bush full of
metal during pouring.
5. Take extra care in
positioning.
Use risers to feed heavy
sections and ensure they are
filled with hot metal. If using
open risers, use feeding flux, if
using blind risers use feeding
cores. Embody chills where a
heavy section or boss cannot
be fed directly with the riser.
Adjust silicon and/or carbon
content.
Remove all slag from the
metal before pouring. Thicken
slag with sand before
shimming. Keep ladle linings
free from buildup.
Incorporate skim gates or
strainer cores in runner
systems. Keep runner bush
full while pouring.
Restrict sulfur pickup and
avoid pouring dull iron.
Reduce silicon and
phosphorus content.
See Shrinkage
Scavenge melt before pouring.
Increase silicon content by (i)
altering metal mixture, and
(ii) by introducing silicon in
the ladle.
Reduce moisture.
Avoid splashing metal down
runners and risers.
Plug sprues very helpful.

Defect Appearance
Scabs Rough warty excrescences on
surface of casting mainly on
heavy sections.
Distortion Casting shows swelling on
surface.
Rough Casting surface rough
surfaces
Cracks Hair line cracks showing on
casting when broken.
Discoloration shows that crack
was produced while casting
was hot. No discoloration
shows cold crack.
Blow Rough shaped holes occurring
holes on the outside of the casting in
the thicker sections. May be
found just below surface on
machining. In severe cases,
section of casting may be
hollow. Cavities may be dull or
bright depending on
conditions under which they
have formed.
22
Causes
Sand expansion due to,
Hard and uneven ramming.
Mould poured too slowly.
Sand grain too uniform
Sand erosion due to,
Weak bond of facing sand
Prolonged metal
impingement
Uneven mould hardness due
to insufficient ramming to
withstand metal pressure.
Poor weighing practice.
Casting too heavy for green
sand mould.
Metal penetrates due to
1. Moulding sand too open
2. Low coal dust content.
3. Uneven ramming.
High dry strength of the
sand.
Cores too hard.
Casting strains.
Mechanical reasons.
Insufficient permeability of
moulding or core sand.
Hard ramming.
High moisture content.
Rusty or damp chills and
chaplets.
Very hard cores.
Insufficient venting in cores.
Incomplete baking.
Damp pouring laddles.
Too low a pouring temp.
Remedy
Avoid highly (hard) rammed
Increase inrates (s) area (s)
Change sand or addition of
little wood flour may help.
Reduce moisture and coal
dust content.
Improve sand with clay
addition.
Ram evenly and firmly.
Increase weight on moulds
and ensure it is distributed
evenly.
Employ dry sand or CO2
bounded moulds.
1. Use finer sand and apply
mould dressing. Make
additions of coal dust. Ram
more evenly.
Ram softener to allow casting
to contract.
Reduce oil in cores.
Gate evenly to avoid these.
Modify pattern design.
Pack casting with wood or old
tyres in tumbler. Take care in
breaking off risers. See that
risers are provided with
correctly designed necks.
Increase permeability by use
of vent wire or open sand with
additions of coarser silica
sand.
Avoid excess ramming.
Reduce moisture to minimum
consistent to workability.
Ensure chaplets are dry and
coat chills before use with oil
or proprietary dressing.
Reduce oil in the sand.
Ensure vents are clear.
Bake until centre is dry and
hard.
Thoroughly dry the ladles.
Increase pouring temperature.
 23

Defect Appearance Causes Remedy

Dirt Rough cavities and pits in
casting surface. If examined
before cleaning the sand may
often be seen.
Dirty ladles or shanks.
Strength of sand low
Loose ramming.
Direct wash of metal on sand
surface e.g. corners, etc.
Poor finish of gating system.
Displacement of sand by
cores.
Disturbed moulds.
Insufficient taper on
patterns.
Clean ladles etc. and reline if
necessary.
Increase green bond with clay
addition.
Ram evenly.
Avoid direct wash with well
designed runners.
Finish of running system
should be as good as mould.
Make bushes and runners
with good facing sand.
Blow out after placing cores.
Place weights carefully. Avoid
knocking moulds.
Increase taper to allow clean
lift.

Scrap diagnosis (for copper base castings)
Defect Appearance
1 2
Misrun and Casting lacks completeness due
cold shut to failure of the metal to fill
mould cavity, Discontinuity
due to imperfect fusion where
two streams of metal have
converged. Defect may appear
as a crack or seam with smooth
rounded edges.
Oxide and Dirty areas on machined
dross surfaces. Cavities containing
inclusions non-metallic inclusions mostly
on the top surface of casting as
cast. Often revealed during
machining.
Fine gas Fine holes distributed
holes (in throughout whole casting
bronze and section can be seen in
gun metal machined surface. More
alloys only) concentrated in areas last to
solidify. Risers usually flat or
cauliflowered.
24
Causes
3 4
Pouring temperature low.
Lack of fluidity of alloy.
Aluminum as impurity in
bronzes and gun metal.
Too much gas forming material
in the facing sand.
Faulty gating system causing
turbulence.
Insufficient venting of the
mould.
Poor melting and fluxing
technique.
Dirty ladle.
Careless skimming and pouring
Turbulence due to wrong
gating.
Contamination by aluminium
(in most alloys)
Contamination of leaded alloys
with silicon.
Gas taken into solution in alloy
when molten and coming out of
solution as casting cools.
Dirty or badly corroded scrap.
Damp fluxes.
Highly reducing atmosphere in
furnace in case of bronzes and
gun metal.
Slight metal mould reaction
when casting phosphor bronze
alloys.
Remedy
Ensure alloy has correct
pouring temp.
Check melting
conditions to avoid
oxidised metal. Always
deoxidise those material
requiring such
treatment.
Guard against
aluminum pickup in the
scrap. Keep crucibles for
melting aluminum alloys
separate.
Modify gating system.
Vent mould and core to
prevent build up of air
pressure during pouring.
Avoid stewing of melt
in the furnace. Use a
suitable flux and
deoxidant.
Maintain ladle lining
clean and free from
build up.
Skim and pour carefully
and keep slag and dross
from entering the
mould.
Use gating system which
can be kept choked and
gate parallel to cores.
Guard against Al pickup.
Remove Si from melt.
Avoid taking melt to
high temperature.
Use correct melting
technique.
Apply controlled
deoxidation.
Control furnace
atmosphere.
Employ inhibiting
mould dressing. Note:
For those alloys which
cannot be degassed by
oxidation, deoxidation
technique a scavenging
treatment is highly
successful.
 25

Defect Appearance Causes Remedy

1 2 3 4
Sub-surface Fine porosity just below casting Metal mould reaction.
pin holes skin revealed on polishing or constituents of molten alloy
machining react with moisture in
moulding sand.
Too high a volatile matter
content in the facing sand (such
as excessive wheat flour)
Mould permeability too low.
Pouring temperature too high
for thickness of cast section.
In tin bronze and gun
metal keep phosphorus
0.03 per cent. In
phosphor bronze keep
phosphor content at
lower limit of
specification.
Avoid flour addition to
sand and do not use
flour as dusting agent.
Use dry sand or a Co2
bonded mould dressed
with inhibiting coating.
Increase permeability of
sand.
Reduce pouring
temperature.

Tin and lead Runners and risers back up. Gassy metal. 1. 2. and 4 under gas
sweat Beads of white metal rich in tin holes.
(inverse and lead appear on surface of Too high a pouring temp.
segregation ) risers and casting. 3. Reduce content of Sn,
High content of Sn and Pb. Pb, P where possible.
Metal mould reaction. 5. Increase permeability
Low permeability of moulding of sand
sand.

Defective Fracture shows oxide tints as Shrinkage, porosity (if See remedy under
fracture yellow and brown flakes localised) shrinkage cavity.
pronounced dendritic structure
indicative of low mechanical Gassy metal (if general) See remedy under fine
properties coarse core like gas holes.
Excessive pouring temp. (if
structure indicative of low structure shows coarse firetree Reduce pouring
strength. structure). temperature.

Metal Casting surface rough. Looks as Lack of suitable mould Avoid excessive pouring
penetration though molten metal has filled dressing. temperature and check
(rough voids between sand grains these points.
surface) without displacing them. Coarse grained sand.
Ramming technique
Loosely rammed sand. especially in machine
High pouring temperature. moulding where soft
spots are likely to occur.
Grading and flowability
of sand

Shrinkage External and internal holes
cavity with rough interior. Associated
with heavy section and hot
spots.
Liquid shrinkage and lack of
feed metal.
Incorrect gating of feed.
Faulty design of casting.
Low casting design favours
formation of hot spots.
1. 2. Apply suitable
running and feeding
system.
3. Modify design to
create more uniform
section.
4. Use correct pouring
temperature.

Defect Appearance
1 2
Sand Rough holes often containing
exclusions sand on the top surface of
casting as cast. When due to
break down of mould lumps
corresponding to the cavity
defects will be found.
26
Causes Remedy
3 4
Loose sand in moulding. Blow out mould cavity
carefully before closing
Absence of mould dressing. the mould,
Sand lacking green of dry bond.
Improve hardness of
Erosion mould surface by
coating with suitable
Soft ramming. dressing.
Overbaked core. Increase strength by
adding more new sand
or clay binder.
Correct gating
technique.
Increase ramming
density.
Control temperature in
drying ovens.

Scrap diagnosis (for aluminium alloys castings)
Defect Appearance
1 2
Pinhole Small evenly distributed
porosity cavities as seen on machine
surface. The holes may be
round or angular.
Shrinkage Internal or external holes
cavity often with rough walls and
evidence of fire tree crystals.
Often located at section
change. Local hot sots may
cause internal spongy areas,
sometimes in the form of
surface depression known as
draw or sink.
Misrun and Casting not fully formed line
cold shut or seam of discontinuity. A
hole through rounded edge
through wall of casting. Lugs,
bosses, corners and thin
edges not filled out.
Gas holes Smooth walled globular
(blow holes) holes of varying diameter
27
Causes
3 4
H2 gas expelled from solution
due to
Moisture in fluxes, refractories
and furnace tools. Corrosion
products on scrap. Oil
contaminated scrap.
Excessive superheating
temperature or stewing of
melt.
Slow melting, encouraging gas
pickup from furnace
atmosphere.
Pouring temperature too high
causing a high liquid
shrinkage and coarse grain
structure.
Failure to supply liquid feed
metal to areas where shrinkage
cavity is forming.
Premature solidification of
ingates and risers due to low
pouring temperature.
Lack of modification of LM6
alloy
Neglect to encourage
directional solidification
Too little residual gas in metal
used for gravity die casting.
Insufficient metal to fill
mould.
Incomplete fusion where two
streams of metal have
converged.
Molten alloy freezes before
sand surface has been covered.
Metal sets before mould has
been fully filled.
Too much gas forming
material in facing sand.
Lack of permeability of sand.
Die too cold or inadequately
vented (die casting)
Mechanically trapped gas or
air from any of the following
sources:
Low pouring temperature.
Gases blowing from mould due
to low permeability.
Remedy
Apply degassing treatment
prior to pouring.
Store fluxes away from
dampness. Use preheated
crucibles. Preheat and coat
furnace tools with refractory
dressing.
and 3. Melt quickly and
avoid overheating the
charge. Do not disturb metal
while melting.
Lower pouring temp and
refine grain.
Use correctly proportioned
feeder heads.
Use correct pouring temp.
and increase or enlarge
ingates and risers.
Modify with sodium
addition.
Make use of insulated and
exothermic feeding methods.
Apply chills. Top pour where
possible.
Make controlled additions of
gas in the case of gravity die
castings.
1, 2,3,4 Increase pouring
temperature.
2, 6 Increase permeability of
sands and venting.
5. Reduce moisture or
volatile matter in facing
sand.
7. Obvious.
Increase pouring
temperature.
Increase permeability of
sand and venting.
Use moisture free fluxes.

Defect Appearance
1 2
Unsatisfactory High silicon LM6 alloy bright
fracture crystalline instead of silky
cores granular structure
indicative of low strength
Oxide and Dirty areas on the machined
dross surfaces. Cavities containing
inclusions non-metallic inclusions
mostly on top surface as cast.
Sand Irregular shaped holes
inclusions containing sand. Mostly
located on top as cast
surface. When due to erosion
or scabbing of core or mould,
a corresponding raised area
appears on casting.
28
Causes
3 4
Damp fluxes.
Moisture condensed on chills
and denseness.
Excessive turbulence during
pouring.
Gas involved from core
jointing material.
Lack of modification treatment
in Al-Si alloy.
Pouring temp. excessive or too
low. Absence of the grain
refining elements titanium and
boron. Iron content excessive.
Poor melting and fluxing
technique.
Dirty ladle lining.
Careless skimming and
pouring.
Turbulence due to badly
designed or positioned gates.
Loose sand in the mould.
Lack of bonded strength.
Too soft ramming.
Wrong gating system allowing
erosion of mould surface.
Over baked oil sand cores.
Remedy
Warm chills, suitable
dressings.
Modify running and gating
system to improve
smoothness of flow.
Select core adhesives with
care.
Modify by making sodium
addition to melt.
Use pyrometric control.
Apply grain refining
treatment.
Avoid contamination form
iron stirring and plugging
tools, laddles, etc. (the
harmful effects of iron can be
substantially reduced by the
addition of Al/Mn hardener
to the melt.)
Avoid stewing and dross
formation during melting.
Keep ladle lining free from
skulls and buildup.
Skim and pour carefully and
keep dross and slag out of
mould. Avoid swirl of
metal in pouring cup.
Use gating system which can
be kept choked during
running period. Employ dirt
traps and do not gate so that
metal drives on cores at right
angles.
Improve the strength of
mould surface with a
dressing and
Blow out mould and avoid
rough handling.
Mill more efficiently and
increase binder additions.
Increasing ramming
pressure.
Gate parallel to mould and
core surfaces.
Reduce stove temperature.