621.313.1:621.317.333:620.

179 The Institution of Electrical Engineers

Paper No. 3912 M
June 1962

NON-DESTRUCTIVE ELECTRICAL TEST METHODS FOR EVALUATING

HIGH-VOLTAGE STATOR INSULATION
By J. S. SIMONS, B.Sc.(Eng.), Associate Member, and M. T. RICHARDS.
(The paper was first received 15th October, 1961, and in revised form 28th February, 1962. It was presented at the CONFERENCE ON
NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING 8th November, 1961.)

SUMMARY breakdown of the winding. In addition, there will be mechanical

The need is indicated for informative non-destructive test methods
to assess the quality of insulation, both as manufactured and during its
service life, and the limitations of high-voltage proof-testing are
reviewed. The types of insulation system used for high-voltage
stator bars are described briefly, and the nature and cause of defects
which can give rise to trouble in service are analysed.
Low-voltage test methods available are discussed, with particular
reference to low-voltage variable-frequency tests, and some results
obtained using this technique are reported. Published work describing
high-voltage measurements using d.c. and low-frequency sources are
reviewed, and the need is emphasized for a better understanding of
fundamental dielectric behaviour under varying frequency and stress
conditions.
Power-frequency measurements at voltages up to line potential are
dealt with at greater length. The aim of such measurements is
primarily the detection of voids. They can be of great value in con-
trolling insulation quality and can also be used to monitor the condi-
tion of the insulation during maintenance checks in service. Tests
dealt with include loss-tangent/voltage and corona discharge measure-
ments, and special bridge tests aimed at separating solid-dielectric
and discharge losses. Bridge circuits are described which, combined
with oscillograph cyclogram displays, permit the discharge energy to
be determined, and also enable solid-dielectric losses to be measured.
Test results obtained using a novel bridge circuit of this type are
reported.
strain associated with the opening up of the winding at the fault,
with the lifting of bars to enable repair or replacement of
damaged ones to take place, and finally with the reconnection
of opened joints.
The paper reviews the various test methods available for
evaluating the insulaton of stator windings, and emphasizes the
importance of a.c. loss measurements as a means of monitoring
the magnitude of internal discharges.
(2) STATOR INSULATION
In the design of a winding, account must be taken of many
factors, and the designer will usually have several methods at
his disposal. His choice will depend upon both technical and
economic considerations. For large windings, stator bars,
generally based on Roebel transposed strands, are widely used.
These strands, shown in Fig. \(a), are solidly bonded together
before the application of the major insulation. For smaller
windings pulled-out coils are more usual. Frequently, these are
of the multi-turn type with each turn separately insulated prior
to consolidation of the conductor stack [Fig. 1(6)]. The non-
destructive tests described in the paper are equally applicable to
bars and coils taken out of the winding, but if tests are carried
out on separate coils in the stator core, integrated values will

(1) INTRODUCTION
It is vitally important that, before stator bars or coils are
inserted into the core of a machine and connected up, and the
windings energized, the insulation be checked effectively so that
any defective bars can be eliminated at the earliest stage possible.
In the past, emphasis has been placed on 'proof test methods
to achieve this end, and the acceptance of a winding as satis-
factory still depends primarily on its withstanding high-voltage
proof tests of more than twice line voltage. Whilst tests on
insulation samples and coils have demonstrated 1 ' 2 that sound
mica insulation is not affected significantly by such stressing, it
is important to take into account the fact that winding approval
tests can include severe short-circuit stressing followed by high-
voltage testing. In very large windings, the mechanical stresses
involved are high, and some weakening of the insulation at vital
points, e.g. slot emergence, may well be aggravated by subse-
quent high-voltage testing, particularly if a number of tests
are involved. The designer has conflicting requirements to
meet; a solidly blocked winding is ideal for short-circuit con-
ditions but is potentially dangerous if differential expansion and
contraction between copper, insulation and iron are likely to
occur. Great care should therefore be exercised in reducing to
a minimum abnormal mechanical and electrical stressing. Non-
destructive test methods can play an important part in achieving
this end.3*4 Weak bars, undetected at an early stage, may
result in unnecessary strain in the remaining sound ones as a
result of repeated high-voltage proof tests following initial Fig. 1.Stator-winding sections.
(a) Roebel transposed bar.
Mr. Simons and Mr. Richards are with Associated Electrical Industries Ltd. (b) Multi-turn coil.
[71]
 72 SIMONS AND RICHARDS: NON-DESTRUCTIVE ELECTRICAL TEST
be obtained for pairs of coil-sides as opposed to individual bars.
Whilst this may make interpretation of results somewhat more
difficult, it has been reported5-6 that valuable data can be
obtained from such measurements.
After the transposed conductor stack or multi-turn groups of
conductors have been satisfactorily consolidated, the major
insulation is applied. For bars, this normally takes the form of
mica tapings, bonded or impregnated, which are subsequently
formed to shape and consolidated in a hot press. A coil may be
taped or the slot portions wrapped with a composite sheet based
on mica. Whatever the process used, it is important that air-
spaces and volatile matter be eliminated, and that the insulation
be uniformly consolidated and bonded.
As a result of thermal stressing and differences in bar and
slot dimensions, some swelling and de-lamination of insulation
may subsequently occur in service. It is important that such
changes be minimized and if possible eliminated, and recent
developments in the synthetic resin field7-8-9 have gone a long
way in helping to achieve this. Any migration or swelling of
insulation that occurs in the slot portions of the winding is
likely to produce voids. These will ionize at relatively low
stresses, often below normal working voltage, and an assessment
of the discharge occurring in such cavities will thus give a measure
of the overall quality of the insulation. It is for this reason that
attention in the latter part of the paper is focused on means
of assessing ionization quantitatively.
Whilst micaceous materials have excellent resistance to corona
discharge, and the presence of small discharge sites does not
necessarily constitute a serious factor in limiting the insulation
life, there is a danger of progressive degradation of the mica
bond as a result of internal discharges; and the thermal con-
ductivity of the insulation will be reduced as porosity develops.
This will lead to an increase in copper temperature, and thermal
degradation and discharge erosion effects will be correspondingly
accelerated. Sometimes, however, conducting films build up on
the internal surfaces of a void. These are either direct by-pro-
ducts of the gaseous discharge or result from moisture emanating
from the walls of the cavity. They serve to relieve the stress
and may lead to extinction of the discharge. Such circumstances
cannot be relied upon and may be only temporary. They
probably account, however, for the long lives of many windings
which subsequent autopsy has revealed to be markedly degraded.
(3) TEST REQUIREMENTS
It is suggested that a satisfactory non-destructive electrical
test for assessing insulation quality would meet the following
conditions:
The level of stressing should be restricted to values well below
that corresponding to the normal proof-test voltage.
The test method should, as far as possible, take account of the
variation of stress distribution that occurs inside composite insula-
tion systems at different frequencies, temperatures and applied
stresses.
The test should not result in local overheating.
The test should be easy to carry out and straightforward to
interpret.
The remainder of the paper is devoted to a discussion of
previously recommended types of test, together with additional
ones which the authors regard as useful.
(4) NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTS: LOW-VOLTAGE
MEASUREMENTS
(4.1) D.C. Insulation-Resistance Tests
The well-known insulation-resistance test is widely used as an
initial check on the dryness of insulation. Much useful informa-
tion can be obtained from such simple tests, and initial checks
of this type ensure that unnecessary damage to windings does
not occur by the application of a high voltage to a winding
which needs drying out. The test, however, is insensitive to
local lossy pockets contained between or within other materials
of high resistance, and gives no indication of the behaviour of
the insulation under a.c. conditions.
(4.2) A.C. Capacitance and Loss Measurements over a
Frequency Range
Low-voltage dielectric-loss measurements10 over a range of
frequency and temperature reflect the molecular composition of
the insulation and are analogous to mechanical measurements
of relaxation phenomena. For, if a mobile polar group is
present in a molecular structure which is under electrical stress,
there will be critical values of frequency and temperature,
related to the natural relaxation time of the polar group, at
which peaks of dipolar loss will be obtained. These and other
polarization effects produce changes in both the permittivity
and losses of the material. Of the several types of polarization
which occur over separate bands of the complete frequency
spectrum, those of greatest interest in the frequency range
20c/s-200kc/s are interfacial or space-charge polarization and
dipolar effects.
Because these effects are reflected in the permittivity and losses
of the insulation, they can be measured and significant changes
correlated with molecular structure and the presence of con-
taminants, etc.
Such measurements have been successfully used to determine
whether bars have been freed from volatile matter by vacuum
treatment and satisfactorily impregnated. They have also been
used to investigate the effect of thermal ageing on resin properties,
and to detect the presence of particular constituents whose
relaxation characteristics have been predetermined. The use of
such tests for quick checks on stator bars during manufacture is
being investigated. Whilst the examination of materials over a
wide frequency range is essentially a laboratory activity, the
measurement of losses at one or two specified frequencies can
be speedily effected and used as a criterion of quality.
Such measurements are informative with respect to the solid
insulation, but they give no obvious indication of the presence
of voids, apart from the modifying effect these will have on the
capacitances and apparent permittivities. Such voids will not
ionize at low voltages, and thus will dilute the apparent losses.
It is for this reason that h.v. testing at normal operating stresses,
up to line potential, can be so much more revealing in detecting
the presence of voids and areas of de-lamination, etc. For,
over this higher-voltage range, even large cavities ionize and
the amount of discharge energy gives a measure of the lack of
consolidation.
(5) NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTS: HIGH-VOLTAGE
MEASUREMENTS
(5.1) D.C. Resistance Versus Voltage Test
With an increasing awareness of the need for a non-destructive
test to replace or supplement existing a.c. proof-testing, and the
recognition that the size of testing equipment required to cater
for very large windings was becoming almost prohibitive, inten-
sive evaluation of high-voltage d.c. test methods has been the
subject of world-wide activity. These were stimulated in the
first place by exaggerated claims for the significance of the test
results obtained, particularly the prediction of breakdown of the
winding. It was subsequently pointed out11 that there were
fundamental differences in stress distribution between a.c. and
d.c. tests, arising from the dominance of capacitive effects in
 METHODS FOR EVALUATING HIGH-VOLTAGE STATOR INSULATION 73
the former and resistive effects in the latter. A more realistic the presence or absence of internal discharges. If the permit-
assessment of the meaning of test results has become generally tivity, distribution and thickness'of the materials are known,
accepted. such curves can be analysed in terms of the different components
Undoubtedly, the d.c. test is attractive in view of the compact of loss and the amount of internal discharge present.
size of the equipment required. Detailed studies of the changes Whilst such calculations are rarely possible and cannot be
in the resistance/voltage or current/voltage curves for particular applied to a composite structure, curves of loss tangent against
types of winding have also yielded interesting data about the voltage allow the change in A tan S/A V to be determined over
dryness of the insulation and its ageing condition. 12 ' 13 a defined voltage range; this is often used as a criterion of
The test suffers from a number of disadvantages, however. insulation quality. It is important, however, to ensure that the
It is not possible to correlate d.c. and a.c. behaviour to the correct voltage range is selected: ideally, the maximum value of
extent that, by applying a d.c. test, one can claim to have A tan S/A V should be used for quality assessment. When the
assessed reliability under some equivalent a.c. conditions. Too discharge component of loss is large compared with the solid-
much significance has been attached to nominal a.c./d.c. ratios dielectric loss, a marked increase in A tan S/A V occurs above
which have been regarded in some quarters as adequately corona inception voltage with a corresponding change in the
correlating d.c. and a.c. values. It is a protracted test in which capacitance/voltage curve. When the discharge loss is small,
a considerable number of precision measurements are necessary. however, no marked change in the slope occurs and discharges
Nevertheless, the intention of the authors is not to dismiss theare not readily detected; Fig. 2 shows typical curves.
test as of no value, but to stress again the need for a better Generally speaking, provided that the void thicknesses are of
understanding of the fundamental mechanisms inside the insula- the order of 1-2 thousandths of an inch and the void area is
tion, which control the way in which stress is distributed and limited, the integrated value of discharge energy is not significant,
which are frequency and temperature sensitive. As most insula- but if the void thicknesses are of the order of 5-10 thousandths,
tion systems used for stator insulation are composite, the problem the amount of loss involved, and the individual discharges, can
involves complex resistance-capacitance networks with divergent assume substantial proportions.
fields. Figs. 3 and 4 show the variation of capacitance and loss
tangent with voltage at 50 c/s obtained from a simple model
At the very high direct voltages used for such tests, discharging
frequently occurs at local sites on the winding, and Bhimani14 made to simulate the condition of a variable air-space between
has shown that such discharges can be damaging. The damage the slot insulation of a stator bar and the high-voltage conductor.
resulting from very-high-voltage testing can be determined only A laminate of bitumen-bonded micafolium 0-120 in thick was
in terms of reduction of breakdown strength or from a detailed prepared and separated from a high-voltage plate electrode by
autopsy on the winding. mica strips that could be adjusted to give a wide range of air-gap
settings. A guarded low-voltage electrode was applied to the
(5.2) A.C. Low-Frequency Tests other side of the laminate and Schering bridge tests were carried
15 16 out over a range of stressing comparable to that used for testing
Recently, Bhimani and Bosworth have described a new stator bars in the factory.
approach to the problem of testing large windings which
The family of capacitance curves (Fig. 3) indicates the correla-
involves the development of a special bridge and power supply
tion between the increase in capacitance above the ionization
to enable tests to be carried out at very low frequencies, down
inception voltage, i.e. dC/dV, and the size of void present.
to 0 1 c/s. The advantages claimed for this method are that
Similarly the loss-tangent/voltage curves of Fig. 4 show the
the size of the test equipment can be substantially reduced, as
correlation between void thickness and the maximum value of
for high-voltage d.c. tests, and, more important, that the stress
AtanS/AK
conditions prevailing at such low frequencies correspond closely
In the routine testing of stator-bar insulation, the criterion
to those at power frequency. If this claim is substantiated, the
for the rejection of insulation is based on the slope of the loss-
approach appears to be particularly promising. Whilst Bhimani
tangent/voltage curve between specified limits of applied voltage.
has shown that for stator-bar insulation there is little change in
The curves in Figs. 3 and 4 show that the size of the void
capacitance and reactance with frequency over a considerable
influences not only the slope of the curve but also the point at
range for a given stress, his reported work does not involve the
which the bend occurs, the bend being an indication of discharge
effect of change of stress on capacitance and reactance which
inception. It is this variation of the voltage of discharge
occurs at the two ends of the frequency range. When additional
inception which sometimes makes the arbitrary setting of
work has been carried out along these lines, the potentialities
acceptance limits between defined voltages misleading. Never-
of the new test method will be more easily determined. In as
theless, if intelligently used, the maximum value of A tan S/A V
far as the amount of damage by internal discharges for a given
can be most helpful as a quality control.
time and stress is proportional to the frequency of the applied
voltage, the use of low-frequency a.c. tests, as opposed to tests
at power frequency, should reduce the risk of corona damage (5.4) Discharge Measurements
during testing, whilst maintaining comparable stress distribution. (5.4.1) Separation of Losses using a Special Bridge.
During over-potential proof-testing, the probability of damage One of the main problems encountered in the field of high-
from internal discharges assumes greater significance than in voltage loss measurements on stator-bar insulation is that of
normal bridge tests, so that, for this application, low-frequency separating the major components of loss. They may be divided
testing appears to be particularly attractive. into two main groups:
(a) Solid-dielectric losses arising from polarization within the
(5.3) Power-Frequency Capacitance and Loss Measurements insulation.
Measurements of capacitance and loss tangent over a range (b) Ionization losses resulting from the discharging of entrapped
gas pockets.
of voltages have been universally used for many years to assess
the quality of insulation.17-18 Such measurements have the With a conventional Schering bridge and vibration galvano-
advantage of combining a quantitative assessment of the total meter it is not possible to measure the separate components of
power-frequency loss of the insulation with some assessment of loss. A method has been developed,19 however, in which a
74 SIMONS AND RICHARDS: NON-DESTRUCTIVE ELECTRICAL TEST
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Fig. 3.Capacitance/voltage curves obtained using 0-120 in
micanite-air cell.
(a) No air-gap.
(b) 0-002 in air-gap.
(c) 0-005 4 in air-gap.
{d) 0-008 4 in air-gap.
Schering bridge in conjunction with two different forms of
null indicator is used to measure the power-frequency com-
ponent of the discharge loss. The bridge is initially balanced
using a tuned vibration galvanometer. This responds only to
the 50c/s component of both solid-dielectric and gas-ionization
losses. If the detector terminals of the bridge are now connected
to a suitable untuned oscilloscope, the discharge component of
loss may easily be separated from the solid-dielectric component
and the bridge rebalanced to take account of the solid-dielectric
Fig. 4.Loss-tangent/voltage curves for micanite-air cell.
(a) No air-gap.
(b) 0-002 in air-gap.
(c) 0-005 4 in air-gap.
(d) 0-008 4 in air-gap.
losses only. The difference between the two loss-tangent read-
ings represents the power-frequency component of the discharge
loss.
This method, although basically sound, is fraught with a
number of practical difficulties and cannot be regarded as a
simple routine test. A special amplifier is required which does
not introduce any stray capacitance effects between the detector
points of the bridge and the 'earthed' low-voltage connection.
Identical double-channel amplifiers have been used with some
success, but these have to be very critically balanced, and the
effects of stray interference can make the balancing operation
difficult.
 METHODS FOR EVALUATING HIGH-VOLTAGE STATOR INSULATION
(5.4.2) Discharge Detection and Pulse Magnitude Determinations.
The discharge characteristic of a typical stator bar containing
voids consists of groups of discharges of similar magnitude at
discrete levels of intensity, the latter increasing as the voltage
is increased. These discharges are generally dispersed along the
length of the bar, usually occurring between the conductor group
and the major insulation.
To enable discharge measurements to be carried out, external
discharges, which may be quite large, must be eliminated from
the test circuit, and all interference suppressed. Mains-borne
interference may be suppressed by efficient filters in the supply
leads, and aerial-borne interference can usually be eliminated
by means of suitably screened test areas. It is also important
that the equipment used be capable of resolving the maximum
number of individual discharge pulses present and of amplifying
them without distortion so that they can be suitably displayed.
The simplest means of detecting discharges, and that tried
initially, is to use a resonant-circuit technique. For this method,
a circuit tuned to 100-500 kc/s is particularly suitable. This is
placed in series with the low-voltage lead to the specimen, and
an oscilloscope is connected across it. Internal discharges cause
rapid changes in the current through the specimen and produce
voltage pulses across the tuned circuit. These pulses are then
amplified and passed on to a pump-diode circuit (Fig. 5) before
being applied to the plates of the oscilloscope.
Fig. 5.Pump-diode circuit.
The pump-diode circuit has two functions: first it makes the
pulses unidirectional, and secondly, it slows down the individual
pulses so that they may be more readily displayed. A high-
resistance voltmeter, if connected to the output of the pump-
diode circuit, provides a measure of the total discharge energy
in terms of voltage corresponding to a pseudo-mean value of
integrated pulses per cycle.
Such a detector, however, has limited resolution, in spite of
a high degree of sensitivity. The voltmeter gives some measure
of the discharge energy, but the calibration is entirely arbitrary
and the response non-linear, the circuit being biased in favour
of fewer and larger pulses.
A more positive approach to the measurement of discharge
pulses was made by Mole,20 who developed a detector of high
sensitivity in which the pulses are displayed on an oscilloscope
having an elliptical time-base. Individual pulse magnitudes are
measured by means of a calibration pulse which is fed to the
input of the amplifier and thus appears superimposed on the
elliptical trace. The magnitude of this pulse can be adjusted by
means of a calibrated control, and its phase position on the trace
can be varied to enable measurements to be made over any part
of the cycle. The detector is of the tuned-circuit type and
includes a filter in the high-voltage lead to the specimen, con-
nection to the amplifier being made by means of a high-voltage
blocking capacitor used in conjunction with an impedance-
matching unit. In the testing of insulation systems where a large
number of discharge sites may be present the pulses tend to
75
merge together. This is symptomatic of incomplete resolution,
which is the major limitation of this equipment, resolution being
limited to 35 discharges per quadrant.
Discharge detectors of similar type,21 but of considerably
improved performance, have since been designed. These equip-
ments have much wider bandwidths and operate at higher mid-
band frequencies, e.g. 5-10 Mc/s.
One advantage of this type of equipment is that it enables an
accurate assessment to be made of the magnitude of individual
discharges, and also provides an indication of their type and
disposition. For example, discharges occurring between a
metallic surface and an insulation will display an asymmetrical
discharge pattern. However, this type of apparatus has certain
serious limitations. Interpretation of test results is difficult
when dealing with complex insulation systems such as stator
bars, and as with all sensitive detection measurements, inter-
ference suppression presents a serious problem. The authors
have found it essential, when using such equipments, to enclose
the whole of the test apparatus in a very carefully screened area
and to use mains filters. One basic limitation of all such dis-
charge detectors, however, is that they are incapable of resolving
a number of discharges occurring at different sites at the same
instant.
(5.4.3) Assessment of Discharge Intensity using an Oscilloscope for
Cyclogram Display.
Whilst the methods hitherto examined were extremely useful
in the laboratory testing of insulation, the many problems
associated with the interpretation of test results, and the tedious
nature of the test, tended to preclude their exploitation in the
wider field of routine testing. Consequently, efforts were
directed towards the development of a test method which, whilst
providing extensive information about the amount and nature
of the losses, would be capable of easy and rapid interpretation.
Such a test would provide an integrated value of the discharges
present and would not be limited by resolution characteristics.
More than 30 years ago Lloyd, Starr and Peek22-23 showed
how it was possible to use a cathode-ray oscilloscope to display
current/voltage cyclograms and thereby to measure corona
losses. Later, Manley24 demonstrated the use of charge/voltage
cyclograms to measure the discharge energy in the air-gap of an
ozonator. He derived an expression for the discharge energy
per cycle in terms of the dimensions of the cyclogram trace.
More recently, Reynolds25 and Dixon26 have emphasized the
value of these cyclogram measurements for monitoring the
corona losses per cycle.
Our attention was drawn to work carried out by Devins,29
who, following on from Manley's original work, carried out a
number of experiments using glass-air cells.
The circuit used by him is shown in Fig. 6. The specimen is
Fig. 6.Capacitance bridge circuit used by Devins.
76 SIMONS AND RICHARDS: NON-DESTRUCTIVE ELECTRICAL TEST
represented by two series capacitances, Ca and Cg, corresponding
to the air-gap and solid-dielectric components respectively.
Cm is used to measure the charge on Cg whilst Rx and R2 form
a voltage-divider network. Cm is made large with respect to Cg,
and R{ is small with respect to R2. When the applied voltage
is below the discharge inception voltage for the air-gap, and
assuming negligible loss in the dielectric, a tilted straight line
appears on the oscilloscope screen. When ionization of the
air-gap takes place, a change in the charge on Cg is produced
and this causes a change in the voltage across Cm. This produces
a parallelogram shape on the screen, the magnitude and slope
of whose sides can be used to calculate the power being dissipated
per cycle. Manley had previously shown that the power
dissipated is given by
P = ACg Vo( Vm - watts/cycle
where Cg Capacitance of the glass alone, given by the slope BD in connected to the bridge with the applied voltage below the
Fig. 7.
C -- Capacitance of the glass-air combination (slope AB.)
Ca Capacitance of the air-space, obtained from the relation resistor i?3 switched out of circuit, the solid-dielectric losses will
1/C = 1/Cfl + 1/C*.
Vm = Maximum voltage applied to the specimen.
VQ Voltage across the discharging air-gap.
Fig. 7.Theoretical charge/voltage diagram.
Devins carried out a number of interesting experiments to
show how the shape of the trace could be varied by altering the
surface resistivity of the walls of the cell and also by changing
the humidity of the air-space. The authors, using an identical
circuit, obtained similar results on micanite-air cells. By
varying the size of the air-gap, the area of the parallelogram was
observed to change correspondingly. Also, by passing first dry
and then moist air through the gap, it was possible to change the
trace from a parallelogram to an ellipse. This latter condition
indicates conduction losses along the walls of the cell, and
complete suppression of the discharges.
Fig. 8 shows a number of parallelogram traces obtained with
different air-gap settings, and Fig. 9 shows how the trace is
modified by surface-leakage effects.
(5.4.4) Special Bridge Circuits embodying Cyclogram Display for
Quantitative Measurements.
In view of the promising results obtained using the above
circuit, it was decided to attempt to combine the cyclogram
display with a bridge circuit, to enable capacitance and dielectric-
loss measurements to be made, in addition to the visual indica-
tion of the type of loss present provided by the cyclogram
display. In order to achieve this, the arrangement shown in
Fig. 10 was devised. C3 is a variable capacitor, Rx and R2 form
a voltage divider in the ratio of 200 : 1, and R3 is a variable
resistor used to balance out the power-frequency loss component.
In a loss-free capacitive specimen, a sinusoidal voltage applied
to the bridge will produce a sloping straight line on the screen.
For equal beam-deflection sensitivities on the X- and Y-plates,
two identical sinusoidal voltages applied to these plates will
cause the line to be tilted at 45 to the horizontal. This repre-
sents the balanced condition for the bridge and can be obtained
by adjusting the C3 arm, and thus rotating the trace until it
coincides with a datum line on the graticule. This means that
C3 can be calibrated directly in terms of specimen capacitance.
For example, if RJR2 is fixed in the ratio 200 : 1, at balance
200
R2
In a complex insulation system such as is used on a high-
voltage stator bar, losses due to internal electrical discharges are
supplemented by solid-dielectric losses. If such a specimen is
discharge-inception voltage for the specimen, and the variable
produce an elliptical trace on the screen. The angle made by the
major axis of the ellipse and the horizontal will be determined
by the specimen capacitance and the setting of the C3 arm.
R3 can now be switched into circuit and adjusted until the ellipse
closes up into a straight line. Rotation of the trace to the
correct angle is subsequently carried out by adjusting C3, which
is calibrated in terms of specimen capacitance. i?3 is calibrated
in terms of power-frequency loss component, and the values
obtained from the two arms of the bridge can be used to compute
the loss tangent for this voltage setting. Increasing the voltage
causes the trace to lengthen proportionately. At the discharge-
inception voltage, the linear trace commences to open out into
a rhomboid, whose area provides a measure of the total discharge-
energy of the voids present. Fig. 11 shows typical traces obtained
from high-voltage stator-bar insulation.
This arrangement was found to be quite useful for assessing
insulation quality, inasmuch as it provided a capacitance- and
loss-measuring device in addition to a visual indication of the
nature of the losses. However, the development of a more
sensitive bridge circuit, facilitating the separation and measure-
ment of ionization losses and solid-dielectric losses, was recog-
nized as having considerable merit.
Subsequently, our attention was drawn to some further work
carried out in this field by Dakin,27 who pointed out the impor-
tance of change-in-capacitance measurements when dealing with
insulation systems containing discharge voids.
Dakin28 later reported using a circuit also capable of balancing
out the solid-dielectric loss completely and displaying a rhom-
boidal trace which represented discharge losses only. The main
advantage of this circuit was the greater sensitivity available for
measuring discharge losses. He derived a formula which
enabled him to calculate the discharge energy per cycle in terms
of the dimensions of the rhomboid.
The circuit, shown in Fig. 12, comprises a bridge having four
capacitance arms, the output of which is fed through a bridge
transformer to the plates of an oscilloscope. Having carried
out a number of experiments with this circuit, we felt that some
modifications could be effected with considerable advantage.
In the first place, as Dakin admitted, no attempt had been made
to convert the arrangement into a precision bridge. Secondly,
it was found that the bridge transformer tended to introduce
distortion into the trace owing to its being frequency sensitive.
The transformer was dispensed with, and the output of the
bridge connected directly to the plates of an oscilloscope tube.
This introduced several difficulties, which had to be overcome
before the bridge could function satisfactorily.
 METHODS FOR EVALUATING HIGH-VOLTAGE STATOR INSULATION 77

(c) (d)
Fig. 8.Cyclograms for 0-060 in micanite/air-gap/0-060in micanite
cells at 6kVr.m.s.
(a) 0-002 in air-gap.
(/>) 0020in air-gap,
(r) 0040in air-gap.
(</) 0-060in air-gap.

Fig. 9.Cyclograms obtained using 0- 060 in micanite/0 030in

air-gap/0 060in micanite cell.
(a) Dry air.
(b) Moist air.
The final arrangement chosen is shown in Fig. 13. In order order to prevent drifting of the trace due to space-charge
to prevent defocusing of the trace, due to the mean potential on accumulation. RA is calibrated in terms of 'in-phase loss com-
the plates alternating with respect to earth, the compensating ponent', expressed in ohms and covering the range 0-10 000 MD.
device shown in the lower arm of the potential divider was CA is calibrated in terms of specimen capacitance and is capable
introduced. R5 and R6 are two potentiometers connected of measuring capacitances ranging from 10 to lOOOOpF. Both
together and arranged so that the point E is always at the mean capacitive and resisitve ranges are fitted with coarse and fine
potential of the Y-plates. Also, the ratio (Rt + Rs)/Rs is made controls, enabling precision balances to be obtained. C\ is a
equal to the ratio C3/Cj so that at balance the mean potential standard capacitor of lOOOpF and C3 is fixed at 0 05/u.F so
on the X-plates is zero with respect to earth. It was found that the impedance ratio at balance between the high- and low-
necessary to introduce a 20MQ. resistor across the X-plates in voltage arms of the bridge is 50 : 1.
78 SIMONS AND RICHARDS: NON-DESTRUCTIVE ELECTRICAL TEST

Rj

Fig. 10.Modified Manley circuit. Fig. 13.Capacitance bridge circuit used by the authors.
The basic operation of the bridge is similar to that used by
Dakin, i.e. an initial balance is carried out below discharge
onset and the voltage is then raised until the trace opens out
into the characteristic parallelogram, the area of which is a
function of the discharge energy per cycle. The balance below
discharge onset enables both specimen capacitance and loss
tangent to be evaluated.
The bridge has been used successfully to investigate high-
voltage stator-bar insulation (Fig. 14) and to examine the effect
of changing surface conditions on internal voids. The instrument
can be used for testing 'earthed' specimens such as machine
insulation on site. In such cases, it is necessary to remove the
earth connection on the bridge. The insulation-loss properties

Fig. 11.Stator bar cyclograms obtained using circuit shown in

Fig. 10.
(a) Bar with moderate discharge intensity at 75kVr.m.s.
(ft) Bar with high discharge intensity at 6kVr.m.s.

Fig. 14.Cyclograms for stator bar insulation at 4, 6, and 8kVr.m.s.

() Bar with moderate discharge intensity.
Fig. 12.Capacitance bridge circuit as used by Dakin. (b) Bar with high discharge intensity.
 METHODS FOR EVALUATING HIGH-VOLTAGE STATOR INSULATION
of the separate phases of a high-voltage stator winding have
been measured in this way and an integrated value of the dis-
charge losses determined. Such measurements are chiefly of
value in recording changes that occur during service. Much
more work along these lines is needed to assess their value.
(6) CONCLUSIONS
A considerable number of non-destructive test methods are
available for assessing the quality of insulation, including both
low- and high-voltage measurements. Greater use should be
made of such tests, which do not involve subjecting the insulation
to repeated high proof-stresses, and which can be more informa-
tive concerning the state of the insulation.
A.C. loss and capacitance measurements, both over a fre-
quency range at low voltage, and over the working voltage range
at power frequency, are considered by the authors to be par-
ticularly promising. A modified bridge circuit, which includes
an oscilloscope display of discharge magnitude in the form of
a parallelogram, provides easy interpretation of results and
simplifies balancing. This type of test is proving most helpful
in the routine testing of stator bars.
It is recognized that high-voltage proof testing is likely to be
required as a winding acceptance test, but it is recommended
that such testing should be kept to a minimum. D.C. proof
testing can provide some useful data but does not simulate a.c.
stressing. High-voltage low-frequency tests are attractive, but
the authors feel that the effects of varying stress on conductance
and capacitance need to be carefully compared with similar
measurements at power frequency before their potentialities can
be fully assessed.
(7) ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors are indebted to a number of their colleagues in
the Research Laboratory, A.E.I. (Rugby) Ltd. for helpful advice
and assistance in the preparation of the paper. They also wish
to thank their Directors for permission to publish it.
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