Electric Power Systems - Synthèse Version 1

Welcome to
Electric Power Systems 2005 This lecture

What is a blackout?
Wind farm
1. Two types damage or instability

2. Initial fault
3. New power flow situation
4. Loads and generators disconnected
Source: balticcable.com
5. Restoration
HVDC
About the course

Single line diagram
www.iea.lth.se/eks Per unit normalization
Olof Samuelsson 2005
Olof.Samuelsson@iea.lth.se 1 Olof Samuelsson 2005 2
Blackout in New York
Olof Samuelsson 2005 3 Olof Samuelsson 2005 4

Sweden 8-9 January 2005 8-9 January 2005 Sweden
Hurricane called Gudrun
Serious damage to rural distribution system
2000 km line damaged, 200 km destroyed
Transmission intact, cities unaffected
Restoration
Repairing and rebuilding
Many man years in four weeks
Sweden 23 September 2003 Starting point

PSweden 15 000 MW
Initiating event
Two-phase short-circuit at substation Nuclear plant Ringhals
Nuclear plant Oskarshamn
O1 and O2 out of service
O3 1200 MW
R1 out of service
Final stage R2 870 MW
R3 and R4 2x900 MW
Voltage collapse (instability) Import from Danmark

450 MW
4 Million people affected Karlshamnsverket out of
service (48 h startup)
Restoration time 1.5-6.5 h

Nuclear plant Barsebck
(B1 and) B2 out of service

Sequence of events Blackout!
12:35
Disconnector fails 12:30 -1200 MW
in Horred substation O3 Emergency stop
12:35 -1800 MW
R3 and R4 to house
operation
12:37 Voltage collapse

The blackout is a fact
Pantograph type disconnector

System frequency
Open: Closed:
isolate for maintenance carry load current
visual open-circuit
Restoration Instability blackout events
Initiating event
14:00
400 kV network intact
Fault (short-circuit) or malfunction
Disconnection of faulted part
13:46
Denmark allowed to
Problem spreads
15:30
reconnect to Sweden
(max 200 MW). Gas turbines in South
Sweden in operation.
Lines overload and disconnect
Karlshamnsverket
starting. Collapse and blackout
19:05
Last customers in
Denmark brought on-line 18:20
Stability limit is reached
Most Sydkraft
customers on-line Restoring operation
Only no or few damaged parts
USA 14 August 2003 System split into islands

Initiating event
Generator shutdowns
Final stage
Voltage collapse
50 Million people affected
Restoration time up to 30 h

Area hit by blackout Italy 28 September 2003
Initiating event
Two lines trip in stormy weather
All lines into Italy lost one by one
Final stage unknown
58 Million people affected
Restoration time 16.5 h
Italy blackout Famous instability blackouts

USA 2 July 1996
Line into tree, voltage collapse, report 2 August
USA 10 August 1996
Line into tree, angle instability, 7.5 million
Sweden 27 December 1983
Disconnector failed, voltage collapse
USA 1965 The great blackout
Generator trip, angle instability, 30 million
See Textbook chapter 13
Post mortem analysis Fault handling
Pre-fault operating state Detect fault
Generator and line status Isolate fault
Sequence of events Isolate fault and minimum part of the system
Digital fault recorders (black box) Neighboring parts back to normal
Time of breaker openings Component can fail, larger area affected
Time uncertainty Remove fault and repair damage
Large amounts of information Lightning strikes only temporary
Sweden: Windpower trips cause/effect? Restore service
Events at fault Detect fault current
Fault occurs
Relay protection
Isolate fault Measures U and I
Remove fault Detects fault
Restore service Controls breaker
Automatic reclosing Earth fault protection
Light back in <1s Relay protection + small breaker

Interrupting large current Disconnector
Arcing at opening
of disconnector
For small current

Manual control
Visual open-circuit for safety
Opening of disconnector carrying too large current Challenge: Open construction is unprotected
Interrupt current Circuit breaker

Fuse Interrupts large current
Cooling
Measures current!
Pressurized air, oil
Manually replaced
Remote control
Disconnector Protection
Current continues through arc (ionized air) Control center
Circuit breaker Hidden breaking point
Source: Nicklasson
Extinguishes arc, AC current passes zero Challenge: Several kA

Transmission and distribution Bridging distances
Generation
|
Transmission Transmission
|
Distribution Hundreds of km
|
Consumption Hundreds of MW
Economical V 15 P
SE: 130, 220, 400 kV
High reliability
Source: vattenfall.se Meshed network
For Evaluation Only.

Copyright(C) by Foxit Software Company,2005-2008
Edited by Foxit Reader
Reach addresses Radial network
Distribution Line length SE 1996 Distribution Infeed
400 kV 9851 km
Distance few km
130-220 kV 19740 km Tree shape Line
SE: 10, 20, 50 kV 30-70 kV 21100 km
Single infeed Node
Radial network 10-20 kV 152000 km
400 V 280000 km Many supply points
Reliability
City Countryside
Single fault
interrupts service
0,4 kV
Load

Meshed network N-1 reliability criterion
Transmission N components in intact transmission system
Meshing Withstand loss of any single
Many infeeds Generator
Many supply points Line or cable
Many paths for power Transformer
Reliability Busbar (interconnection point)
N-1 criterion No overload on remaining components
Major outages: N-1 turns into N-2
For Evaluation Only.

Copyright(C) by Foxit Software Company,2005-2008
Edited by Foxit Reader
Power flow in PowerWorld Stability limits
Angle instability
Active power imbalance
Mechanical generator dynamics excited
Generator loses synchronism
Generator disconnected
Voltage instability
Lack of reactive power
Overload of power lines
Loads disconnected
Restoration This course has blackout outline
Blackstart generating units Problem spreads
Batteries and diesel for starting 1. Load flow
Energizing lines Blackout when stability limit is reached
Careful with voltage 2. Voltage stability, power system control
Adding little load 3. Angle stability, synchronous generators
Limited control capacity Short-circuits initiate problems
Adding generation and load 4. Relay protection and symmetrical faults
Restoration important, how to practice? 5. Unsymmetrical faults
A course module Learning sequence

Tuesday: Lecture Demonstrate need for knowledge
Thursday: Hand exercise Learn theory
Work in pairs Lecture
Small system in detail by hand Practice principle
Monday: Computer exercise Hand exercise
Work in pairs Practice principle in practice
Large system in detail with computer Computer exercise
Large system simplified by hand
Other activities Schedule
Laboratory exercises
W Monday Tuesday Thursday
AC power and fuses
1 L1 L2 - Lecture
Synchronous generator
2 E1 L3 E2 Exercise
Study visit 3 C1 L4 E3 Computer
Substation in Lund 4 C2 L5 E4 Study Visit
Lecture on power system challenges 5 C3 L6/E5 L7/E6
6 C4 L8/E7 L9/E8
7 C5 SV L10
Rooms North
Textbook
Mondays 13-15
J. D. Glover & M. Sarma:
M:D
Power System Analysis and Design
E:Neptunus, E:Pluto
Tuesdays 10-12 Brooks-Cole, US, 2002
M:D
3rd ed, ISBN 0-53495-367-0
Thursdays 13-15
M:D Akademibokhandeln (AF)
Notice board Internet cheap but slow
Lab 7 Olof
PowerWorld CD included

Assumed knowledge Substation
Parts of a power system
Generator, line, transformer
Three-phase voltage and currents
Source: Lakervi & Holmes

AC power
Electric machinery basics
Matlab/Simulink
Substation functions Single line diagram symbols

Three-phase component Comment
Busbar No impedance
Voltage transformation (reduction) Three-phase line Line with impedance
Power transformer Power transformer US:
Switchyard for network configuration Generator
Busbars, circuit breakers, disconnectors Load
Circuit breaker US: Open Closed
Monitoring point for control center Disconnector
Potential and current transformers Surge arrester Overvoltage protection
Fuses and other protection Current transformer
Potential transformer
Substation layout Single line diagram of a system
Source: Lakervi & Holmes

Specific to PowerWorld: pie charts, arrows
Per unit normalization Per unit base values

Normalize to nominal value Theoretically
Example: 11 kV at 10 kV bus Any two of S, V, I and Z
Vp.u.=Vactual/Vbase=11kV/10kV=1.1p.u. Practically
p.u. indicates if situation is normal System MVA base + One voltage base
Voltage levels comparable Three-phase: Sbase/(3Vbase) => Ibase
Simplifies transformer calculations Vbase2/Sbase=> Zbase
Transformer turns ratio => voltage base
on other side of transformer
Impedance through transformer Transformer on system base
System MVA base Sbase in entire system
Define areas on each side
Rated primary voltage as base Vbase1
Rated secondary voltage as base Vbase2
Gives:
N1
U2 2 Zbase1=V2base1/Sbase, Zbase2=V2base2/Sbase
' U'2 N2 N
Z2 = ' = = 1 Z2 V2base1/Zbase1=V2base2/Zbase2 gives
I2 N 2
I2 N2
Z2pu=Z2/Zbase2=(V2base1/V2base2)Z2/Zbase1=Z2/Zbase1
N1
Z2pu=Z1pu p.u. makes transformers disappear!!!
Generators on component base Conclusions

Xd
Course follows stages of instability blackout
Xd
Initial fault and clearing (3)
Xd
Spreading of disturbance (1)
Two generators in a power plant Stability limit is hit and blackout is a fact (2)
Each unit: 20 MVA, 20 kV, Xd=1.1p.u.@ Single-line diagram
component base Display of three-phase equipment
Combine the two generators to one large Per unit
One unit: 40 MVA, 20 kV , Xd=1.1p.u.@ Eliminates ideal transformer
component base
Olof Samuelsson 2005 55 Parameters similar on component
Olof Samuelsson 2005 base
56
Outline
Building a power system model
Balanced three-phase
System model
Network matrix
Line model
Transformer model
Generator model
Line transfer
Electric Power Systems L2 - Olof Samuelsson 2005 1 Electric Power Systems L2 - Olof Samuelsson 2005 2
Balanced three-phase system Example: Network equations

a
Voltage and current c
Same magnitude in all phases

120 phase difference between phases
Power and impedance b
Same complex value in all phases

Sufficient to study one phase
Voltage and current phase differ by 120
Total power is 3 x single-phase power
Bus admittance matrix Ybus Setting up Ybus
Element ii by inspection
Admittance Y=1/Z Sum of all admittances connected to bus i
Element ij by inspection
Ohms law for networks
(admittance connecting buses i and j)
Matrix equation I= Ybus Vbus Element ij from measurements
Nodal current balances 1 p.u. voltage source at node j
Voltage sources at nodesj zero
Current vector I
Current into bus i is Ybus,ij
Injection from generators
Negative injection from loads
Ybus properties Bus impedance matrix Zbus

With reference and no shunts
Row and column sums zero Vbus = Zbus I
Ybus not invertible If Ybus is invertible: Zbus = Ybus-1
Reference bus (ground) removed Zbus by inspection difficult
Dimensions N-1 x N-1
Sparse and symmetric
Compact network model
Setting up Zbus Line parameters
Distributed along line
Element ij of Zbus from measurement L /km self and mutual inductance Most
Importance
1 p.u. current source at node j R /km conduction losses
Current sources at nodesj to zero C F/km capacitance between phases
Voltage at bus i is Zbus,ij G S/km corona losses
Least
Return current at unbalance
Shield wires or sky wires on top of towers
Earth
Line model single phase Transposed line

R L
Balance important
G C C G Positions different
2 2 2 2
Change positions
1/3 of length at
<100km Lumped parameters R, L each position
<300km Nominal circuit lumped par.

>300km Equivalent circuit
Cable model High voltage reduces losses
x x
R X I R
I R
G C C G
2 2 2 2
V1 /V2 V2 >>V1 V2 /V1
Plosses PTr
Plosses
X series reactance [] Pout Pout

R conductor resistance []
Most important C capacitance [F] Reduces current and RI2-losses
Least important G corona losses [-1] Efficient despite transformer losses
The power transformer Ideal single-phase transformer

Key component in AC power system
High reliability and efficiency >95%
Ratings up to 750MVA in Sweden
Different types
Two-winding most common MMF balance N1I1=N2I2 or I1/I2=N2/N1
Three-winding has two secondaries Faradays law E1/E2=N1/N2=turns ratio a
Phase-shifting
Power invariance S1=E1I1*=E2I2 *=S2
Tap changing for voltage control
Transforming impedance Three-phase transformer
220 V
380 V
380 V
220 V Y
110 V Delta
N1 For each phase 110 V
U2 2
' U'2 N2 N Same flux in primary and secondary windings
Z2 = ' = = 1 Z2 Same phase angle in primary and secondary windings
I2 N 2
I2 N2
N1 Y- or delta-connected
Transformer phase shift Transformer model

a b c R1 X1 X2 R2
c
B C
a Full Ideal
Gc Bm N1 N2
30 transformer
b
A
A B C Practical transformer
Y-: 30 phase lag on side Leakage flux X and winding resistance R
Variable in phase shifting transformer Non-zero core reluctance B
Complex turns ratio in model Hysteresis and eddy current losses G
Simplified transformer model Per unit transformer model
Example 3.3 p. 89
Given Srated, Vrated1, Vrated2, f, Zeq2
Xeq Determine Zeq1pu and Zeq2pu
N1 N2 Ideal p.u. value of Zeq1 and Zeq2 the same!
transformer p.u. eliminates ideal transformer
One % value on name plate
Simple p.u. model only a Zeq!
Xeq on primary or secondary side? Change of base: Actual value invariant
Zp.u.newZbasenew=Zactual= Zp.u.oldZbaseold
Off-nominal turns ratio Voltages and currents

V11 V1 Zeq c:1 V2
Tap changer I1 I2
V2 variable in steps of 1-2%
p.u. removes nominal turns ratio, leaves factor c
V1/V2Vnom1/Vnom2
V1
= c V2
V2 2 Phase shifting transformer Vbase1 Vbase2 c complex 0=S1+S2=V1I 1*+V2I 2*
12 (Y-D transformer) V1 p.u. = cV2 p.u. V1/V2=(I2/I 1)*=c
n1 n2 Parallel operation I2=c*I 1

Example: 130/10kV and 130/12kV * is complex conjugate
n1n2
Bus admittance matrix -circuit
Can only be drawn for real c <=> symmetric Ybus
V1 Zeq c:1 V2 cYeq
V1
I1 I2 = c Vbase1 c complex
I 1 I 2
V2 Vbase2
(1-c)Yeq
V1 = cV2 + Zeq I1 I1 = (V1 cV2 ) / Zeq V1
(c2-c)Yeq
V2

I2 = c * I1 I2 = c * (V1 cV2 ) / Zeq
Check 1: Try c=1 Check 2:
I1 Yeq cYeq V1 Yeq = 1/ Zeq c + 1 c c 1 c

= Yeq =Y
I2 c * Yeq c 2 Yeq V2 c c + c2 c eq c c 2
The synchronous generator Rotor

R 1
0.8
uR
S N 0.6
m
0.4
T 0.2
uS 0
-0.2
-0.4
T -0.6
S S uT -0.8
Rotated by turbine
-1
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.0
DC current through slip rings

Converts mechanical to electrical power
Even number 2 of poles
Three-phase AC voltages and currents
Induction from rotation Three-phase winding
d dA(t) Mechanical and electrical angles same
e(t) = = B
dt dt
Rotation => sinusoidal waveform

Synchronous generator torque Power at steady state

Xd Xnetwork Synchronization gives
Eq V I=0, V=Eq
Load gives I0
Eq
EqV
Xd
V
Torque~sin XdI Xd VI
V V2
Rotor field pulls stator field around Components of VI: Xd
Maximum torque at 90 angle difference Vertical (EqV/Xd)sin=VIcos=Pe

Stator fields and rotor synchronous Horizontal (EqV/Xd)cos-V2/Xd=VIsin=Qe
Generator controls Limitations
Rotor current limit - max If - max Eq
Armature (stator) current limit - max I
Xd Xnetwork
Turbine power - min and max Pm
Eq V
Stability - P-dependent - min E
Pe
Max If
Max Pm
Turbine controller controls power Pe
Mechanical input power affects only Pe Capability Min If Max Ia
diagram
Automatic Voltage Regulator
Controls terminal voltage V
Rotor current If decides Eq, affects Pe och Qe Min Pm Qe
Load Power through inductance

Xline
1. Constant P and Q Line transfer
True for motors and power electronics Xeq
2. Voltage dependent - constant Z Power through transformer
True for heating
Xd
3. Load with recovery time constant Power from generator
Fast for motors, slow for thermostats
V P 1
3
2
t t
Line transfer 1 Line transfer 2
Z=jX, =90: P12
I1 Z=Z I2 V1,V2
P12=(V1V2/X)sin(1-2) Pmax
constant
V1=V1 1 S12 S21 V2=V22
Q12=V12 /X-(V1V2/X)cos(1-2)
S12=P12+jQ12=V1I1*=V1((V1-V2)/Z)* P21=(V1V2/X)sin(2-1)
P12=(V12 /Z)cos-(V1V2/Z)cos(1-2+) Q21=V22 /X-(V1V2/X)cos(2-1)
1-2
Q12=(V12 /Z)sin-(V1V2/Z)sin(1-2+) P12=-P21
Pmax=V1V2/X
Use Y12 in Ybus for 1/Z Q12-Q21 if V1V2
Summary
Ybus compact network model

Simple line model fits in Ybus
Per unit simplifies transformer model
Transformer like line model in Ybus
Generator has controlled P and V
P and Q through X general
P~sin(1-2), P12-P21 but Q12-Q21
Electric Power Systems L2 - Olof Samuelsson 2005 39
System in steady state Outline
Real and reactive power
Line transfer
The load flow problem
Newton-Raphson
Power flow control
Voltage profile
Load flow in PowerWorld simulator
Real and reactive power P & Q Power through inductance
Z V S Xline
X xI xI Q Line transfer
Xeq
R P Power through transformer
Z=R+jX V=(R+jX)I S=P+jQ
R=Zcos P=Scos; heat, work Xd
X=Zsin Q=Ssin; E&M fields Power from generator
cos= power factor
>0 ind/lagging
<0 cap/leading
Line transfer 1 Line transfer 2
ZjX, 90: P12
P12=(V1V2/X)sin(1-2) Pmax V1,V2
I1 Z=Z I2
Q12=V12 /X-(V1V2/X)cos(1-2) constant
V1=V11 S12 S21 V2=V22
P21=(V1V2/X)sin(2-1)
Q21=V22 /X-(V1V2/X)cos(2-1)
S12=P12+jQ12=V1I1*=V1((V1-V2)/Z)*
P12=-P21
P12= (V12 /Z)cos+(V1V2/Z)cos(1-2-) Q12-Q21 if V1V2
Q12=(V12 /Z)sin(-)+(V1V2/Z)sin(1-2-) 1-2
Pmax=V1V2/X
Use Y12 in Ybus for 1/Z
The load flow problem Power balance at each bus

PGk+jQGk V
k k
In a network with known parameters, PLk+jQLk To rest of system

find V at all buses Load
given generation and load Pin+jQin Pout+jQout
Balance equations at bus k:
Balance equations at each bus: Pin=Pout
Pin(gen load) Pout(to other buses)=0 Qin=Qout
Qin(gen load) Qout(to other buses)=0 Pin and Qin
Like V=ZI but with power instead of current Generation minus load
Equations nonlinear and coupled Pout and Qout line transfer to buses ik
Postprocessing => line flows and losses Depend on Vi and i
Power to rest of system Three bus types
Vkk Power to
rest of
Swing or slack bus

system
Reference with V and known
Use Ybus and express P and Q from bus k to bus i
Pki = Vk Vk abs(Ykk ) cos[ k k arg(Ykk )] + Vk Vi abs(Yki ) cos[ k i arg(Yki )] PV or generator bus
Qki = Vk Vk abs(Ykk )sin[ k k arg(Ykk )] + Vk Vi abs(Yki )sin[ k i arg(Yki )] Voltage controlled, V known
Works for all i: Yki zero if no connection PQ or load bus
P into bus k Pk = Vk i =1.. N Vi abs(Yki ) cos[ k i arg(Yki )]
Neither V nor known
k i =1.. N Vi abs(Yki )sin[ k i arg(Yki )]
Q into bus k Q = V
k
Three equation types Example: Load flow 1

Input data:
One equation from known P or Q: Swing PV bus
Bus type Equation Unknowns
Slack None None
PV bus P PQ bus

PQ bus P and Q V and
1. Determine V and
Number of equations and unknowns same 2. Determine flows and losses
Example: Load flow 2 Newton-Raphson f(x0 )
Unknowns: x=[2 3 V3]T Iterative solution of

nonlinear y=f(x) f(x1 )
Equations: y=f(x) f(x2 )
Swing PV bus
f(x)=[P2(x) P3(x) Q3(x)]T Taylor series at x=x0 x2 x1 x0
PQ bus
y=[60 -80 -60]T y=f(x0)+ f/x[x-x0]+(higher order terms)
Rearranging gives updating law
f(x) nonlinear! x=x0+(f/x)-1[y-f(x0)]=x0+J-1[y-f(x0)]
J=f/x Jacobian matrix is a gradient
Scalar N-R example Example: Load flow 3

Solve f(x)=y=0
Inital guess x0 x=[2 3 V3]T
f(x0 )
Taylor series at x=x0 f(x)=[P2(x) P3(x) Q3(x)]T
y=0=f(x0)+f/x[x-x0] Swing PV bus Jacobian matrix:
y-f(x0)
f/x is a scalar here PQ bus P2 P2 P2
f(x1 )
Updating law 2 3 V3
x=x0+(f/x)-1[y-f(x0)]
f(x2 )
f P3 P3 P3
J= i =
x2 x1 x0 x j 2 3 V3
Stop criterion Q3 Q3 Q3
|y-f(x0)|< 2 3 V3
Newton-Raphson iteration Affecting line flows
P~1/Zline
Initial guess x0 Parallel line (or transformer)
Flat start: All V=1p.u., =0 Adding increases P
=> f(x0), J0 => x0=(J0)-1(y-f(x0)) => Removing reduces P
x1=x0+x0 Series capacitor shortens line
=> f(x1), J1=> x1=(J1)-1(y-f(x1)) => x2=x1+x1 jX= jXline+jXcap=jL-j/(C)<jXline
=> until for example |x|< or |y-f(x)|< For many long 400kV lines X=0.5Xline
With all V and known
Compute line flows and losses
Disconnecting line 1999-12-03 Sweden

Hurricane
Radial system (distribution)
Wind speeds up to 40 m/s
System below is blacked out
160 distribution lines down in Sydkraft area
Meshed system (transmission)
Thousands of customers without power
Parallel lines take up the load
Overload may cause new disconnection
Load of other lines increases further
Possible chain reaction
1999-12-03 Near total blackout 2003-09-23 Sweden
12:35
Disconnector fails 12:30 -1200 MW
in Horred substation O3 Emergency stop
12:35 -1800 MW All lines trip
R3 and R4 to house
operation
Salt on insulators near the coast

Only one 400 kV line feeding Skne
Baltic Cable damaged by ship anchor
Blackout 2003-09-23 Voltage at midpoint of a line

Assume V1 and V2 fixed
Assume line only series X
X1I X2I
12:37 Voltage collapse
V1 X1 V3 X2 V2 V3
The blackout is a fact
I V1 V2
V3 smaller than V1 and V2
Voltage profile of a line Voltage support
V1 V3 V2 V(x)
V3 V1 V2
V1 V2
x
V(x)
V1 V2 x
Q infeed at bus 1 and 2

Move bus 3
x Voltage supported at end points
Plot V3 as f(x)
V(x)=Voltage profile! Line draws Q
Little reaches midpoint: V lowest
Line model with C but no R Two extremes

I L
QL << QC
V1 V C V2
I low = light load V increases along line
x QL >> QC
I high = heavy load V decreases
Assume V1 fixed, but not V2
V(x)
Series L draws reactive power Light
QL=LI2 decreases V along line V1
Line charging C generates reactive power Heavy
QC=CV2 increases V along line
x
Balance In reality
Load P0 so that QL = QC
No Q transfer
No reactive V drop, same V along line Series resistance gives voltage drop
P0 natural or surge impedance loading (SIL) Line loaded to more than SIL
P0=V2/R0, R0=sqrt(L/C)=Zcharacteristic
V(x) Light
V1 SIL See
Heavy Exercise 1.6!
x
Summary
Load flow problem
Current and voltage is linear
Power and voltage is nonlinear, N-R
Bus types
Changing Zline changes line flow
Reactive series compensation shortens line
Shifting power flow may cause blackout
P=SIL gives flat voltage profile
Reducing the system to one bus So far
Three-phase and single line diagram

Per unit and bus admittance matrix
Power through inductance and load flow
? PowerWorld
E1/C1 Extra per unit exercise Outline

Thvenin equivalent
Pick any PowerWorld case
Network strength
Write down all values in kV, MW,
Power to bus without V support
Calculate p.u. values
Maximum P and Q to bus
Make PowerWorld show p.u.
Compare! Voltage stability
Change one or more bases and repeat
Thvenin equivalent Short-circuit current
Z=0 connected at terminals
ZTH Represents passive network ZTH
Short-circuit current
Also for entire power system ISC=VTH/(3ZTH)1/(3ZTH) p.u.
VTH no-load line-line voltage (VTH/ZTH if VTH line-ground voltage)
VTH ~ ZTH short-circuit impedance
VTH ~ ISC
Determines breaker rating
Equivalent Z of network ISC limited by ZTH
All V sources zero for ZTH X still gives small Vdrop
Important advantage of AC
Extra X may be inserted
Short-circuit power Network strength

ZTH ZTH SLOAD << SSC
Short-circuit power in MVA strong, urban load
Also short-circuit capacity
Also fault level
SLOAD not << SSC/2
VTH ~ ISC
SSC=3VTHISC p.u.
VTH ~ SLOAD
weak, rural load
SSC=VTH2/ZTH 1/ZTH p.u. SLOAD > SSC/2
(3VTH2/ZTH if VTH line-ground ) impossible
SSC not useful power
Weak network Flicker
ZTH Light intensity not stable
Nearby motor load
+ High starting current Im Human eye sensitive
~ VTH
V M
Im Feeding voltage reduced Frequency (PC monitor, train)
Voltage recovers Voltage (motor start)
V Elenergiteknik Lab1 Power quality problem
Not everywhere Common in rural areas
Common in rural areas
Start t
Uncommon in urban areas
Example: ZTH and SSC in network Example: ZTH and SSC in network
3a. At 3 kV busbar
1. p.u. network model X3kV=(X300MVA+X6MVA)//X2MVA
a) a)
All Z p.u. on common base
3 kV 3 kV
3b. After transformers
X3kV +(X0,5MVA//X0,6MVA)
2. All Xeq to common base
Increase XSC, decrease SSC
SBASE=6 MVA
Go through transformer/line
b) VBASE=3 kV b)
Feeding network ZTH1/SSC
Decrease XSC, increase SSC
Add generator
Add parallel transformer/line
ZTH from Zbus Setting up Zbus
Element ii of Zbus Element ii of Zbus from measurement
Short-circuit impedance ZTH at bus i 1 p.u. current source at node i
Conditions Voltage sources to zero
Zbus has neutral as reference Voltage at bus i is Zbus,ii
Generators have internal impedance
Loads can be included in Zbus
Practical for large systems
Affecting bus voltage + Affecting bus voltage

XTH XTH
VTH=VL+jXTHIC VTH=VL+jXTHIL
IC IL
IC=VL/(jXC)=jCVL IL=VL/(jXL)=jVL/(L)
~
VTH
VL XC=-1/(C)
VTH=VL+jXTHjCVL VTH
~ VL
XL=L VTH=VLjXTH jVL/XL
VTH =(1-XTHC)VL VTH =(1+XTH/XL)VL
IC VTH
VTH jXTHIC
VL>VTH VL jXLIL VL<VTH
VL IL
V increased by Q injection
V decreased by Q load
Shunt capacitors
Typical load (induction motors)
Synchronous generators
Shunt reactors
IC through X(TH) gives negative voltage drop! Synchronous generators
V support at both ends V support at only one end
E0 X V
E V0 P+jQ
X
P+jQ
EV
P= sin
X
P=
EV
sin P flows to lower EV V2
X Q= cos
X X
EV V2
Q= cos Q flows to lower V
X X
PV curve (Lab 1) P to bus with no V support

E0 X V- E0 X V
P P
V/E R R
R= Use trigonometric identity to eliminate :
1
2
R>X E 2V 2 V2
0.7 R=X Vary R and plot V(P) P(V , Q ) = Q +
R<X X2 X
Two P for each V!
E 2V 2 V 4
P~VI Q = 0 P(V ) =
X2
High V, low I Use SSC=E2/X and v=V/E:
Low V, high I
0.5
P/SSC P(v ) = S SC v 2 v 4
R=0
Maximum P from nose curve Q to bus with no V support
V/E E0 V0
X
1 Q=0 Q
Xload
dP/dv=0:
0.7 V (E V )
P = 0 Q(V ) =
Pmax=SSC/2 at v = 1 / 2 X
for R=X, =45
Use SSC=E2/X and v=V/E:
P/SSC Q(v ) = S SC v v 2
0.5
Maximum Q Pmax vs Qmax

V/E
P=0 Pmax=SSC/2 at R=x, v = 1 / 2
1
Qmax=SSC/4 at Xload=x, v=1/2
dQ/dv=0:
0.5 Qmax=SSC/4 at v=1/2

Q more difficult to transfer than P
for Xload=X
Q affects V more than P does
For inductive line
Q/SSC
0.25 Opposite for resistive line (distribution)
Two solutions for each P Upper and lower side properties
P changes
V/E R decreases Solution A normal V/E
R decreases => V decreases => I increases
1 A 1
High voltage R>x: I increase dominates
R>x
R=x Low current P increases
Nose point Solution B R<x
R<x: V decrease dominates
B Low voltage P decreases
High current
P/SSC P/SSC
Voltage stability Voltage collapses 1983, 2003

Constant power based on P~1/R E0 X V-
P
e.g. Motors, thermostats, tap changer controllers
If P too small, R is reduced: North South
A) R>x: P increase equilibrium
B) R<x: P decrease R reduced no equilibrium
North Sweden strong generating area
Situation B is voltage unstable South Sweden weak load area
Little generation that is disconnected
Lines are lost, X increases
2003 blackout simplified Voltage collapses 1983, 2003
V/E
Impedance
Normal (dashed)
1 Lines are lost
P~V2
X increases
Load like impedance
Jump to solid line
P recovers at low V
V falling (red)
Svealand P right of curve (black)
P/SSC
Voltage collapses
Source: Svenska Kraftnt
Skne+Sjlland
Mechanical analogy The load and the system
Translation
Load power = T
Supplied power = Fa2
Voltage V Distance a a2a3k=2ktriangle area
Current I Force F Normal
Power P Torque T Supplied power=load
T = Fa2
Increase the load current Possible improvements
Current <45
Supplied P increases Fr
More production in South
V2 decreases
Less P from North, lower T
V1 =45 Q infeed Fr increases V2
Max P
V2
400 kV-line Hallsberg-Malm
V2 70% of V1
Stronger spring
>45
Load disconnection
Supplied P decreases
V2 decreases further Reduces T
Fra2=Reactive power
Conclusions Is DC better than AC?

Thvenin equivalent
Represents network at one point
XTH, SSC quantify network strength
XTH diagonal element of Zbus
C increases voltage at bus
Source: balticcable.com
Power to bus without V support
PV curve: Two V for each P
Max P > Max Q
Voltage collapse when P>Max P HVDC=High Voltage Direct Current
Mechanical analog exists
Outline Sample HVDC projects
HVDC projects 1954 Gotland, Sweden, First commercial!
90 km, 20MW, 100kV
Pros and cons
1987 Itaipu, Brazil, Largest!
The diode and the thyristor 6300 MW
Six-pulse diode bridge 1994 Baltic Cable, SE-GE, longest cable
Six-pulse thyristor bridge 600 MW, 400 kV, 250 km
2000 SwePol Link, SE-PL
Harmonics
2000+ Three Gorges, China
The converter station 6000 MW, 890 km overhead line
Nordic HVDC links

Kontiskan SE-DK Advantages of HVDC
FennoSkan SE-FI
No reactive line/cable losses
Long cables possible, lines cheaper
Skagerrack NO-DK FI-RU No synchronizing power
NorNed NO-NL Easy to connect AC systems
Viking NO-DE Gotland, SE Controllability
Baltic Cable SE-DE Perfect for power transactions
SwePol, SE-PL
SSC does not increase
Kontek DK-DE Upgrading of AC breakers not necessary
All except Gotland and Fennoskan are
between Nordel and other systems
Disadvantages of HVDC The diode and the thyristor
Expensive terminals
(DC) converter compared to (AC) transformer Diode
V
Harmonics Conducts when V>0
Interference with telephone lines Thyristor
Susceptible to SSR and other interaction
V Vgate Conducts when V>0 and Vgate>0
High bandwidth and powerful actuator
Conduction can be delayed
Compass deviations
Submarine cable with ground return
Three-phase diode bridge Voltages and currents
DC voltage ripple
Six pulses per cycle
DC current constant
Upper diodes select Vp=max(e)
AC current pulses
Lower diodes select Vm= min(e)
DC voltage VD=Vp-Vm
Three-phase thyristor bridge Influence of
Thyristor firing delayed firing angle
Average DC voltage ~cos

=0-90: VD>0 Rectifier operation
=90-180: VD<0 Inverter operation
AC current pulses shifted
Reactive power ~sin
Harmonics on AC and DC side Converter station
Two six-pulse
bridges
Filters short-
circuit AC
Two bridges in series and DC side
harmonics
Y-y transformer
Y- Transformer
Less harmonics in VD and Iline AC DC
Baltic Cable converter station
AC line AC switchyard
Valve
Q comp hall
AC filter DC line
Transformer
building
Active
DC filter
Smoothing reactor
Synchronous generator dynamics Outline
Deviation Steady state model
from 50 Hz Synchronization
at LTH
Dynamic model
Frequency control
Phase angle
differences Equilibrium points
(degrees) Transient angle stability
LTU=Lule
The Equal Area Criterion
2004-13-11 13:39: 600 MW generator in Denmark disconnected Small-signal stability
Frequency dip and North-South angle oscillations
Synchronous machine Loaded synchronous generator
Rotor
One field winding fed with DC current Armature reaction flux from load current in stator
Stator Adds to field flux to form air gap flux
Three windings 120 apart in space Stator flux also includes leakage flux
Equivalent circuit 1 Equivalent circuit 2
Eq(If) internal voltage (also Ef) Indices:

I stator current a armature
V terminal voltage d d-axis
f field
Xd=Xa+XlXa l leakage
Eq=V+(Ra+jXd)I q q-axis
Indices: g generator I lags V by angle (g)

a armature l leakage Eq leads V by angle (g)
d d-axis q q-axis
f field r resulting
Load angle Steady state operation

Pe
Eq V
Ra neglected Eq Xd
is a spatial angle between field and air gap flux jX dI VI

V V2
and Xd
Qe
I
Scale by V/Xd
a phase angle between Eq and V+(Ra+jXl)I
Components of VI:
Note: is given relative to rotating reference (rotor) Vertical EqV/Xdsin=VIcos=Pe
Horizontal EqV/Xdcos-V2/Xd=VIsin=Qe
Two control inputs Rotor types
Pe2
Turbine power
controls P Eq
Pe1 Round rotor = Turbo rotor q-axis
Eq constant Two poles

1 2
V
Q changes d-axis
Qe2 Qe1 High speed - 3000 rpm @ 50Hz

Field current If Pe
Eq2 Used with steam turbines (e.g. nuclear)
controls Eq Eq1
P constant
1 2
Q may change sign Salient pole rotor (utprglade poler) q-axis
Qe2 Qe1
Many poles d-axis
PV node behaviour! Lower speed - e.g. 150 rpm @ 50 Hz
Controllable Q source Used with hydro turbines

Salient pole rotor P and Q for salient pole rotor

Pe+j Qe=(Vd+jVq)(Id+jIq)* Pe
q-axis q-axis
d- and q-axis different
Geometry Vd+jVq=V(sin+jcos)
d-axis d-axis
Flux Id=(Eq-Vq)/Xd
Inductance Iq=Vd/Xq
Currents and voltages
EqV V2 1 1
Iq Vq Eq
q-axis Pe =
sin + sin 2 = Pfield + Preluctance
Xd 2 Xq Xd
jXq Iq
Eq=V+jXdId +jXqIq
2 Try Xd=Xq!
Vd
2
2 sin cos
V
EqV
Id jXd Id
Qe = cos V +
d-axis Xd Xq Xd
Synchronization Synchronization conditions
Connect to an energized network V close to Vsystem if the voltages have

1. Control prime mover to reach correct speed Same phase order
2. Magnetize field (and armature) winding Same frequency
3. Make V close to Vsystem to limit currents Same magnitude
4. Connect! Same phase
Aim Simply same phasors or vectors
Steady-state no-load situation
Mechanical dynamics The inertia constant H

d m
Torque balance for rotor J = Tm Te
dt
1 2
2 Kinetic energy of rotating masses J m
p magnetic rotor poles m (mech. rad/s) = e (elec. rad/s) H= =2
p Generator MVA rating Sbase
Multiply torque balance by m (rad/s)

Unit: Ws/VA=s
Use e as state and es,e 2H d e
= Pm ( p.u.) Pe ( p.u.)
Divide by Sbase to get p.u. s,e dt
H on different MVA bases System frequency
Machine base All generators same , but which one?
Steam turbines 4-9 s
H i i
Gas turbines 3-4 s system = i
Hydro turbines 2-4 s

H i
i
Synchronous compensator 1-1.5 s Large generators dominate

Common base Narrow Infinite bus is extreme case with H=
H ~ generator size (kW-GW) range!
gives system=infbus
Infinite bus has infinite H
System frequency dynamics Frequency event without control

All generators modeled as one with: Generator is suddenly disconnected...
=system Step reduction of Pm
system
H = Hi Pm nom fsystem
i
Unbalance: Pm<Pe +
2H
1
2
system
Pe,tot
Pm +
nom
1
fsystem
decreases D
2H 2
Pe,tot
D
Decrease stops when Pe is reduced to Pm
Electrical load is frequency dependent Error in
Turbine governor R on machine base
Proportional frequency control law: All generators usually have the same R
given in p.u. on machine base
Pm= Pref+f/R
A disturbance gives same f everywhere
f=fnomfsystem
All generators do same p.u. contribution
R is speed droop, Hz/MW or p.u./p.u.
fnom
+
f Typical R value is 5%
+ Pm
+
K
f=0.05 p.u. gives Pm=1 p.u.
fsystem P
1/R
R Pref
+
R on common base Frequency error tolerance

R for entire system on common base: Instantaneous value of f:
0.01 Hz in US
1 1
= 0.1 Hz in Nordel
Rtotal i
Ri
0.2 Hz in Ireland
More generators give greater 1/Rtotal Time integral of :
In Nordel 1/Rtotal (reglerstyrka)6000 MW/Hz Time error on clocks <10s in Nordel
Single machine infinite bus Classical dynamic model
Eq V0 Synchronous generator connected to infinite bus:
Pm X
2H d e
= Pm Pe ( )
Pe omega
X dt
H, Xd s,e wnom/2/H
1 1
delta
d Pm s s
Classical model: Infinite bus: = e s,e Pmax sin

dt
Fixed Eq behind Xd Infinite H
in rad, e in rad/s, s,etypically 100 rad/s
Constant Pm Zero impedance
Eq and Xd in Pe () for slow transients
No damping Fixed voltage V0
Second order system with poor damping Demo
No saliency Xeq=Xline+Xd Simulate
Electro-mechanical or swing dynamics
tcl=0.05
Synchronizing torque Two equilibrium points

E 'q V
Assume disturbance at no-load steady state makes e>s,e Pm = Pe ( ) = sin
X eq
d/dt>0 Pe omega Two solutions for : Pe
increases P X
wnom/2/H
1 1
delta 0 = arcsin m eq
Pm s s
= E 'q V
Pe increases Pm
180 0
Pmax sin

de/dt<0 Synchronizing torque dPe/d

e decreases equilibrium point at e=s,e dPe/d>0 for <90 - stable equilibrium
dPe/d<0 for >90 - unstable equilibrium
All generators have same speed
Dynamic response Second order response
Pe zero at short-circuit near gen
Temporary short-circuit near Pe Pe
Step in Pm-Pe
generator, Pe zero during fault
Mechanical states slow Pm
Response? Pm
Start at 0 and Pe(0)
1. Second order system
Acceleration during fault
2. No damping
Fault removed at =1
3. Oscillator! and oscillate
Overshoot to 2 and Pe(2) 0 2
4. (t) will lag (t)
Oscillate around equilibrium 1 Simulation
point 0 and Pe(0)=Pm
tcl=0.05, 0.1
Angle stability Stability analysis tools

0 must be less than steady state limit 90 Time simulation
2 also has limit transient angle stability limit Computer application since the beginning
Can use detailed model
Questions: Analytical the Equal Area Criterion
How large can 2 be? Simple and can be done by hand
What happens when it becomes too large? Approximate result
What is the largest disturbance that is OK? Simulation Formulated before 1930 by Ivar Herlitz (First
tcl=0.15, Swedish PhD in engineering at KTH)
0.1505, 0.151
The Equal Area Criterion Transient stability limit
Pe DA Pe DA
Short-circuit: Pe=zero More severe disturbance:
AA Mark areas between Pe() and AA
AA larger
Pm Pm in interval 0 to 2 Pm
Greater 2 makes DA larger
Accelerating Area: Below Pm
Maximum DA at 2=180-0
Decelerating Area : Above Pm
For stable system AA=DA For larger 2 only AA grows
0 2 0 1 2
1 Simulation
Beyond stability limit How to use EAC
d/dt never becomes zero Stability check for known disturbance

Use EAC for 2 and check 2<UEP
Rotor accelerates even more
Max disturbance from stability limit
Machine transiently unstable = loses
Determine disturbance for 2=UEP
synchronism
Typical disturbances
Must disconnect and resynchronise
Loss of line, generator or load
Demo Short-circuit
Small-signal angle stability Eigenvalues and eigenvectors
Eigenvalue i:
Linearize at steady state (0, 0, Pm0) Im(i)=resonance oscillation frequency (e.g. 0.35 Hz)
State space: dx/dt=Ax+Bu Re(i)=resonance oscillation damping
0 for all i system is small-signal stable
Compute eigenvalues i of A
>0 for any i system is small-signal unstable
Compute right eigenvectors i of A
Right eigenvector i:
Which generators participate in mode (resonance) i
E.g. Generators in FI against those in NO and DK
Small-signal damping Conclusions

Low >0 for uncontrolled system Steady state
P and Q for round and salient pole rotor
Negative damping from controllers
Frequency dynamics
Automatic Voltage Regulators
All generators like one
HVDC controllers
Transient angle stability
Damping added by dedicated controls Equal Area Criterion and simulations
Power System Stabilizers on generators Small-signal stability
HVDC damping controllers Eigenvalues and eigenvectors
How do blackouts start?
Outline
Faults and protection
Faults in power systems
Power system protection
Joint of disconnector
Zones of protection
Time-delay overcurrent relay
Coordination
Directional relays
Reclosers and sectionalizers
Disconnector initiates Swedish blackout 23 september
Electric Power Systems - Olof Samuelsson 1 Electric Power Systems - Olof Samuelsson 2
Open-circuit faults Short-circuit faults

Lightning
One phase of circuit breaker stuck open Dirt/salt on insulators
Conductor falling down Flashover line-line (wind)
Flashover to tree
Short-circuit faults more common Tower/pole or conductor falls
Objects fall on conductors
Cable insulation failure
Lightning most common Power lines and trees
400 kV 50 kV
Statistically
80 % of faults on
overhead lines are
due to lightning 10 kV
www.dmi.dk
Distribution lines most affected
Galopping spectacular Effects of short-circuit current

Arc
Compare with welding
http://205.243.100.155/frames/longarc.htm
Heating
Fire and explosion
Vibration due to magnetic forces
Parallel conductors are attracted (F=Bil)
Heating Interrupting large currents
Resistive losses RI2
Temperature rise with stored heat energy I2t Fuses
(no cooling assumed) Use the melting effect of the arc
Same I2t gives equal heating (see graph) Circuit breakers interrupt kA in ms
Time Extinguish arc
Overload
Breaker operation
Short-circuit fault Automatic by relay protection
Current
Protection including fuses When lights go out

Need 1. An upstream fuse/relay has
Detect fault detected a fault
Isolate faulted component
Restore faulted component 2. Downstream system isolated
by fuse or breaker
Aims
Continued supply for rest of system
3. Automatic reclosing after delay
Protect faulted part from damage successful if fault not permanent
Protection system performance Protection system tasks
High reliability
Is there a fault?
Always isolate targeted fault
High sensitivity good Short-circuit or only high load?
High selectivity All situations must be known!
Only react to targeted faults Coordination
High sensitivity bad Compromise Which protection unit should react?
Fast Isolate as small area as possible
Good for (transient) stability Must work also if component fails
Safety
Zones of protection Protection types

Defined for protected objects Overcurrent protection
Dedicated protection for each zone Lines (distribution)
Zones overlap Directional overcurrent relay
CB in overlap zones Lines (transmission), generators
Isolated at fault anywhere inside Differential protection
Lines
G M Transformers
Busbars
Generators
Electric Power Systems - Olof Samuelsson 15 Ex Electric Power Systems - Olof Samuelsson 16
Line protection components Time-delay overcurrent relay
Detect overcurrent Wait delay time T Trip CB
CT CB
Time
CB - Circuit Breaker
PT CT - Current Transformer Trip Constant delay
PT - Potential Transformer characteristic
Relay T
Large number of relays needed: 1 Relative

One for each phase and fault type overcurrent
Time-delay overcurrent relay Radial system

Detect overcurrent Wait delay time T(I) Trip CB ISC increases when approaching source
R1 has higher current setting than R2
Time
CB1 Time
R1
Trip Inverse 1/t characteristic R2 Load1
Similar for fuses CB2
R1
R2
1 Relative
overcurrent Relative
Load2
overcurrent
Fault in radial system Fault in radial system: At home
R1 and R2 detect overcurrent Both F1 and F2 detect overcurrent
Delay of R2 smallest Time Delay of F2 Time
R2 operates CB2 first Fuse F2 blows first
CB1 Isolates fault + Load 2 F1 Isolates fault and Me
R1
R1 reset If fuse F2 fails
R2 L1
CB2 F2 F3
If R2 or CB2 fails R1 Extra delay of F1 F1
R1 not reset R2 F1 blows F2
Current Current
Extra delay of R1 Isolates fault + Me but also Neighbor
R1 operates CB1
Isolates fault + Load 2 but also Load 1
Load2 Me Neighbor Fault clearing is selective
Coordination works
Coordination Line fed from both ends

R1 R2 R3 R4
Relays 1 and 2 coordinated in example: G G
For the line,
Relay 2 provides Primary protection Rule not applicable due to many sources
Relay 1 provides Backup protection Use directional relays:
R1 and R3 only trip for fault to their right
Always true since t(I) curves do not cross
R2 and R4 only trip for fault to their left
V and I phase difference gives direction
Rule: Longer delay close to source
Impedance relay Impedance relay types
Let relay measure V/I=Z=R+jX
Directional Admittance or MHO
Normally load makes Z > Zline
X Zline X
Fault on line makes Z < Zline - TRIP!
X Trip
Trip
R R
Trip
R
Radius=|Zline |
Distance protection Distance protection zones

Zone 1, Primary: 80%, no delay
Series impedance ~ distance along line Zone 2, Backup 1: 120%, delay
|Z|<0.8|Zline| equivalent to Zone 3, Backup 2: 120+100%, longer delay
Zero fault within 80% of line length A B C D
The reach of the relay is 80% G G
Time Zone 3
Zone 2
Zone 1
Distance
Distance protection coordination Current differential protection
A B C D
G Compare iin and iout
Time
|iin iout|0 no internal fault
|iin iout|>>0 internal fault: Trip CB
Distance
Generators
Time iin and iout of each winding
Communication needed for lines
G M
Distance
Electric Power Systems - Olof Samuelsson 29 Ex Electric Power Systems - Olof Samuelsson 30
Example: Permanent fault

Automatic sectionalizer
Cost-effective restoration of service
Sectionalizer with transducers and logic R R R R R R
R
Operates when recloser R is open S1
S S S S S S
S Load1
Need not interrupt fault current
Load3
Simpler than circuit breaker S2 S S S S S S
S
Operation not electrically powered Load2
Load2
Counts periods of fault current Load3
Normal Fault occurs R R R R
Opens after preset number opens recloses opens closes
S S1 preset to 3 S1 count 1 S1 count 2
Maximum area restored S2 preset to 2 S2 count 1 S2 count 2 S2
Radio message to repairman Fault not opens
Load1 temporary!
System protection Calculating fault current
Unit protection=Fault protection
Protects generator, line, transformer Short-circuit protection input data
Weakens system when tripping CB Minimum short-circuit current
System protection=Blackout protection Maximum load current
Acts to avoid system blackout Circuit breaker selection input data
E.g. Sacrifice some load to save the rest Maximum short-circuit current
All protection is based on knowledge Short-circuit current calculation
Normal and abnormal operation Based on network data
Coordinating protection in nuclear plant!
Detailed like load flow or Thvenin-based
Summary
Short-circuit most common fault (lightning)
Fuses and protection
Dependable = not miss a fault
Selective = not overreact
Many relay types
One zone for each relay
Limiting blackout-area
Coordination, autoreclosing, autosectionalizing
Electric Power Systems - Olof Samuelsson 35
Short-circuit faults Outline
R-L circuit transients

Generator transients
Network representation
Three-phase short-circuit fault
Fault current
Voltages during fault
Lightning test in lab Anchor damage on Baltic Cable Electric Power Systems- Olof Samuelsson 2005
Short-circuit transients R-L transients Math
AC power system (equivalent) Solve L di(t) + Ri(t) = 2E sin(t + ) with i(0) = 0

dt
R L
i(t) = istationary (t) + itransient (t) = iAC (t) + iDC (t)
i(t) 2E
i AC (t) = sin(t + ) Sinusoidal
E(t) = 2E sin(t + ) SW Z
t
2E
iDC (t) = sin( )e Exponential
T
Z
SW closes at t=0 Z = R2 + (L)2 ; = tan1(L / R); T = L / R
Determine i(t) Demo
Electric Power Systems- Olof Samuelsson 2005 Electric Power Systems- Olof Samuelsson 2005
R-L transients Power eng. Exponential component
Avoid dependence t Depends on initial condition
Use worst case: =(-/2) 2E T
iDC (t) = e Different in the three phases
Avoid instantaneous values Z
Asymmetrical current
Use rms: IAC=E/Z
Treat IDC as constant Slow decay for high L/R (low losses)
Increases peak current
+ [I DC (t)] = I AC + [ 2I AC et /T ]
2
I RMS (t) = I AC
2 2 2
IRMS up to 3 IAC
2t R 4
= I AC 1+ 2e2 t /T =2 =
T f L X/R
K()
Generator during fault Flux paths during short-circuit

Short-circuit of unloaded generator
i (t ) = iAC ( t ) + iDC (t )
iDC decays with armature time constant TA

Short-circuit gives fixed magnetic field ms s
Lentz law: rotor opposes flux changes a) Subtransient: Screening by damper and field wdg
b) Transient: Screening by field wdg
iAC reflects screening due to flux change
c) Steady state: No screening
Air in path reduces inductance!

E and X during short-circuit Currents during short-circuit
a) Eq behind d-axis subtransient reatance Xd
Subtransient fault current I
b) Eq behind d-axis transient reactance Xd AC current envelopes
c) Eq behind d-axis synchronous reactance Xd
Xd<Xd<Xd
Transient fault current I
Note: Textbook uses Eq=Eq=Eq =Eg here Efm
Steady-state fault current I
Time constants Short-circuit current

t

t
Subtransient and transient currents decay 1 1 "
1 Td' 1
Td 1
i AC (t) = 2Eg " ' e + ' e + sin t +
Subtransient time constant Td Xd Xd Xd Xd Xd 2

Transient time constant Td t t
2Eg TA
idcmax (t) = e = 2I " TA
e
X d"
Short-circuit peak currents Network during fault
I" =
Eg Standard simplifications to find I
Max AC current
Xd" Transformers: Only Xeq, no phase shift
t
2Eg T 2Eg Transmission lines: Only series reactance
Max DC current " e
A = = 2I " at t=0
Xd Xd" Generators: Eg behind Xd
no saliency, Ra or saturation
Large motors: Like generators
( 2I" ) =
2
Max total current I "2 + 3I "
Small motors: Neglected
Non-rotating loads: Neglected
3-phase short-circuit: Currents 3-phase short-circuit: Thvenin

I I IPrefault IF
ZTH ZTH
IF
+ + + ISC IF
V V
System = System F= System F+ System VTH VF=VTH

V sources V +
+ F at 0 + F
Fault current I = Iprefault + IF ISC=VTH/ZTH IF =VF/ZTH=VTH/ZTH
Prefault current often neglected Thvenin gives only IF

VF often assumed same at all buses
Delta-wye transformation 3-phase short-circuit: Voltages
Voltage during fault V = Prefault voltage VF + V
ZAB=impedance bus A - bus B
ZA=impedance bus A - star point Short-circuit = Current injection IF at fault bus
First use ZBUS to find IF
Then use ZBUS and IF to find V
Two-bus example Generalize example

Z11 Z12 Fault at bus 1
ZBUS =
Z21 Z22 Fault at bus n
Fault current: I1=IF=VF/Z11
V1 I1 Fault current: In=IF=VF/Znn
= Z BUS Vector of injections: [IF 0]T Visualization
V2 I2 Vector of injections: [0 IF0]T
Voltage changes: V=ZBUS[IF 0] of ZBUS for
V1 V2 V1 Z11I F Z11 / Z11 general Voltage change at bus k:
I1 I2
= = VF system?
V2 Z12 I F Z12 / Z11 Vk = Zkn IF = Zkn / Znn VF
Z11Z12 Z22Z21
V1 VF + V1 Vk = VF + Vk = (1 Zkn / Znn )VF
=
Z12=Z21 V2 VF + V2
Visualizing general ZBUS Summary
Two-bus system N-bus system
I1 I2
RL transients include exponential DC offset
Synchronous generator
V1 V2 V1 V2 VN
I1 I2 RL behaviour
Z11
Z12
Z22 Z11 Z12 Z22 Z2N ZNN Flux paths give decaying AC
Z1N Subtransient, transient, synchronous X
Short-circuit in network
Rake equivalent Fault current with/without prefault current
in textbook Voltages at all buses
Unsymmetry Outline
Single phase representation

OK at symmetry
SLG fault not symmetrical
Sequence components
SLG fault current
Sequence models
Single-line to ground short-circuit:

Tractor
Electric Power drives into
Systems- Olof 10 kV2005
Samuelsson line 1 Electric Power Systems- Olof Samuelsson 2005 2
Symmetry or balance Unbalance

~
~
Impedances same in all phases ~
Currents and voltages Components designed for symmetry

Same magnitude Single-phase loads give unbalance
120 between phases
Faults often unbalanced
Single phase representation Single-phase to ground short-circuit (SLG)
LG voltage: Iline, S3=3xS Phase-to-phase short-circuit (LL)
LL voltage: Iline3, S3=S Two-phases to ground short-circuit (LLG)
Open-circuit on one or two phases
Electric Power Systems- Olof Samuelsson 2005 3 Electric Power Systems- Olof Samuelsson 2005 4
Unsymmetry New coordinates
Equivalent wye-phase not valid Sequence domain [V0 V1 V2] T=Vs
Must work with all three phases Sequence components not coupled
Phase domain [Va Vb Vc]T=Vp Equivalent wye-phase valid
g a b c Self impedances on diagonal
V0 ZY + 3Zn 0 0 I 0 Zero-sequence: affects neutral
Ia Ib Ic Mutual impedances couple phases V1 = 0 ZY 0 I1 Positive-sequence: + rotation
ZY V 0
2 0 ZY I 2 Negative-sequence: - rotation
n
Vag ZY + Zn Zn Zn Ia Vs = Zs I s
Zn V = Z ZY + Zn Zn Ib Vp = Z p I p
bg

n Diagonal matrix
Vcg Zn Zn ZY + Zn Ic
ZY+3Zn, ZY and ZY are eigenvalues!
Change of coordinates Sequence networks

I0
Vp = AVs Vs = A1Vp
Zero- +
1 1 1 1 1 1 sequence V0
1 1
A = 1 a 2 a A = 1 a
1
a2 = A * network
1 a 3 3 General three-phase bus
a 2 1 a
2
a I1
j
2 Positive- +
a=e 3
a = a * 1+ a + a = 0
2 2
sequence V1
network Balanced system
Transformation matrix A I2 Networks uncoupled
Columns are eigenvectors! Negative- +
Fourier matrix sequence V2
network
In formula sheet
Thvenin equivalents Symmetrical conditions
Z0 I0
Zero- + Voltage sources Only positive sequence
sequence V0
network 0 and 2: none No current in zero and negative seq networks
Z1 I1 1: VF prefault voltage Single line diagram is positive sequence!
Positive- + +
sequence VF V1 Symmetry Equivalent wye phase is positive seq.!
network 0, 1, 2 uncoupled Z1=phase impedance
Z2 I2
+ I0=I2=0 V1=line-line voltage
Negative-
sequence V2 I1=VF/Z1 I1=3 x line current
network
V12/Z1=Three-phase power
Positive sequence Negative sequence components

a
Set of three phasors b Set of three phasors
c 2
Column 2 of A matrix: 1 a* a Column 3 of A matrix: 1 a a*
45
Equal magnitude 45 Equal magnitude
c 1
120 phase difference a 120 phase difference
Positive rotation/torque Negative phase order
b
Phase order a b c Negative rotation/torque
V1 = 2e j / 4 Index 1 V2 = 1e j / 4 Phase order a c b
E7.1 E7.2
Index 2
Zero sequence components Sequence components
Set of three phasors Components sets of three phasors

abc
Column 1 of A matrix: 1 1 1 All components are symmetric
0.5 90
Equal magnitude Equivalent wye-phase is valid
Same phase
Positive sequence dominates
Common mode
Symmetry special case V0=V2=0
Current in neutral: In=3I0
Va=V0+V1+V2 and V0=(Va+Vb+Vc)/3
V0 = 0.5e j / 2 Index 0
E7.3
Matlab animations Sequence component models

Load: Z1=Z2=ZY=Zself- Zmutual
Rotating phasors
Z0=ZY+3Zn=Zself+2Zmutual
Real part = instantaneous value
Line: Like load
Sequence components
Generator: Z0, Z1, Z2 different
Each seq comp set of three phasors
Va=V0+V1+V2 VF in pos. seq.
V0=(Va+Vb+Vc)/3
No other voltage sources than VF
Ungrounded: Zn= so Z0= open-circuit
Sequence transformer model Bolted three-phase fault
Z0 I0
Positive seq: Z1=Zeq Zero- +
Negative seq: Z2=Zeq negative phase shift sequence V0 Fault conditions
network Vag=Vbg=Vcg=0
Zero seq: Delta-winding Zn= open-circuit Z1 I1 V0=V1=V2=0
Positive- + + Draw this!
sequence VF V1 Solve!
Zn1 Zn2 Zn network I0=I2=0
Z2 I2 I1=VF/Z1
Negative- + Transform back
3Zn1 Zeq 3Zn2 3Zn Zeq Zeq
sequence V2
network
Ex9.1 Ex9.2
Single-line to ground fault Translate fault conditions

c
b Ic I0 1 1 1 Ia Ia
Ib 1
I1 = 1 a 1
a 0 = I a
a
Ia Ib=Ic=0
2
I0=I1=I2=Ia/3
+ I 3 1 a 2 a 0
3
+ 2 Ia
+
ZF Vag Vbg Vcg
g

Vag 1 1 1 V0
Fault conditions in phase domain: Vag=ZFIa V = 1 a 2 a V1 (V0+V1+V2)=ZF3I1
bg

Vag=ZFIa
Vcg 1 a a 2 V2
Ib=Ic=0
Single line-ground fault SLG fault: Voltages at fault
Z0 I0
Fault conditions Sequence impedances and currents known
Zero- + I0=I1=I2
sequence V0 (V0+V1+V2)=ZF3I1 Prefault voltage known
network
Draw this!
Z1 I1
Series connect
One equation for each sequence network
Positive- + + Connect ZF
3ZF V0 0 Z0 0 0 I0
sequence VF V1 Solve! V1 = VF 0 0 I1
network VF Z1
I1 = V 0 0
Z2 I2 Z0 + Z1 + Z2 + 3ZF 2 0 Z2 I2
Negative- +
Transform back
sequence V2 3VF Transform back to phase domain
network Ia =
Z0 + Z1 + Z2 + 3ZF
Ex9.3
Fault currents using Zbus Fault voltages using Zbus

One Zbus for each sequence Voltage at bus k for fault at bus n
Set up Zbus0, Zbus1, Zbus2
Use diagonal elements to calculate Ifault Vk 0 0 Zkn 0 0 0 In 0
Vk 1 = VF 0 Zkn 1 0 In 1
See also formula sheet
V 0 0 Zkn 2 In 2
k2 0
SLG fault at bus n
VF
In 0 = In 1 = In 2 =
Znn 0 + Znn 1 + Znn 2 + 3ZF
Summary
Sequence components
Alternative coordinates to three-phase
Sequences decoupled except at fault bus
Calculating unsymmetrical fault current
Fault conditions to sequence domain
Solve in sequence domain
Back to phase domain
One Zbus for each sequence
Electric Power Systems- Olof Samuelsson 2005 25
Two-phase faults Outline
Line-line fault current

Line-line-ground fault current
Short-circuit between different phases on two

busbars led Systems-
Electric Power to 2003 Swedish2005
Olof Samuelsson blackout 1 Electric Power Systems- Olof Samuelsson 2005 2
Thvenin equivalents Line to line fault

Z0 I0
Zero- + Voltage sources c
b Ic
sequence V0 a Ib
network 0 and 2: none Ia
Z1 I1 1: VF prefault voltage +
+ ZF
Positive- + + +
sequence VF V1 Symmetrical fault Vag Vbg Vcg
network 0, 1, 2 uncoupled g

Z2 I2
+ I0=I2=0 Fault conditions in phase domain:
Negative-
V2 I1=VF/Z1 Vbg-Vcg=ZFIb
sequence
Ia=0
network
Ib=-Ic
Translate fault conditions Line to line fault
Z0 I0 Fault conditions
Zero- +
I0 1 1 1 0 0 I0=0, I1= I2
Ia=0 1 a a2 sequence V0
I1 = 1 a a 2 Ib = I b I0=0 network
V1V2=ZFI1
Ib= Ic I 3 1 a 2 3 I I1= I2
2 a Ib b Z1 I1
Draw this!
Positive- + +
Vag 1 1 1 V0 sequence VF V1
VbgVcg=ZFIb V = 1 a 2 Solve!
a V1 network ZF VF
bg
I1 = I2 =
Vcg 1 a a 2 V2 Z2 I2 Z1 + Z2 + ZF
Negative- +
Transform back
(a 2
a)V1 (a 2 a )V2 = ZF (a 2 a )I1 V1V2=ZFI1
sequence V2
Ib =
(a 2 a)VF
=
j 3VF
network
Z1 + Z2 + ZF Z1 + Z2 + ZF
Double line to ground fault Translate fault conditions

Phase Sequence
b
c
Ic domain Ia 1 1 1 I0 domain
a Ib Ia=0 Ib = 1 a 2 a I1 I0+I1+I2=0
Ia
I 1 a a 2 I2
+ c
+
+
Vag ZF bg=Vcg
V
Vbg=Vcg Vag 1 1 1 V0 V1=V2
g
Vbg=ZF(Ib+Ic) V = 1 a 2 a V1 V0V1=3ZFI0
bg

a 2 V2
Fault conditions in phase domain:
Vbg=Vcg=ZF(Ib+Ic) Vcg 1 a
Ia=0
Double line to ground fault Procedure
Z0 I0 Fault conditions
Zero- + I0+I1+I2=0
sequence V0 Express fault conditions in phase domain
3ZF V1=V2
network Transform to sequence domain
V0V1=3ZFI0
Z1 I1
Draw this!
Positive- + + Draw corresponding sequence circuit
sequence VF V1
network
Solve!
VF
Calculate sequence fault currents
I1 =
Z2 I2 Z1 + [Z2 //(Z0 + 3ZF )] (Calculate sequence fault voltages)
Negative- +
Transform back Transform to phase currents/voltages
sequence V2
network
Distributed generation Overview
impact on the power system
What is DG?
Power quality
Power balance and markets
Dispatch and frequency control
Requirements on future DG units
Protection
Wind power Microturbine Island operation
Olof Samuelsson, IEA, LTH 2
What is DG? Impact of DG on power system

Distributed Generation Power Quality - at each unit
Power production in distribution network Starting and stopping
Usually small-scale Flicker from tower shadow effect
Often but not necessarily renewable
Single windpower units and small-scale
Power balance - at large penetration
Combined Heat and Power (CHP) Non dispatchable, must run units
Wind farms Uncontrolled, negative loads
Centralized generation not DG Wind power production hard to predict
Results here still apply Protection - of network and units
Windpower 2001
Olof Samuelsson, IEA, LTH 3 Olof Samuelsson, IEA, LTH 4
Power Quality Power balance and markets
Main market
Power Quality - at each unit 1 h, 24 h ahead, predicted load
Starting and stopping Balance market
Flicker from tower shadow effect <1h, 1 h ahead
Actual load
Control market
0h, 24 h ahead
Automatic frequency control
Reserve capacity for outages
Load in western Denmark Operation of CHP units 1

48 weeks
Heat demand
Heat primary product
1 week
Electric power byproduct
winter CHP unit schedule
Heat production follows temperature
summer
Power production non-dispatchable
Load is predictable, error few %

Operation of CHP units 2 Operation of wind power plants 1
Heat accumulators introduced Operated for max output
Heat can be produced at any time Production extremely weather bound
Eltra tariff controls power production Shutdown at maximum wind speed
Real data
from E.ON
[Leonhard]
Operation of wind power plants 2 Power balance and dispatch

Wind variations With dispatchable plants
Faster than load variations Dispatch equals predicted load
More irregular than load variations Control reserves to handle error
Wind prediction difficult Export/import usually planned
Large prediction errors in MW or h With DG added
Increased need for regulating power Tariff makes CHP predictable
20% of installed windpower (DK) Control reserves to handle wind+error
Units must run on part load Export/import at surplus/lack of power
Transmission capacity may be limited
Eltra example: Low wind Eltra example: High wind
Central units Central units
CHP CHP
Wind Wind
Export Export
Wind Wind
Load Load
Load-wind Load-wind
Svenska Kraftnt Frequency dynamics

10 TWh goal 2015 gives 4000 MW
4000 MW windpower
2000 MW regulating capacity needed
If in the North
Transmission system must be reinforced
Doubles transmission tariff
If in the South
No system reinforcement necessary
Feedforward control Feedback control
Frequency dynamics with DG Balance responsibility
Transmission system operator
Svenska Kraftnt, Eltra, E.ON
More difficult with windpower
Load minus windpower to be balanced
Windpower replaces thermal units
Fewer units must do more!
Wind varies faster than load New requirements on DG units
Reduced frequency quality expected More like conventional plants
Requirements: Tripping Extreme voltage protection

Voltage/%
AMP
Low penetration: Tripping local issue 120
2001
Enables automatic reclosing
106 Recommendation
Network owner issues requirements
Trip delay
Sensitive protection good 90
80 Svenska Kraftnt
High penetration: Tripping system issue
2002
TSO requires generator capacity on-line
25
Requirement
TSO issues requirements
Stay on-line
Sensitive protection not good 0.2 0.25 0.75 60
t/s
Continuous
Extreme frequency protection Requirements: Control
Frequency/Hz
AMP
55 MW output reduction to 20% maximum
2001
Reduced In 2 s (Eltra) and 5 s (Svenska Kraftnt)
output
Recommendation
Trip delay Windfarm participation in f control
51 All (Eltra) and >20 MW (Svenska Kraftnt)
Svenska Kraftnt
2002 Manual control of windfarms >20 MW
49
48 Requirement Real/reactive power (Svenska Kraftnt)
95% of rated On-line/off-line (Svenska Kraftnt)
47.5 Stay on-line
t/s
0.5 s >30 min Continuous
Requirements:
The wind farm at Horns rev
Communications
is a power station with obligations to

the power system (Eltra)
is designed to meet Eltra requirements
Control reserves imply part load Network protection
Hydro power units on part load Today
Maximum efficiency well below max output Radial single fault current infeed
Nondirectional protection, fuses
Perfect as control reserve
With DG
Thermal units on part load
Multiple fault current infeed
Maximum efficiency near max output Directional protection needed
Wind power units on part load Also with meshed distribution network
Energy lost avoid! Island operation
Low fault currents
Island operation Active network

Today: Top-down
Ultimate challenge
Generation and control in transmission
All system functions needed
Bottom-up instead
Control
Generation and control in distribution
Power balance and frequency control
Voltage control Designed for island operation
Normal situation
Protection
Connection with other islands
Supervision
Automation and power electronics
Automation replaces control centres
Market functions
Conclusions
Power Quality
DG affects power balance
Weather important factor
Transmission critical
TSO requirements on DG
Protection revised
Island operation a challenge
Alternative network design
Olof Samuelsson, IEA, LTH 29

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Electric Power Systems - Synthèse Version 1

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Welcome to

Electric Power Systems 2005 This lecture

1. Two types damage or instability

About the course

Blackout in New York

Olof Samuelsson 2005 3 Olof Samuelsson 2005 4

Olof Samuelsson 2005 5 Olof Samuelsson 2005 6

Sweden 23 September 2003 Starting point

Voltage collapse (instability) Import from Danmark

Restoration time 1.5-6.5 h

Olof Samuelsson 2005 7 Olof Samuelsson 2005 8

12:37 Voltage collapse

Olof Samuelsson 2005 9 Olof Samuelsson 2005 10

Pantograph type disconnector

USA 14 August 2003 System split into islands

Olof Samuelsson 2005 15 Olof Samuelsson 2005 16

Olof Samuelsson 2005 17 Olof Samuelsson 2005 18

Italy blackout Famous instability blackouts

Events at fault Detect fault current

Olof Samuelsson 2005 23 Olof Samuelsson 2005 24

For small current

Interrupt current Circuit breaker

Olof Samuelsson 2005 27 Olof Samuelsson 2005 28

Olof Samuelsson 2005 29 Olof Samuelsson 2005 30

For Evaluation Only.

Olof Samuelsson 2005 31 Olof Samuelsson 2005 32

For Evaluation Only.

Olof Samuelsson 2005 37 Olof Samuelsson 2005 38

A course module Learning sequence

Olof Samuelsson 2005 43 Olof Samuelsson 2005 44

Source: Lakervi & Holmes

Olof Samuelsson 2005 45 Olof Samuelsson 2005 46

Substation functions Single line diagram symbols

Source: Lakervi & Holmes

Olof Samuelsson 2005 49 Olof Samuelsson 2005 50

Per unit normalization Per unit base values

Generators on component base Conclusions

Balanced three-phase system Example: Network equations

Same magnitude in all phases

Same complex value in all phases

Ybus properties Bus impedance matrix Zbus

Line model single phase Transposed line

<300km Nominal circuit lumped par.

X series reactance [] Pout Pout

The power transformer Ideal single-phase transformer

Transformer phase shift Transformer model

Off-nominal turns ratio Voltages and currents

12 (Y-D transformer) V1 p.u. = cV2 p.u. V1/V2=(I2/I 1)*=c

n1 n2 Parallel operation I2=c*I 1

I1 Yeq cYeq V1 Yeq = 1/ Zeq c + 1 c c 1 c

The synchronous generator Rotor

DC current through slip rings

Rotation => sinusoidal waveform

Synchronous generator torque Power at steady state

Maximum torque at 90 angle difference Vertical (EqV/Xd)sin=VIcos=Pe

Load Power through inductance

P12=(V12 /Z)cos-(V1V2/Z)cos(1-2+) Q21=V22 /X-(V1V2/X)cos(2-1)

Ybus compact network model

Real and reactive power P & Q Power through inductance

The load flow problem Power balance at each bus

Three equation types Example: Load flow 1

Unknowns: x=[2 3 V3]T Iterative solution of

Scalar N-R example Example: Load flow 3

Disconnecting line 1999-12-03 Sweden