MODULE-IV ILLUMINATION

The aim of artificial light is to supplement day light or to replace it, in homes, offices, factories or recreation centres good
illumination increases production, reduces fatigue, increase efficiency and safety.

Radiant energy

Light is a form of radiant energy propagated in the form of transverse waves through an invisible medium known as
ether. The velocity of light is 3x10 8m/s. Since the wave length of light is very small it is expressed in Angstrom Unit-(AU),
IAU=10-10m. Wave length or red light is 7800 AU and that of violet is 3900 A.U. The wave length of other colours lies in
between the sensation of colour is due to the difference in the wave length and hence the difference of frequencies of the radiation.

If certain bodies are heated when the temperature rises, it starts radiating heat energy and if the temperature is further
increased, it starts emitting light radiation also. Further increase of temperature increases the light energy and the wave length of
radiation reduces and light from red to violet is obtained and the total light effect will be white. If further heated, the body starts
emitting ultra violet radiation also in addition to light and heat. From the point of view of light enussion, heat radiated is nergy
wasted. The ratio energy radiated in the form of light. Total energy radiated by hot body is known as the radiant efficiency of the
light source. Maximum radiant efficiency will occur at a temperature of about 6200 oC and the maximum efficiency is only 20%.
This temperature is far above the one which can be obtained in practice, practically possible efficiency will be much less.

Solid Angle

Consider an area A which is part of the surface of a sphere of radiusr. Solid angle denoted 'W' is the angle substended by
A
all the lines draw from each point on the edges of the area A, at the centre C. Its value is W = The unit of solid angle is
r2
steradian (Sr). If A = r2 then W = 1. Hence I steradian can be defined as the solid angle subtended at the centre of a sphere by a
part of its surface having an area equal to the square of its radius. The solid angle subtended by the whole Area =
4r 2
4Sr
r2

Definitions:

1. Luminous Flux:

It is defined as the total quantity of light-energy emitted per second from a luninous body symbol in F and the unit is
lumen. The concept of luminous flux enables to specify the output and efficiency of a light source.

2. Luminous Intensity - It is the luminous flux emitted by the source per unit solid angle. Symbol is I and the unit is candela or
lumens per stradian or candle power.

3. Lumen - It is the unit of luminous flux and is defined as the luminous flux given out from a source of one candle power
through one unit solid angle. Lumen = candle power X solid angle. Total lumen given out by a source of one candle power = 4
lumen.
4. Illumination: When light falls upon any surface, the phenomenon is called illumination. It is defined on the no. of lumens
falling on the surface per unit area. Symbol is E and is measured in lumen per square meter or Lux or meter candle.

F (lumen)
Illumination =
A ( Area )

Lumens = Candle Power Solid angle

Area
Solid angle =
r2

Candle Power Area

Illumination = 2
Area r

CandlePower
=
r2
 Candle Power CP
= ie
Square of dis tan ce d2

Eg: - flux emitted by a lamp in all direction is 1000 lumen. Calculate its MSCP.

Lumes 1000
MSCP - Mean Special Candle Power =
4 4

= 79.6 C.P.
=======
2. A 250 V lamp takes 0.8A and has a flux of 3000 lumen. Calculate lumen per watt

(ii) MSCP per watt.

Wattage = 250 x .8 = 200W.

3000
Lumens/Watt = = 15 lumens/watt
200

3000
MSCP = = 240
4

240
MSCP/Watt = = 1.2
200

Laws of Illumination:

There are two laws of illumination (1) Law of Inverse Squares (2) Lambert's Cosine law.

1. Law of inverse squares:

If a source of light which emit light uniformly in all directions is placed at the center of a hollow sphere light will fall
uniformly on the inner surface of the sphere ie the illumination at every Cm 2 area of the surface will be same. If this sphere is
replaced with another sphere of larger radius, the same amount of light is spread over a larger area proportional to the square of
the radius. The amount of light falling per Cm 2 area will be diminished now and will be inversely proportional to the square of the
radius, that is the distance between the source and the surface. Hence inverse square law can be stated as 'The illumination on a
surface is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the surface and the light source, provided that the distance
is sufficiently large so that the source can be treated as a point source

ie E I/d2 E = Illumination

I = Luminous indensity

d = distance

Lambert's Cosine Law

Very often illuminated surface is not normal to the direction of light as AC, but inclined as AB. In this case area in the
ratio over which the light falls is increased in the ratio

AB

1 Co
and illumination decreases in the ratio . Combining the two laws of illumination expression for
AC Cos 1
I Cos
illumination becomes E =
d2

Lambert's Cosine law can be stated as " the illumination at any point on a surface is proportional to the Cosine of the
angle between the normal at that point and the direction of luminous flux.

Eg: 1. Two lamp posts are 16m apart and are fitted with 100 C.P. lamps each at a height of 6M above ground. Calculate the
illumination on the ground (a) Under each lamp (b) midway between lamps.
(a) Under the lamps - Consider point A

Illumination at Point A = Illumination due to lamp L1+ Illumination due to L2

100
100
(17.09) 2 Cos
+ 2
= 1 6

100 6 100
= 2 = 2.9 Lux
(17.09) 2 (17.09) 6

Illumination at C = Illumination due L1 +Illumination due to L2

100 100
= 2
Cos 2 2 Cos 2
10 10

100 6 100 6
=
10 2 10 10 2 10

= 1.2 lux
======
Polar Curves

Normal assumption is that the candle power or luminous intensity from a source of light is uniformly distributed in all
direction. But due to its unsymmetrical shape light emitted in different directions vary. It is often necessary to know the
distribution of light in various directions. The luminous intensity in all direction can be represented by polar curves. If the
luminous intensity in all directions in a horizontal place passing through the light source in plotted against angular positions a
curve known as horizontal o]polar curve is obtained. If the luminous intensity in a vertical plane passing through the source of
light is plotted vertical polar curve is obtained.

Mean Horizontal Candle Power (MHCP)

It is defined as the mean of candle powers in all direction in the horizontal place containing the source of light. It can be
determined from the horizontal polar curve by taking the mean value of the candle power in horizontal direction.

Mean spherical candle power (MSCP)

It is defined as the mean of the candle powers in all direction and in all planes from the source of light. Mean special
candle power can be determined from the vertical polar curve by Rousseau's Construction.

Rousseau's Construction

A semi Circle of any convenient radius is drawn with pole O of the polar curve as
centre and enclosing the one half of the polar curve about, a vertical axis yy'. The line CD is
drawn equal and parallel to the vertical diameter yy 1. DB is drawn such that DB = OK.
Similarly GH = OF. Other points are also marked in this manner. The curve obtained by joining
the ends of these ordinates is known as Rousseau's Curve. The mean ordinate of this curve gives
the M.S.C.P. of the lamp.

Area of Curve CDBS

The mean ordinate of Curve =
Length CD

The area under the curve can either be determine on a graph paper or found by Simpson's rule.

Requirements of good lighting system.

A good lighting system should be such that it may:-

i) Provide adequate illumination.

ii) Provide light distribution all over the working plane as uniform as possible .

iii) Provide light of suitable colour.

iv) Avoid glare and hard shadows as far as possible.

1. Illumination Level : This is the most important requirement for a good lighting system, since sufficient illumination is the
means by which we are seeing the objects. For each type of work, there is a range of brightness which causes minimum fatigue
and gives maximum output in terms of quality and quantity. Degree of illumination required depends on the size of the object and
the distance of the object from the observer. Requirement of illumination level for different location are as follows:-

a) Entrance way, toilets, subarban roads, factory yard etc. Upto 50 Lux Very low illumination level

b) Staircase Corridors bedrooms parking area, warehouses, bathroom etc. Upto 100 Lux Low illumination level

c) Living room, reception room, Lecture hall, Hospital indoor, dining room Upto 150 Lux Medium illumination

d) Kitchen, Libraries work, Benches, machine room Upto 200 Lux High level

e) Office sustained reading typing, drawing office indoor game etc. Up to 300 Lux Very high

f) Sewing testing lab instrument repair Up to 700 Lux Extremely High

ii) Uniformity of Illumination

Human eye adjusts itself automatically to the brightness within the field of vision. If there in lack of uniformity the
pupil of the eye has to adjust frequently and thus fatigue is caused to the eye. The range of brightness within the field of vision
should not be more than 3:1. This can be achieved by employing general lighting in addition to localised lighting. Local lighting
alone (eg. a table lamp) without matching general lighting creates a feeling of loneliness, gloom and unfriendliness.

iii) Colour of light (Clour rendering). The appearance of the object colour entirely depends upon the colour of the incident light.
The composition of the light should be such that the colour appears natural, its appearance from artificial light is not much
different than under day light. The colour rendering index of some of the lamp are as follows. Luminous efficiency (lumen/watt)
and average life in hrs is also given for reference.

Type of lamp Luminous Efficiency in lumines/watt Rende-ring

Index Life in Hrs.
Lamp Lamp + Ballast

1. Incandescent (GLS) 8 to 13 - 100 1000

2. Tungston Halogen 22 - 100 2000
3. Fluorescent lamp
a) Cool day light 49 to 62 32 to 50 77 5000
b) White 58 to 69 38 to 54 65 5000
4. High pressure mercury vapour 44 to 57 38 to 54 45 5000
5. High pressure sodium vapour 90 to 118 79 to 107 25 12000
6. Low pressure sodium vapour 125 91 - More than 12000
7. CFL 67 46 85 7500
8. Metal Hallide 68 to 95 63 to 90 70 8000
* Power in Wasted in Ballast
iv) Shadow:- Formation of long and hard shadows cause fatigue. Complete elimination of shadow is not necessarily a
condition for good lighting. Certain amount of shadow is desirable since it gives shape to solid objects. Objects illuminated by
shadow less light seems flat and uninteresting. But in drawing offices, shadows will hinder the work long and hard shadows can
be avoided by providing a no. of luminairs mounted at a height not less than 2.5 m. and by using wide surface sources of light
using globes over filament lamps.

v) GlareDirect glare from a source of light in more common and is more often a hindrance to vision. Reflected glare is the glare
by reflection of light from polished surfaces. Metal reflectors are provided in industrial lighting to avoid glare.

Calculation of height of mounting

Find the height at which light having uniform spherical candle power should be placed over a floor in order that the
intensity of horizontal illumination at a given distance from its, vertical line is greatest.

'l' is known it is required to find the value of h, so that illumination at point 'B' is maximum.

Illumination at B

CP
EB = Cos
d2

CP h
=
( l h )2 2 2
l h2
2

CP. h
=
(l h 2 )3 / 2
2

To find the condition of h for which EB is maximum.

CP (l 2 h 2 ) 3 / 2 h 3 / 2 2h l 2 h 2 2 0
dE B 5

dh

1
h= l = 0.707 l
2
==============

Illumination at any point due to a lamp mounted at height h

In this case 'h' is known and it is required

to find out the illumination on the floor at point A,

angle of direction in to normal.

CP
Illumination at point A = Cos
d2

But d h/Cos

CP
Illumination = 2
Cos 2 . Cos
h

CP
= Cos 3
h2
=========
Brightness: Brightness of a surface is defined as the luminous intensity per unit projected area of the surface in the given
CP
direction. Unit of brightness is Lambert and is equal to
Pr ojected area in Cm 2

Eg: A lamp having a uniform C.P. of 200 in all direction is provided with a reflector which directs 60% of total light uniformly
into a circular area of 10M diameter. The lamp is hung 6M above the area. Calculate the illumination (1) at the centre (ii) at the
edge of the surface with and without reflector. Determine the average illumination with the reflector.

Solution d = 5 2 6 2 = 7.81 M

MSCP = 200

Total flux out put = 4 X 200 Lumens

(i) Without reflector

200
Illumination at centre = = 5.55 lux
62

I 200 6
Illumination at edges = Cos 2

d 2
(7.81) 7.81

= 2.52 lux
=======

(ii) With reflector 60% of total light out put reflected and the illumination is uniform and same at centre and edges.

Total luman reching the area

Illumination =
Area

0.6 4 200 480

=
5 2
25

= 19.2 lux
=======

Basic Principles of light control

When light falls on a surface part of it is reflected and part is absorbed and the balance is transmitted through. Ratio of
reflected light to incident light is known reflection factor. These are two types of reflection (1) Mirror or Specular reflection, (2)
(Diffuse reflection. In case of specular reflection, a beam of light is reflected but not scattered. Unless the eye is kept in the path
of reflection, the light source is not seen and in the path of reflection, the source of light is seen and not the reflecting surface.
Eg:- Silvered mirrors highly polished metal surfaces etc. With diffused reflection light is scattered in all direction and the viewer
sees the illuminated surface and not the light source. Eg:- Paper, frosted glass. If a diffused surface is equally illuminated in all
direction. It is said to be a perfect diffuser. But no surface is 100% diffusing or 100% specular, but a mix of these two. A surface
that is almost free from mirror reflection is known as matt surface.

Types of lighting schemes

The distribution of light emitted by a light source is controlled using reflectors or diffusing screen or even lenses. The
interior lighting schemes may be classified as (1) Direct lighting (2) Semi direct lighting (3) Semi indirect lighting (4) Indirect
lighting and (5) General lighting.

(1) Direct lighting

More than 90% of total light falls on the working plane directly using, reflectors.

(2) Semi direct lighting

 60% to 90% for direct lighting and balance used to illuminate walls and ceiling.

(3) Semi indirect lighting

60% to 90% of light thrown upwards and balance light directed to the working plane. It is used for decoration purpose.

(4) Indirect lighting

More than 90% of light flux is thrown upwards using inverted reflectors. In this case the ceiling in illuminated and acts
like a light source and the light is more diffused and the appearance of the room will be better.

(5) General lighting

In this case shades made of diffusing glase is made use of. Illumination in all directions will be the same.

Design of lighting schemes

A good lighting scheme should be such that it may:

1. Provide adequate illumination

2. Uniform light distribution

3. Provide light of suitable colour

4. Avoid glare and hard shadows

(Repeat pages )

Mounting height

Mounting height is decided by the type of building and the type of lighting. If it direct lighting, the fixtures are
mopunted nearer to the ceiling. If the ceiling is very high it may be suspended from the ceiling, but a better solution is to the use
focusing reflectors and to mount at height. In case of indirect and semi indirect lighting, it is desirable to suspend them from
ceiling so that, length of the suspension rod is 1/4 th to 1/3rd of the spacing between rows of lamps. But the minimum clearance
to floor is to be 2.5M.

Spacing of luminaries

Correct spacing is essential to provide uniform illumination. For direct and semi direct lighting ratio of horizontal
spacing to height of luminaires above working plane in case of florescent lamps is unity and upper limit is 3/4. In case of tangston
lamps this can be 0.6. For indirect and semi indirect luminnairs horizontal spacing can be equal to height above floor and never
the spacing should be more than 1 1/2 times.

Colour surrounding walls

The illumination in any room depends on the colour of the walls and ceiling. White walls and ceiling reflect more light.

Factory lighting

Adequate lighting improves quality and quantity of production and reduces accidents. Factory lighting should provide
adequate illumination, uniformly distributed and should avoid long shadows and glare. It should use easy to clean fittings. The
different types are

1. General lighting

Usual practice is to mount a no. of luminaires at a sufficient height. In large machine shops, the lamps should be
mounted at a height above the traveling cranes. In such case main lighting is supported with side lighting.

2. Local lighting

Adjustable fittings attached to the machine or benches are mounted on portable floor stands used for local lighting.
Portable hands lamps are also used. This operates in a low voltage such on 50V.
Emergency lighting

Emergency lighting circuit is kept separate and normally supplied from a different transformer or portable generator set.
This should provide light for evacuation of labourers during accidents, to illuminate vital points during an air raid alarm etc.

Industrial lighting fixtures should be simple in design and easy to clean. The different types used are:-

1. Standard reflector:- 40W to 1500W lamps can be used. 1.5 times spacing than mounting height.

2. Diffusing lighting:- When polished articles are to be dealt with diffused lighting is employed.

3. Concentrating reflectors:- Used in large machine shops and foundaries where ceiling height is very high. There is waste of
light.

4. Enclosed diffusing reflector : An opel globe is used.

5. Angle reflectors:- Used to give illumination in a vertical plane.

Types of lamps

Discharge lamps have been used in where colour rendering is not important. The fluorescent lamps are widely used on
accounts of its natural day light.

Lighting Calculation

No. of methods are used to calculate the illumination for a lighting system or to design an appropriate lighting for a
given illumination level. The three important methods are

1. Watt per square meter method.

2. Lumen or light flux method

3. Point to point or inverse square law method.

1. Watts per square meter method - It is rule of the thumb. Very handy for rough calculation. It gives an allowance of so many
watts per square meter area according to the illumination required.

2. Lumen or light flux method

This method is applicable to such cases, where the source of light produces an approximate uniform illumination over the
working plane. From the wattage of lamps and their light efficiency (lumen/watt) total lumen out put can be found. Multi plying
this total by the coefficient of utilization and maintenance factor, total lumens reaching the floor can be found.

Lumens received at working plane: No.of lamps X wattage of each lamp X

efficiency of each lamp in lumens/watt X co-efficient of utilization X
maintenance factor.
Lumens received
Illumination at the floor =
Area of the floor

Co-efficient of Utilization or Utilization factor

The whole light rediated from the lamp does not reach the working plane. The ratio of lumens reaching the working
plane to the total lumen output when the installation is new is known as utilization factor or co-efficient of utilization. This value
depends on the (1) mounting height (2) Area to be illuminated - more if area is more (3) type of lighting - more for direct lighting
(4) colour of surrounding. Value is between - 0.25 to 0.5.

Maintenance factor

Due to aging of lamps the light given out by the lamp reduces due to oxidation of the filament materials etc. Also light
reduces due to accumueation of dust, smoke etc. on the lighting reflector etc. To account for this reduction a factor is introduced
which is called maintenance factor. It is the ratio of ultimate light reaching on the working plans to the initial light when the
installation is new. The value is between 0.8 to 0.6. Higher value is taken when the installation is cleaned regularly.
Depreciation factor:- It is the inverse of maintenance factor and hence value should be more than unity (But some times
depreciation factor is taken same as maintenance factor and in that case value given will be less than one).

Point to Point or Inverse squares law method

This method is applicable where the illumination at a point due to one or more sources of light is required and the candle
power of the source in that particular direction is known. For this purpose, polar curve of the lamp with its reflector is to be
plotted first. The illumination can be found by applying inverse square law.

Eg. 1: A shop measuring 15m X 35m is illuminated by 20 lamps of 500W. The luminous efficiency of each lamp is 15
lumen/watt. Allowing a maintenance factor/depreciation factor 0.7, and co-efficient of utilization 0.5, determine the illumination
on the working plane.

Sol. Area = 15 x 35 = 525m2

=======

Total lumen out put = No. of lamps X wattage X light efficiency X Coe. of utilization X Maintenance factor

= 20x500x15x0.74x.5 = 52500 lumen

52500
Illumination on the working plane = = 100 lux
525
======

Eg. 2 It is desired to illuminate a drawing hall with an average illumination of 250 lux. The area is 30m X 20M. Lamps are
fitted at 5m height. Find the no. and size of incandescent lamps required if efficiency is 12 lumen/watt. Maintenance factor 0.85
and utilisation factor 0.4

Lumens required the floor= E X A= 250x30x20

= 150,000 lumen

EA 150,000
Lumen out put required = =
U .F Man F 0.4 0.7

= 4,41,176 lumen

Total time 4,41,176

Total wattage required = =
Light efficient 12

= 36,765 Watt
==========

Let there be 8 Nos. lamps in one row spacing

3.75m and 5 Nos. rows spacing 4m. Total lamp

8 x 5 = 40 Nos.

36,765
Wattage of each = = 919
40

Total 1000 W lamps 40 Nos.

Street lighting
Purpose (1) To make the road and the obstruction on the road visible for safety and convenience (2) To make the street more
attractive (3) To increase the community value of the street.

Difference between indoor lighting and street lighting

For street lighting there are no walls or ceiling to reflect or diffuse. So only direct lighting is possible and hence hard
shadows and light contrast cannot be avoided. The illumination is kept low since area is large and hence on economic
consideration. Colour rendering is also not very important. It is the impression of the whole scene that is required. In indoors
objects are seen by reflected light. But here objects are seen in the back ground of bright light ie silhouted in the bright
background. Owing to low illumination, the eyes are in a sensitive state and hence glare to be avoided. Two principles used in
street lighting are

(1) Diffusion principle (2) Specular reflection principle

1. Diffusion principle

In this case lamps are fitted with suitable reflectors having cut off angle between 30 o to 45o. So glare is avoided.
Filaments can be seen from underneath only, Diffusing nature of road sends light in all directions.

Specular reflection Principle

In this case the reflectors are curved

upwards so that the light is thrown on the

road at large angle of incidence. Motorists requires to see the object at 30M away. In the fig. the observer is at 30m away. Much
of the light from L3 is not reaching him, whereas most of the light from L1 is reaching him. Thus the object will appear silhouted
against the bright road surface. But pedestrians, who are looking at the object closer can see it clear due to light from L 3. This
type of lighting is suitable for straight sections of road. This is more economical, but there is the problem of glare.

Illumination level of street - lighting

Depends upon the class of street. For important shopping centres and road junction - 30lux. Suburban street - 4 lux.
Average street 8 to 15 lux. Illumination is excellent when the distance between two lamp posts is not more than 8 times the height
of it. If lamps are at 8M height, then the distance should not be more than 64M. Standard is 50M.

Type of lamps: Mercury vapour and sodium vapour lamps have good advantage since its light efficiency is high.

Flood lighting

Flood lighting means flooding of large area with light from powerful projectors.

Purpose:

(1) Aesthetic flood lighting - to enhance the beauty of a building, public building, ancient monument etc.

(2) Industrial and commercial flood lighting - For illuminating railway yard, parking ground, sports stadium etc.

(3) For advertising - for illuminating large advertisement boards.

In flood lighting, it is necessary to concentrate the light in a narrow beam. Particular type of reflectors are known as
flood lighting projector. Since it is installed in remote location, it should be robust and weather proof. The reflecting surface is
the most important part and is made of silvered glass, chromium plate or stainless steel. The mounting is arranged so that the
inclination can be varied in vertical and horrizondal plane. Projectors are three types: (1) Narrow beam projectors (12-25 o), (2)
Medium angle projectors (25 to 40o) and wide angle projectors (40o to 90o).

Waste light factor

Whenever a surface is illuminated by a no.of light sources, there is certain amount of waste light due to overlapping and
light falling beyond the area required. This effect is taken into account by multiplying the theoretical value of lumen required by a
factor known as waster light factor. For regular surface its value is 1.2 and for irregular surfaces such as statues it is 1.5.

Total lumen output

 E A W
required =
U P

E = Illumination

A = Area in m2

W= Waste light factor

n = utilization factor

p = maintenance factor

Eg:- A building frontage 50M x 15M is to be illuminated by flood lighting projectors situated 25M away. If the required
illumination is 100lux, co-efficient of utilization 0.5, depreciation factor 1.5, waste light factor 1.2, estimate the No. and size of
projectors. Sketch the projectors recommended.

Sol. Area A = 50x15 = 750m2

Total limens required at the surface = AxE = 750x100 = 750,00 limen

Total limen output = Total limen x depreciation factor waste light factor

Co-efficient of utilization

= 75,000 x 1.5 x 1.2

0.5

= 270,000 limen
--------------------

Assume that 1000 Watt lamp having liminous intensity 17 limens/watt is used.

No. of lamp = 270000

17x1000 = 16 Nos.
========

4.88
Angle of spread = 2 tan-1 = 22o
25

Hence adopt a beam angle of 22o. Hence two lamps will cover the height of 15m and length-wise 8 lamps will cover
50m.

REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING

Air conditioning is now employed in every field of life as a means of comfort and to create required working temperature
in certain processes and for storing of perishable commodities.

Lowering the temperature of a body or space below the ambient and maintaining at this temperature requires continuous
extraction of heat. The required system is known as refrigeration system. Here the heat is being pumped from the lower level to a
higher level and can be performed by means of external work only, according to 2nd law of Thermo dynamics. Total amount of
heat rejected outside consists of two parts. (1) Heat extracted from the body (2) Heat equivalent of the mechanical work required
to extract it.

Refrigeration Cycle is theoretically a riverse of heat engine cycle. Different stages in refrigeration cycle are: (1)
Expansion, (2) Evaporation, (3) Compression, (4) Condensation.

Mainly there two types of Refrigeration Systems

1. Vapour Compression Refrigeration System

2. Vapour Absorbtion Refrigeration System

1. Vapour Compression Refrigeration System

This is the most commonly used system. The working fluid is a refrigerant. It readily evaporates and condenses or
change alternately between liquid and vapour phases within the refrigerating plant. During evaporation, it absorbs heat from the
medium to be cooled and in the condenser it liquifies and lets out the heat to the external hot body. During evaporation latent heat
of vapourisation is absorbed and during condensation it is rejected and hence this can be termed as latent heat pump. This is
accomplished by a compressor run by electrical energy. Advantage of this system is the smaller size for a given capacity and
lower power requirement. Disadvantage is the toxity, and inflamability of the leaking refrigerant gas. But nowadays non-toxic,
no inflamable refrigerant gases are available.

Vapour Absorbtion Refrigeration System

This system does not require a compressor. It has least no. of moving parts and hence a quiet operation. These are used
in recreation vehicles and boats due to its portable nature and can be operated by a small gas cylinder.

A strong solution of Ammonia in water (Aqua Ammonia) is in the central chamber (in fig.). When this is heated by
means of hot water or gas flame or electric heating coil, gas will collect above the liquid and will pass to the condenser, where it is
cooled using cooling water and the ammonia vapour condenses to liquid ammonia and flows down to the expansion valve, where
it is throttled and expanded and when it reaches the evaporator, evaporates to ammonia gas taking latent heat from surrounding
medium and cools it. This ammonia vapour passes again to the generator through suction valve. Now the generator acts as an
absorbant and the process is repeated.

Refrigerants

A refrigerant should be non-corrosive, non-inflammable, non-toxic and free from bad odour. There are primary
refrigerants and secondary refrigerants. Primary refrigerants are those working medium in the refrigeration cycle. Eg:- Freon,
CO2, 802 etc. Secondary refrigerants are circulating cold medium, which transfers heat from a remote location to the evaporator.
Eg. ice, solid carbon dioxide. Ammonia used for ice manufacture.

Domestic Refrigerator

The growth of food destroying micro-organism is quite fast at 10 oC than at a lower temperature below 4oC. Hence food
can be stored in a refrigerator if the temperature is maintained below 4oC. Rating of domestic refrigerators are 1/20 to 1/2 Ton.
Ton Capacity - Ton is the unit of refrigeration and is equal to the rate of cooling obtained by 1 Ton of ice at 0 oC melting in 24
hours.

[1 Ton of ice requires 72000 Kcal of heat to melt to water.

72000 4.18
Eq. KW =
24 3600

1 cal = 4.18 joules

= 3.48 KW
========

1 Ton Capacity = 3.48KW]

The refrigerants used in domestic refrigerator are methylene cloride, Freon II (a mixture of Clorine, Florine and Carbon)
and Freon 12 etc.

Working

When switched on, thermostat switch will be in closed condition, main winding is energised and it takes high current
since motor is not rotating, auxiliary winding contacts are made due to the action of the coil and auxiliary winding is also
energised. Motor start rotating and then current reduces and now the attraction of the coil is insufficient to hold the contacts of
auxi-winding and it is cut off. On overloading, overload relay acts.

Insulation materials - glasswool, Cork, PUF, etc. soft rubber seal provided all around for air tightness magnetic strip
inside the rubber seal attracts the door, automatic closing is due to gravity. Hot things should not be placed inside. Then rate of
evaporation will be high. Motor will be overloaded. Since it is short time rating, failure chances are more.

Trouble shootting Reasons

Motor fails to start - Thermostat switch open-fuse blown - motor faulty, electro-magnetic
relay not working.

Slow running - Low Voltage`

shorted main winding

Motor hot - Overload

Motor not starting and humming noice - Overload, Auxiliary winding open electromagnetic relay not working.

No cooling or low cooling - Low gas - this can be seised by touching Condenser coil. This will
not be hot.

Motor operates cools normally but suddenly - Capilary chocked

defrosts and after sometime starts again
Water Cooler

Two types - 1) Instantaneous or Pressure type. In this type water tubes and evaporator tube pass side by side.

2) Storage type - Evaporator tubes pass through a small water tank with a float.

Air Conditioning

The technique of maintaining the condition of air inside a building such a way that, it gives comfort to human beings,
ensures trouble free operation of equipments or helps in industrial manufacture is known as air conditioning. It involves
temperature control, humidity control, air circulation and cleaning.

Temperature Control

In summer air is cooled by circulating cold water, Evaporation System using water or by vapour compression system
(known as air conditioner). In winter air is warmed by electric heaters or heat exchangers using hot water.

Humidity Control

Humidity denotes the water content in the air. Control of humidity is required not only for the comfort of humans but also
for certain manufacturing process. The humidity control is achieved by dehumidifiers or humidifiers. Humidification is achieved
by spraying steam or water into air. Dehumidification is achieved by air washing or by using absorbants. In air washer system
outside air is cooled below dew point, so that it losses water by condensation. The absorbtion materials are activated alumina,
silica gel and calcium cloride.

Air movement

Air movement controlled by blower fan in the air conditioning unit. Air filteration - In an ordinary air conditioner air is
filtered using its filter provided in the air intake path. If more filtering is required, filter chemicals, ultra violet rays etc. can be
used.

Human requirement - Temperature of human body inside is 37oC and 26.5oC outside. Under normal conditions, body emits 2500
Kcal per 24 hrs. 45% dissipated by radiation, 30% by convection and 25% by evaporation. Heat loss by radiation and convection
depends on the temp. of surrounding medium and evaporation on humidity. For producing comfort it is necessary to maintan
temp. between 22o to 25oC during summer and 17oC to 20oC during winter and humidity between 40 to 60%. Better to maintain 8
to 11o temp. difference between outside and inside.

Types of Air Conditioners

1. Unitary type: One A.C. can be used for one or two rooms. Low initial cost, no ducting required.

2. Central type - Machineries are situated in a separate place. Cooled air is sent to different room through ducts and air
taken through return ducts.

3. Combination Type

In this case hot water, steam or chilled water is circulated from a central unit. Filters, Blowers, damper etc. are provided
in the room unit.

Module - IV - Illumination

University Questions

1. Explain the illumination schemes for the following applications (1) Flood lighting, (2) Street lighting (c) Factory
lighting - 12 marks

2. The candle power of a lamp is 100. A plane surface is placed at a distance of 2m. Calculate the illumination (1)
When it is normal (2) inclided at 45o (c) Parallel to the rays - 4 Marks.

100 100
Ans.(1) 25 lux (2) Cos 45o = 25 Cos 45o lux
22 22
 100
(c) Cos 90 = 0
22

3. What are polar curves?

4. Explain the various factors to be taken into account for designing scheme for (1) street (2) flood (3) highway
lighting.

5. A drawing hall measuring 30mx15mx5m is to be provided with illumination 100 lux. Assuming co-efficient of
utilization 0.5 and depreciation factor 0.8 determine the no. of lamps required the spacing, mounting height and total
wattage, Luminous efficiency 16.67 lumes/watt for 300w.

Ans: Lumen required at floor - 3 ExA = 100x30x15

E. A. 100 30 15
Lumen output required = 112,500 lims
UF DF 0.5 .8

112,500
Total wattage required = 6748 Watts
16.67

6748
No. of lamp = approx. 23 make it 24
300

Each row 3 lamp and each line 8 lamps.

Spacing will be 5M and 3.75M can be mounted at 4M height.

6. What are the factors to be considered for designing a lighting schee? (Same as requirements of a good lighting
system)

7. Indicate necessity of flood lighting of a stadium.

8. What are the requirements of a good lighting system?

9. An area 300 x 45M to be illuminated by projector lamps of 1000 watts each. Illumination required is 8 lux.
Efficiency of lamp is 18 lines/watt. Beam factor 0.4 maintenance factor 0.67 and waste light factor 1.2. Find No. of
projectors required - 12 marks.

Ans: Lumens required at floor = ExA = 8x300x45

= 108,000 lumes

Lumen output required = EA x waster light fact

Beam factor x Maintenance fr.

(Beam factor is take as same as Utilization factor)

= 108,000 x 1.2
0.67 x 0.4

= 483,582 Lumens

Total wattage = 483,582

light efficient 18 = 26865 Watts

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No. of lamps = 26865

1000 = 26.865

Say = 28 Nos.
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