Introduction

Heat transfer equipment are found to be useful in a wide range of industries. They can be broadly
defined as equipment used for transfer of heat from a hot medium to cold medium. The design engineer
should be acquainted with the many different types of equipment employed for this operation. Although
relatively few engineers are involved in the manufacture of heat exchangers, many engineers are directly
concerned with specifying and purchasing heat-transfer equipment. Process design considerations,
therefore, are of particular importance to those persons who must decide which piece of equipment is
suitable for a given process.

SHELL AND TUBE EXCHANGER

The shell and tube exchanger is by far the most commonly used type of heat-transfer
equipment used in the chemical and allied industries. Essentially, a shell and tube exchanger
consists of a bundle of tubes enclosed in a cylindrical shell. The ends of the tubes are fitted into
tube sheets, which separate the shell-side and tube-side fluids. Baffles are provided in the shell to
direct the fluid flow and support the tubes. Support rods and spacers hold the assembly of baffles
and tubes together.

Exchanger Types:
1) Fixed Tube Sheet
Simplest and cheapest type of shell and tube exchanger
Disadvantage: tube bundle cannot be removed for cleaning and there is no provision for
differential expansion of the shell and tubes
Limited to temperature differences up to about 80 and low shell pressure; up to
about 8 bar
2) U tube (U bundle type)
Requires only one tube sheet and is cheaper than the floating head types
Limited in use to relatively clean fluids as the tubes and bundle are difficult to clean
3) Exchangers with Internal Floating Head
More versatile than fixed head and U-tube exchangers
Suitable for high temperature differentials
Easier to clean and can be used for fouling liquids
4) External Floating Head Design
Floating head joint is located outside the shell, and the shell sealed with a sliding
gland joint employing a stuffing box
Shell side pressure is usually limited to about 20 bar
Flammable or toxic materials should not be used on the shell side

Heat Exchanger Standards and Codes

British Standard, BS 3274, covers the mechanical design features, fabrication, materials of
construction, and testing of shell and tube exchanger. The standards of the American Tubular Heat
Exchanger Manufacturers Association, the TEMA standards, are also universally used.

General Design Considerations

Fluid allocation: shell or tubes

Where no phase change occurs, the following factors will determine the allocation of
the fluid streams to the shell or tubes.

Corrosion. The more corrosive fluid should be allocated to the tube-side. This will reduce the
cost of expensive alloy or clad components.

Fouling. The fluid that has the greatest tendency to foul the heat-transfer surfaces should be
placed in the tubes. This will give better control over the design fluid velocity, and the higher
allowable velocity in the tubes will reduce fouling. Also, the tubes will be easier to clean.

Fluid temperatures. If the temperatures are high enough to require the use of special alloys
placing the higher temperature fluid in the tubes will reduce the overall cost. At moderate
temperatures, placing the hotter fluid in the tubes will reduce the shell surface temperatures,
and hence the need for lagging to reduce heat loss, or for safety reasons.

Operating pressures. The higher-pressure stream should be allocated to the tube-side. High-
pressure tubes will be cheaper than a high-pressure shell.

Pressure drop. For the same pressure drop, higher heat-transfer coefficients will be obtained
on the tube-side than the shell-side, and fluid with the lowest allowable pressure drop should
be allocated to the tube-side.

Viscosity. Generally, a higher heat-transfer coefficient will be obtained by allocating the more
viscous material to the shell-side, providing the flow is turbulent. The critical Reynolds number
for turbulent flow in the shell is in the region of 200.

Stream flow-rates. Allocating the fluids with the lowest flow-rate to the shell-side will normally
give the most economical design.

Shell and tube fluid velocities

High velocities will give high heat-transfer coefficients but also a high-pressure drop.
The velocity must be high enough to prevent any suspended solids settling, but not so high as
to cause erosion. High velocities will reduce fouling. Typical design velocities are given below:

Liquids
Tube-side:
Process fluids: 1 to 2 m/s, maximum 4 m/s if required to reduce fouling
Water: 1.5 to 2.5 m/s
 Shell-side: 0.3 to 1 m/s
Vapors
For vapors, the velocity used will depend on the operating pressure and fluid density;
the lower values in the ranges given below will apply to high molecular weight materials.

Vacuum 50 to 70 m/s
Atmospheric Pressure 10 to 30 m/s
High Pressure 5 to 10 m/s
Stream temperatures
The closer the temperature approach used (the difference between the outlet
temperature of one stream and the inlet temperature of the other stream) the larger will be the
heat-transfer area required for a given duty. The optimum value will depend on the application,
and can only be determined by making an economic analysis of alternative designs.
As a general guide the greater temperature difference should be at least 20 ,
and the least temperature difference 5 to 7 for coolers using cooling water, and 3 to 5
using refrigerated brines.

Pressure drop
In many applications the pressure drop available to drive the fluids through the
exchanger will be set by the process conditions, and the available pressure drop will vary from
a few millibars in vacuum service to several bars in pressure systems.

When the designer is free to select the pressure drop an economic analysis can be
made to determine the exchanger design which gives the lowest operating costs, taking into
consideration both capital and pumping costs. However, a full economic analysis will only be
justified for very large, expensive, exchangers.

Fluid physical properties

The fluid physical properties required for heat-exchanger design are: density,
viscosity, thermal conductivity and temperature-enthalpy correlations (specific and latent
heats).

In the correlations used to predict heat-transfer coefficients, the physical properties are usually
evaluated at the mean stream temperature. This is satisfactory when the temperature change is small, but
can cause a significant error when the change in temperature is large. In these circumstances, a simple,
and safe, procedure is to evaluate the heat-transfer coefficients at the stream inlet and outlet temperatures
and use the lower one of the two values.
 Baffle assembly
Welding the shell

Inserting tubes
Tube sheet

Source: Bos-Hatten Inc.: www.Bos-Hatten.com

Final product
 Shell and Tube Exchanger Construction

REBOILERS
Reboilers
- used primarily to provide boil up for distillation and similar towers
- All types perform partial vaporization of a stream flowing under natural or forced circulation conditions.
THREE PRINCIPAL TYPES OF REBOILER USED
TYPES DIAGRAM FUNCTIONS
The fluid is pumped through the
exchanger, and the vapour formed is
Forced Circulation separated in the base of the column.
Can be designed with horizontal or
vertical tubes
Figure 1.
Vertical exchangers with vaporization
in the tubes, or horizontal
exchangers with vaporization in the
shell.
Thermosyphon the liquid circulation occurs due to
Natural Circulation density difference between vapor-
liquid mixture (two phase) in the
exchanger from the reboiler and the
Figure 2.
liquid through the downcomer to the
reboiler
called a submerged bundle
reboiler
Boiling takes place on tubes
immersed in a pool of liquid.
Kettle type
No circulation of liquid through the
(submerged bundle
exchanger.
reboiler) In the design for the isothermal
boiling, it is assumed that the
Figure 3.
degree of sub-cooling and super-
heating of the cold fluid is negligible.
Choice of type
The choice of the best type of reboiler or vaporizer for a given duty will depend on the following factors:
1. The nature of the process fluid, particularly its viscosity and propensity to fouling.
2. The operating pressure: vacuum or pressure.
3. The equipment layout, particularly the headroom available.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF REBOILERS
TYPE OF
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
REBOILER
especially suitable for handling a pump is required and the
viscous and heavily fouling pumping cost will be high
there is the danger that
process fluids
Forced the circulation rate is predictable leakage of hot fluid will occur
Circulation and high velocities can be used at the pump seal (canned-
suitable for low vacuum rotor type pumps can be
operations, and for low rates of specified to avoid the
vaporization possibility of leakage)
not suitable for high viscosity
fluids or high vacuum
operation
increase cost of the column
Thermosyphon most economical type for most
supporting-structure because
Reboilers applications
the column base must be
elevated to provide the
hydrostatic head required for
the thermosyphon effect
Horizontal vs require less headroom than
Vertical vertical have a more complex
Thermosyphon more easily maintained than pipework
Reboilers vertical
have a lower heat-transfer
suitable for vacuum operation, coefficients than the other
and for high rates of types
Kettle Reboilers
vaporization, up to 80 per cent not suitable for fouling
of the feed materials, and have a high
residence time

VAPORIZERS
devices which heat and vaporize a working fluid
similar to industrial boilers except that they do not build up high pressures.
Vaporizer units are most commonly used for low pressure heat transfer by incorporating the
vaporized stream as the heat exchange fluid.
Features and Auxiliary Equipment
In some applications, it may be important to consider whether a vaporizer incorporates certain features or
auxiliary equipment.
Condensate pumps are installed to provide the option to pump excess fluid or collected condensate
back into the vaporizer system.

Gravity return indicates that the vaporizer does not require a pump to move the condensed fluid
back through the system loop.

Hartford loops are plumbing designs used in most vaporizer systems to prevent liquid from flowing
in the wrong direction due to gravity.

Level controllers and level gauges are used to monitor and control liquid levels in the vaporizer tank.

Power controllers are used to control power (voltage and/or current) supplied to the vaporizer
system.

Removable elements allow parts to be replaced without the need for draining the system of fluid
first, making maintenance and repair less time consuming and expensive.

Standards
Industrial vaporizers should adhere to various standards set by the American Society of Mechanical
Engineers (ASME). These standards are meant to ensure equipment is designed to perform safely and
efficiently. Industrial vaporizers may also be registered with the National Board of Boiler and Pressure
Vessel Inspectors for further proof of reliable construction.
GENERAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
A typical layout is shown below:
Tube arrangement (triangular or square pitch)- will not have a significant effect on the heat-transfer
coefficient.
Tube pitch- between 1.5 to 2.0 times the tube outside diameter should be used to avoid vapour
blanketing.
Long thin bundles-more efficient than short fat bundles
Shell- sized to give adequate space for the disengagement of the vapour and liquid
Shell diameter- depend on the heat flux.
The following values can be used as a guide:

The freeboard- between the liquid level and shell should be at least 0.25 m.
When Low rate of vaporization is required- a vertical cylindrical vessel with a heating jacket or
coils should be considered. The boiling coefficients for internal submerged coils can be estimated
using the equations for nucleate pool boiling.

PLATE HEAT EXCHANGERS

 The size of plate heat exchangers can vary from very small to very large (0.03-1500 m 2). The
maximum flow rate of fluid is limited to around 2500 m3/h.

Types of Plate Heat Exchangers

1. Gasketed Plate
provides efficient heat transfer in compact equipment with small footprint
have flexible design and are easy to maintain
Applications
used extensively in the food and beverage industries
For heating, cooling, heat recovery, evaporation and condensation in industries
For evaporation, engine cooling, dairy and food chemical processing, oil production and
power generation
Design Specifications
consist of a stack of closely spaced thin plates clamped together in a frame
plates are normally between 0.5 and 3 mm thick and the gap between them 1.5 to 5 m
Plate surface areas range from 0.03 to 1.5 m2, with plate width: length ratio from 2.0-3.0
The size of plate heat exchangers can vary from very small, 0.03m2, to very large, 1500m2
The maximum flow-rate of fluid is limited to around 2500 m3/h.
Plates are available in a wide range of metals and alloys; including stainless steel, aluminum
and titanium
Advantages
Low approach temps can be used, as low as 1 C, compared with 5 to 10 C for shell and tube
Plate heat exchangers are more flexible, it is easy to add extra plates.
Plate heat exchangers are more suitable for highly viscous materials.
The temperature correction factor, Ft, will normally be higher with plate heat exchangers, as
the flow is closer to true counter-current flow.
Fouling tends to be significantly less in plate heat exchangers.
Disadvantages
A plate is not a good shape to resist pressure and plate heat exchangers are not suitable for
pressures greater than about 30 bar.
The maximum operating temperature is limited to about 250C, due to the performance of the
available gasket materials.

2. Plate-fin Figure 4. Gasketed Plate Heat Exchanger Diagram

 consist essentially of plates separated by corrugated sheets, which form the fins
They are made up in a block and are often referred to as matrix exchangers.
They are usually constructed of aluminum and joined and sealed by brazing.
Applications
Cryogenics industries, such as air separation plants, where large heat transfer surface areas
are needed.
Chemical processes industry, where large surface area, compact, exchangers are required.
Design Specifications
It is not possible to give exact design methods for plate heat exchangers. They are
proprietary designs, and will normally be specified in consultation with manufacturers.

Figure 5. Gasketed Plate Heat Exchanger Diagram

3. Welded Plate Exchangers

use plates similar to those in gasketed plate heat exchangers but the plate edges are sealed by
welding.

retain the advantages of plate heat exchangers (compact size and good rates of heat transfer)
whilst giving security against leakage

obvious disadvantage is that the exchangers cannot be dismantled for cleaning

4. Spiral heat exchanger

can be considered as a plate heat exchanger in which the plates are formed into a spiral. The
fluids flow through the channels formed between the plates.

give true counter-current flow and can be used where the temperature correction factor for a
shell and tube heat exchanger would be too low

easily cleaned and the turbulence in the channels is high, thus, can be used for very dirty
process fluids and slurries

maximum design pressure is 150 psi because the turns of the spiral are of relatively large
diameter

For smaller diameters, however, the design pressure may sometimes be higher. Limitations of
the material of construction govern design temperatures.

Flow patterns: (1) both fluids in spiral flow, (2) one fluid in spiral flow and the other in axial flow
across the spiral, and (3) one fluid in spiral flow and the other in a combination of axial and spiral
flow.
 Flow are both spiral and axial Spiral Flow in both channels

Combination flow used to condensed vapors

Air Cooled Heat Exchanger

A. GENERAL

Air cooled exchangers are usually composed of rectangular bundles containing several rows of tubes
on a triangular pitch. Heat transfer is generally countercurrent, the hot fluid entering the top of the bundle
and air flowing vertically upward through the bundle. Since air is a universal coolant, there are numerous
applications where economic and operating advantages are favorable to air-cooled heat transfer
equipment. However, applications are limited to cases where the ambient air dry bulb temperature is below
the desired cooling or condensing temperature.
- should be considered when cooling water is in short supply or expensive
- consist of banks of finned tubes over which air is blown or drawn by fans mounted below or above the
tubes (forced or induced draft).

B. HORIZONTAL TYPE

Unless otherwise specified, the horizontal type is preferred.

C. FANS

1. Number of Fans
At least two fans shall be provided for each bay. Any deviation from this requirement will need
the prior approval of the Company.
2. Fans in Various Duties
Where, for reasons of control, an air-cooled heat exchanger has to be provided with automatic
variable-pitch fans, as in the case of overhead condensers, it shall not share its fans with air-cooled
heat exchangers on other duties, for example product run-down coolers.
3. Types
 3.1 Two general classifications of air-cooler fans are: a. forced draft type where air is pushed across the
tube bundle; b. induced draft type where air is pulled through the bundle.
3.2 Forced draft should be selected for all normal applications. Amongst other reasons, the accessibility
of fans, actuators and drives is much better for maintenance and there is thus a strong preference for
this arrangement.
4. Recommendations
a. Induced-draft units should be used whenever hot-air recirculation is a potentially critical problem.
b. Forced-draft units should be used whenever the design requires pour-point protection, or
winterization. However, consideration of possible summer recirculation must be accounted for in sizing
the fans to minimize this effect.

D. RUST PREVENTION
The structural parts can be galvanized or pickled and painted to prevent rusting of the steel.

E. OPERATING TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE

The maximum anticipated process operating temperature will be indicated on the Process Data Sheet.
Air Coolers shall be designed for a temperature at least 28C above the maximum anticipated temperature.
The maximum anticipated operating pressure, which shall include an allowance for variations in the normal
operating pressure which can be expected to occur, will be indicated on the Air Cooler Specification Sheet.
Except for air coolers operating under a vacuum, the internal design pressure shall be 10% greater than the
specified maximum operating pressure, but in no case shall the difference be less than 2 bar (200 kPa).
The headers on air coolers operating under a vacuum shall be designed for a minimum external pressure
of 1 bar (100 kPa) unless otherwise speci fied. Design pressures shall be indicated on the Process Data
Sheet.

F. AIR-SIDE DESIGN
General Requirements
1. Such environmental factors as weather, terrain, mounting, and the presence of adjacent buildings
and equipment influence the air-side performance of an air-cooled heat exchanger. The purchaser shall
supply the Vendor with all environmental factors pertinent to the design of the exchanger. These factors
shall be taken into account in the air-side design.
2. Air Coolers shall be designed for summer and winter conditions. The summer and winter design air
temperatures and humidities shall be specified in the job specifications.
3. For winter design conditions the minimum tube wall temperature shall be at least 22C higher than
pour point temperature for both normal and minimum design througout.
4. Proper fouling resistance shall be applied to the inside surface of the tube. All heat transfer surfaces
and coefficients shall be based on total effective outside tube and fin surface.
5. When calculating heat transfer coefficients, the inside fouling and inside fluid film resistance shall be
multiplied by the ratio of the total effective outside surface to the total effective inside surface.
 6. The effective tube wall and fin metal resistance shall be included in calculating heat transfer
coefficients.
7. Pressure drops shall not exceed the maximum allowed values specified. These indicate the total
pressure drops across nozzles, headers and tubes.
8. Fouling factor on air side of exchangers shall be 0.35m2. K/kW (0.002h.ft2.F/Btu).
9. The need for air flow control shall be as defined by the purchaser on the basis of specific process
operation requirements, including the effect of weather. Various methods of controlling air flow are
available.
10. Fan selection at design conditions shall be such that at constant speed the fan is capable of
providing, by an increase in blade angle, a 10 percent increase in air flow with a corresponding
pressure increase.
11. In the inquiry the maximum and minimum design ambient temperatures under which fans and
drivers will operate, as well as any specific requirements relating to the sizing of drivers and
transmissions shall be stated.
12. For mechanical components located above the tube bundle design temperature shall be equal to
maximum process inlet temperature unless otherwise specified.

G. DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
1. Design maximum ambient air temperature should be selected so that it will not be exceeded more
than 1-2 percent of the total annual hourly readings based on at least 5 consecutive years.
2. Units should preferably be placed in the open and at least 23-30 m from any large building or
obstruction to normal wind flow. If closer, the recirculation from downdrafts may require raising the
effective inlet air temperature 1-2C or more above the ambient selected for unobstructed locations.
3. Units should not be located near heat sources. Experience cautions that units near exhaust gases
from engines can raise inlet air 8C or more above the expected ambient.

Direct-Contact Heat Exchangers

- should be considered whenever the process stream and coolant are compatible. The hot and cold
streams are brought into contact without any separating wall, and high rates of heat transfer are achieved
Applications:
Reactor off-gas quenching

Vacuum condensers

Cooler-condensers

Desuperheating

Humidification

Gas absorption
Finned Tube Heat Exchangers

- used when the heat-transfer coefficient on the outside of the tube is appreciably lower than that on
the inside
- Fins are used to increase the effective surface area of heat exchanger tubing. The fin
effectiveness is a function of fin dimensions and thermal conductivity if the fin material.

Low fin tubes tubes with low transverse fins used with advantage as replacement for plain tubes in many
applications.

Major Classifications of Finned Tube Exchanger:

1. Conventional Finned Tube Exchangers

Heat transfer between the two fluids takes place by conduction through the tube wall.

2. Heat Pipe Exchanger (Specialized Finned Tube Exchangers)

Tubes with both ends closed act as a separating wall, and heat transfer between the two
fluids takes place through this separating wall (heat pipe) by conduction, and evaporation
and condensation of the heat pipe fluid.

Conventional Finned Tubes Exchangers

Normally used for an air heat exchanger, where one of the fluids is air or some other gas,
since the air side heat transfer coefficient will be much lower, additional heat transfer surface
area, as in a fin tube exchanger is very helpful.

employed when one fluid stream is at a higher pressure and/or has a significantly higher
heat transfer coefficient than that of the other fluid stream

Fins, generally used outside the tubes, are attached to the tubes by a tight mechanical fit,
tension winding, adhesive bonding, soldering, brazing, welding, or extrusion.

Finned Tube Exchangers Category Depending on the Fin Type:

1. Finned Tube Exchanger

2. A Tube-Fin Exchanger having Flat (Continuous) Fins

3. Longitudinal Fins on Individual Tubes

Figure 1. (L-R) a. Finned Tube Exchanger, b. A Tube-Fin Exchanger having Flat (Continuous)
Fins, c. Longitudinal Fins on Individual Tubes
Materials of Construction
can withstand ultrahigh pressures on the tube side

usually made of copper, aluminum or carbon steel

Highest temperature is limited by the type of bonding, materials employed, and material thickness.
Temperature ranges from 150C 400C.

are less compact than plate-fin units

area density of about 3300m2/m3 (1000 ft2/ft3) - available commercially

Typical fin densities for flat fins vary from 250 to 800 fins/m (6 to 20 fins/in.), fin thicknesses vary
from 0.08 to 0.25 mm (0.003 to 0.010 in.), and fin flow lengths vary from 25 to 250 mm (1 to 10 in.).

A tube-fin exchanger having flat fins with 400 fins/m (10 fins/in.) has a surface area density of
about 720m2/m3 (220 ft2/ft3).

Applications
as condensers and evaporators in air conditioning and refrigeration applications

as condensers in electric power plants

as oil coolers in propulsive power plants, and

as air-cooled exchangers (also referred to as fin-fan exchangers) in process and power industries

Heat Pipe Heat Exchangers

similar to a tube-fin exchanger with individually finned tubes or flat (continuous) fins and tubes;
however, the tube is a heat pipe, and hot and cold gases flow continuously in separate parts of the
exchanger

Heat is transferred from the hot gas to the evaporation section of the heat pipe by convection; the
thermal energy is then carried away by the vapor to the condensation section of the heat pipe,
where it transfers heat to the cold gas by convection.

Heat Pipe Heat Exchangers Characteristics

Used in gas-to-gas applications

consists of a number of finned heat pipes (similar to an air-cooled condenser coil) mounted in a
frame and used in a duct assembly

used primarily in many industrial and consumer productoriented waste heat recovery applications

Fins on the heat pipe increase the surface area to compensate for low heat transfer coefficients with
gas flows.
Materials of Construction
The fin density can be varied from side to side, or the pipe may contain no fins at all (liquid
applications).

The tube bundle may be horizontal or vertical with the evaporator sections below the condenser
sections.

The tube rows are normally staggered with the number of tube rows typically between 4 and 10.

has a splitter plate that is used primarily to prevent mixing between the two gas streams, effectively
sealing them from one another

does not have the usual adiabatic section that most heat pipes have since the splitter plate is thin

Unit size varies with airflow. Small units have a face size of 0.6m (length) by 0.3m (height), and the
largest units may have a face size up to 5m by 3 m.

Figure 2. a. Heat Pipe Exchanger Diagram; b. Heat Pipe and its Operation

CONDENSERS

Condensation is the process of reduction of matter into a denser form, as in the liquefaction
of vapor or steam. It is the result of the reduction of temperature by the removal of the latent heat of
evaporation.

Types of Condensers:

a. Vertical Condenser

b. Downflow vertical condenser: The vapor enters at the top of condenser and flows down inside
tubes. The condensate drains from the tubes by gravity and vapor induced shear.
 1) Upflow vertical condenser: In case of upflow condenser,
the vapor enters at the bottom and flows upwards inside
the tubes. The condensate drains down the tubes by gravity only.

c. Horizontal Condenser

Condensation may occur inside or outside the horizontal tubes. Condensation in the
tube side is common in air cooled condensers. The main disadvantage of this type of
condenser is that the liquid tends to build up in the tubes. Therefore the effective heat transfer
coefficient is reduced significantly.

Condenser Design

The design of condenser is similar to a typical shell and tube exchangers. A condenser must
have a vent for removal of non-condensable gas. The non-condensable gas decreases the heat
transfer rate. Condensers usually use a wider baffle. Vertical cut-segmental baffles are generally
used in condensers for side-to-side vapor flow and not for top to bottom.

DOUBLE PIPE HEAT EXCHANGER

Concentric pipe - one of the simplest and cheapest types of heat exchanger

These can be made up from standard fittings, and are useful where only a small heat-
transfer area is required.
FIRED HEATERS (FURNACES AND BOILERS)

Fired heaters are used when high temperatures and high flow rates are required. The
products of combustion of fuel directly heat them.

Applications:
1) Process feed stream heaters.
2) Reboilers.
3) Direct fired reactors.
4) Reformers.
5) Steam boilers.

Basic Construction

The basic construction consists of a rectangular or cylindrical steel chamber, lined with
refractory bricks. Tubes are arranged around the wall, in either horizontal or vertical banks. The fluid
to be heated flows through the tubes. Heat transfer to the tubes on the furnace walls is
predominantly by radiation.

Heat Transfer

Radiant Section. Between 50 to 70 per cent of the total heat is transferred in the radiant section.
The gas temperature will depend on the fuel used and the amount of excess air. For gaseous fuels
around 20% excess air is normally used, and 25% for liquid fuels.

Pressure drop - Most of the pressure drop will occur in the convection section. The pressure drop
in the radiant section will be small compared with that across the convection section and can usually
be neglected.

Stack design - Most fired heaters operate with natural draft, and the stack height must be sufficient
to achieve the flow of combustion air required and to remove the combustion products.

Thermal efficiency - Modern fired heaters operate at thermal efficiencies of between 80 to 90 per
cent, depending on the fuel and the excess air requirement