Bio Chap 1

BIOLOGY CHAPTER 1: TRANSPORT 1
CHAPTER 1: TRANSPORT
LEARNING OBJECTIVE: 1.1 The importance of having a transport system in

some multicellular organisms.
Learning outcome :
A student is able to :
Identify the problem that could be faced by multicellular organisms in

obtaining their cellular requirements and getting rid of their waste
product.
Suggest how the problem is overcome in multicellular organisms.
Previous knowledge : Unicellular and multicellular organisms.
CONTENT:
Introduction: Living organisms
Multicellular Unicellular
Earth worm Frog

Amoeba sp..
Snake
hydra
All living organisms constantly need to exchange food, waste materials and gases
with their surroundings in order to survive and grow.
Thus Transport System is needed in order to distribute the food and oxygen
throughout the body and to remove the waste materials such as carbon dioxide.
Mr.Velavan Arumugam@Yeosham Education

The substance that are required by The substance that are needed to be
living things eliminated from living organisms
Oxygen Carbon dioxide
Nutrients Nitrogenous waste
Water
Mineral salt
Vitamins
How the unicellular obtained their How the multicellular obtained their
cellular requirements and eliminated cellular requirements and eliminated
their waste products their waste products
Through a process of diffusion They need a system

Example : Transportation of Example :
oxygen and carbon dioxide in Blood circulatory system to
amoeba sp. is through simple transport nutrient
diffusion Respiratory system to obtain
oxygen and to eliminate carbon
Co2 dioxide
O2
The problems that could be faced by multicellular organisms in obtaining their cellular
requirements and getting rid of their waste product:
The oxygen and nutrients needed by the cells could not be supplied by simple diffusion
through body surface area.
Neither can waste products be removed quickly enough.
This is due to the fact that as organisms become larger, the total surface area to
volume ratio becomes smaller. In other words, the cells in multicellular organisms are
situated far away from the external environment.
These problems are overcome by having a circulatory system to transport substances
throughout the body.

LEARNING OBJECTIVE: 1.2 Synthesising the concept of circulatory system.
Learning outcome :
State what a circulatory system is

State the three components of circulatory system in humans and animals
State the medium of transport in humans and animals
State the composition of human blood
Explain the function of blood and haemolymph in transport
Previous knowledge : Circulatory system (lower form)
CIRCULATORY
CIRCULATORY
SYSTEM
SYSTEM OF
OF HUMAN
HUMAN
BLOOD HEART
HEART THE
THE BLOOD
BLOOD
BLOOD
VESSELS
VESSELS
Perform
Perform various
various
PLASMA
PLASMA BLOOD
BLOOD CELLS
CELLS functions
functions
RED
RED BLOOD CELLS WHITE
BLOOD CELLS WHITE BLOOD
BLOOD PLATELETS
PLATELETS
CELLS
CELLS
What is a circulatory system?

Circulatory system is the system of structures consisting of the heart,
blood vessels and the blood which is circulated throughout the body.
It is also called as vascular system.
The circulatory system is responsible for the transport of nutrients
and oxygen to cells and the removal of waste products from the
body as well as protection of the body from infections.
The circulatory system transports oxygen from the lungs and nutrients
from the digestive tract to every cell in the body, allowing for the
continuation of cell metabolism.
The circulatory system also transports the waste products of cell
metabolism to the lungs and kidneys where they can be expelled from
the body. Without this important function toxic substances would

quickly build up in the body.
The components of circulatory system in humans and animals are:

Blood
Blood vessels
Heart
The medium of transport in humans and animals

Medium of transport
in in
Humans and Animals Invertebrates

is called is called
Blood Haemolymph
has 3 general functions is
Transportation Regulation Protection A blood-like

nutritive fluid
transports regulates which fills the
entire body
O protects the
Lungs cells 1 pH of body fluids important in
2
body from
Lungs CO the
2 cells 2 body temperature
Nutrients, hormones 3 water content of the
and antibodies cells Transportation
throughout the body of water,
inorganic
salts, and
excessive blood diseases / organic
loss infections compounds
through through
Blood Clotting Body Immune

System
DIAGRAM 1: Blood and haemolymph as medium of transport in humans

and animals as well as their distinctive functions.

The composition of human blood

Human Blood
comprises
55% Plasma 45% Cellular Components

comprises
Erythrocytes Leucocytes Platelets
DIAGRAM 2: Composition of human blood
DIAGRAM 3: Major functions of constituents in the plasma
ERYTHROCYTES
Photograph Structure Functions

Erythrocytes are tiny Provides a large ratio of
biconcave disks, thin in TSA/V for gaseous
the middle and thicker exchange.
around the periphery. Haemoglobin is the
Does not have a nucleus. material that gives blood its
7.5 m in diameter. red colour.
Each of which contain The haem group that found
250 million molecules of in the haemoglobin contains
haemoglobin (O2-carrying an iron atom that is the site
protein pigment) for O2 binding.

Blood Cells Structure Functions

Leucocytes are colourless Fight infections in various
and contain nucleus and ways.
mitochondria. Most activities take place in
Irregular in shape and the interstitial fluid outside
larger than red blood the blood vessels.
White blood cells cells. They can squeeze through
(Leucocytes) They are made by the the pores in the blood
stem cells in the bone capillaries and fight the
marrow. pathogens present in the
They are classified as interstitial fluid.
either granular or
agranular
Platelets are fragments of Important in blood clotting
large cells from the bone mechanism
Platelets marrow
No nucleus and are about
2-3 m in diameter.
LEUCOCYTES
Granulocytes Agranulocytes
Neutrophils Eosinophils Basophils Lymphocytes Monocytes
Engulf and Release Involved in Produce the

combating immune response Engulf and
digest bacteria enzymes to
inflammotary against foreign digest bacteria
and dead cells combat
and allergic substances and dead cells
inflammation in
allergic reaction reactions

LEARNING OBJECTIVE: 1.2 Synthesising the concept of circulatory system.
Learning outcome :
Describe the structure of human blood vessels

Explain how blood is propelled through the human circulatory system
Explain briefly how blood pressure is regulated
Compare and contrast the circulatory systems in the following: humans,
fish and amphibians.
Conceptualise the circulatory system in humans
Previous knowledge : blood as a component of circulatory system in previous

lesson.
CONTENT:
The structure of human blood vessels (Refer to Diagram 4)
DIAGRAM 4

Characteristic arteries capillaries veins

One-cell thick, no
Thick, muscular, Thin, less muscular,
Wall muscle or elastic
elastic less elastic
tissue
Lumen Small Very small Large
Have valves which
Valve No valve No valve maintain the one-
way flow of blood
Blood pressure high Very low Low
From all parts of the
From heart to the
Direction of blood From arteries to body to the heart
organs
flow veins (blood returns to the
(away from the heart)
blood)
Oxygenated blood
Oxygenated blood At the arteriole ends Deoxygenated blood
Blood content except the pulmonary and deoxygenated except the pulmonary
artery blood at the venule veins
ends
Allow rapid gaseous
To transport blood
exchange between Allow blood from the
quickly at high
Function the blood and the tissues to return to
pressure from the
body cells by the heart
heart to the tissue
diffusion
The Human Heart

The structure and function of the human heart (b) Left atrium receives oxygenated
1The heart is a cone-shaped, muscular organ blood from the pulmonary veins.
about the size of a clenched fist. 6 As the atria contract, blood is pumped into
2The heart pumps the blood which the ventricles. The ventricles have thicker
(a) carries vital materials required by the walls and stronger contractions than the
body. atria.
(b) removes waste product that the body 7 The muscular wall of the left ventricle is
does not need thicker than the wall of the right ventricle.
3The human heart has 4 muscular chambers: This is because the left ventricles needs to
(a) The two upper chambers are the pump blood to all parts of the body while
atria and the two lower chambers are the right ventricle pumps blood to the
the ventricles. lungs only.
(b) The atria receive blood returning to 8 The heart has valves that allow blood to
the heart while the ventricles pump flow in one direction only.
blood out of the heart. (a) Tricuspid valve and Bicuspid valve.
4The heart contracts and relaxes in a (b) These two valves prevent the blood
rhythmic cycle. from flowing back into the atria.
(a) When it contracts, it pumps blood. (c) The Semi-lunar valves which are
(b) When it relaxes, its chambers are located at the exits, where the
filled with blood. pulmonary artery and aorta leave the
5The atria have relatively thin walls and heart.
function as collection chambers. (d) These valves prevent blood from
(a) Right atrium receives deoxygenated flowing back into the ventricles when
blood from the vena cava the ventricles relax. (Refer Diagram 5
for detail)

Blood flows to the

body
6
2
Blood comes from the head and arms
Blood goes to the right lung

5 Blood goes to the
left lung 5
1
1
Blood comes from Blood comes from
3 left lung
right lung
3 Bicuspid valve
4
4
Key: Oxygenated blood; Deoxygenated

t blood.
DIAGRAM 5: The flow of blood in the heart
1 Oxygenated blood from the lungs enters the 4 When the ventricles contract, the semi-
left atrium through the pulmonary veins. lunar valves are forced open and blood is
pushed into the pulmonary arteries and the
2 Deoxygenated blood from the rest of the aorta.
body enters the right atrium via the vena
cava. 5 Deoxygenated blood is pumped through the
pulmonary arteries to the lungs.
3 As blood fills the atria, the atria contract and
push the blood through the bicuspid and 6 Oxygenated blood is pump through the
tricuspid valves into the two ventricles. aorta to the rest of the body.

Explain how blood is propelled through the human circulatory system

The circulation of blood in humans is a result of the following action:
(a) The pumping of the heart
(b) Contracting of the skeletal muscles around veins
The pumping of heart

contractio
Initiated & causing n
Pacemake
coordinated by Pacemake of the
Hear Controlled by
the r heart
Apex of
t r
the heart
Located in the
Made up of generates
Purkinje
Cardiac Wall of the fibres Parasympathetic
muscle right atrium Nerves
Characterized as Electrica bundle Sympathetic

l branches Nerves
Interconnecte Myogenic impulses
Interconnecte Myogenic radiated
ddtissues
tissues from Bundle of Hormones
means His fibres (Adrenaline)
allows
Electrical Need no SA node

(Primary p.m) AV node
impulses to stimulation by
spread rapidly nerve impulses Impulses
through the when contracts causing transmitted to
heart neither relaxes
The spread of impulses
Key: SA Sinoatrial; AV Atrioventricular; over the walls of atria
p.m- pacemaker contraction of atria
DIAGRAM 6: The
position of the SA
node, AV node
andPurkinje Fibres

The contraction pushes the blood out to the lung and
body. The sound of the heart contracting and the
valves opening and closing produces a characteristic
lub-dub sound. The lub sound is associated with the
closure of the atrioventricular valves while dub
indicates the closing of the semilunar valves.
Semilunar
valves
Atrioventricular
valves
Contraction of skeletal muscles around veins
Blood is sent through the circulatory system with the help of the
contractions of the skeletal muscles around the veins.
When skeletal muscles contract, the veins constrict and blood is pushed
along through the veins. The veins have one-way valves that allow blood
to flow in the direction towards the heart

The regulatory mechanism of blood pressure
1. Blood pressure is defined as the pressure which is exerted by the blood

when it flows along a vessel.
2. It is greater in arteries than in veins
3. Flows from high pressure areas to low pressure areas.
4. SYSTOLE STAGE contraction of the ventricles where blood pressure
is the highest.
5. Normal Human blood pressure: 120/80 mmHg
6. 120 is the systolic pressure.
7. 80 is the diastolic pressure ( the lowest pressure during the relaxation
phase (DIASTOLE STAGE)
8. Regulated by negative feedback mechanism.
9. Baroreceptors are pressure receptors located at the ARC OF THE
AORTA and CAROTID ARTERIES. (Refer Diagram 7 for detail)
10.These receptors sent nerve impulses continuously to the cardiovascular
centre in the medulla oblongata to help regulate the blood pressure.
DIAGRAM 7: Baroreceptors in the arch of the aorta and carotid arteries

increased
rate of
Baroreceptors in nerve cardiovascular
Blood pressure arch of aorta and
increases (for impulses centre in medulla
carotid arteries sent to oblongata in the
example, during are stimulated
physical brain
exercise)
Sends nerve
Normal blood impulses to the
pressure Action of effectors effectors
weaker cardiac muscle contraction
lower the heartbeat rate
Smooth muscles of the arteries relax and the
arteries dilate. This reduces the resistance of
Blood pressure blood flow in the blood vessels (Vasodilation).
decreases

decreased
rate of
Baroreceptors in nerve cardiovascular
Blood pressure arch of aorta and
decreases (for impulses centre in medulla
carotid arteries sent to oblongata in the
example, when are less
in a state of brain
stimulated
shock)
Sends nerve
Normal blood impulses to the
pressure effectors
Action of effectors
Stronger cardiac muscle contraction
Increase the heartbeat rate
Smooth muscles of the arteries contract thus
Blood pressure
increases the resistance of blood flow in the
increases
blood vessels (Vasoconstriction)
DIAGRAM 8: The negative feedback regulation of blood pressure
Compare and contrast the circulatory systems in the following:

humans, fish and amphibians.
2 types of circulatory systems:

1. Open circulatory system
2. Closed circulatory system
1. The open circulatory system consist of:

one or more heart
a network of vessels
and a large open space within the body (haemocoel).

The open circulatory system

One or more hearts pump the
haemolymph through the
vessels and into the haemocoel.
The haemocoel contains the soft
internal organs and is filled with
haemolymph.
Here, a chemical exchange between
the haemolymph and the body
cells takes place.
The haemolymph flows from the
hearts into the haemocoel when
the hearts contract.
When the heart relax, the
haemolymph is drawn through
pores called ostia back into the
hearts.
The ostia are equipped with valves
that close when the hearts
contract.
2. The closed circulatory system comprises single and double circulatory

system.
Circulatory System In Fish
Single circulatory system
Consists of 1 atrium & 1 ventricle
Blood flows from ventricle to the gill
capillaries (gaseous exchange
occurs)
Gill capillaries converge into a vessel
that carries the oxygenated blood to
the body capillaries or systemic
capillaries (o2 diffuses into the
tissues while co2 diffuses out of the
tissues and into the capillaries)
The deoxygenated blood then returns to
the atrium of the heart through the
veins.
Single circulatory means having only
one circuit of blood flow that is
the blood goes to the gill
capillaries and then to the
systemic capillaries.

Circulatory System In Amphibians
Double circulatory system

Frogs and other amphibians have three-
chambered heart (two atria & one
ventricle)
Deoxygenated blood from the body is
delivered into the right atrium;
while oxygenated blood from the
lungs is delivered into the left
atrium.
Blood from both atria then enters a
single ventricle. Although there is
some mixing of oxygenated and
deoxygenated blood inside the
ventricle, most of the oxygenated
blood remains in the left portion of
the ventricle while deoxygenated
blood tends to remain in the right
portion of the ventricle.
(b) Frog


The ventricles then pumps blood through
the pulmocutaneous circulation
and the systemic circulation.
The pulmocutaneous circulation leads to
the gas exchange tissues, which are
the lungs and skin. Here, gaseous
exchange occurs.
The oxygenated blood returns to the
left atrium of the heart and most of
it is then pumped into the
systemic circulation.
The systemic circulation carries
oxygenated blood to body tissues &
returns the deoxygenated blood to
the right atrium through the veins
Since the blood flows in two separate
circuits; pulmocutaneous
circulation and systemic circulation,
the system is identified as double
circulatory system.
(b) Frog
Circulatory System In Humans

Humans have four-chambered heart:
two atria and two completely
separated ventricles.
Deoxygenated blood and oxygenated
blood do not mix.
The four chambers ensure an efficient
and rapid delivery of highly oxygenated
blood to the organs of the body.
In the pulmonary circulation,
deoxygenated blood in the right ventricle
is pumped into the pulmonary arteries.
These arteries carry the blood to the
lungs where it passes through the blood
capillaries.
This allows the removal of co2 and the
intake of o2 from the air into the alveoli.

In the systemic circulation, blood is

carried from the heart to the other part of
the body except the lungs.
The oxygenated blood from the lungs
returns to the left atrium and flows into
the left ventricle.
The oxygenated blood is then pumped
into the systemic capillaries via the aorta.
Since there are two separate circuits; the
systemic and the pulmonary circulations,
humans are known to have a double
circulatory system.
In a complete circulation, the blood flows
through the heart twice.
This is to ensure that oxygenated blood
is constantly delivered to the cells.
Conceptualise the circulatory system in humans
The circulatory system in humans comprises two separate circulations

that are the pulmonary circulation and the systemic circulation.
The pulmonary circulation carries blood from the heart to the lungs
and back to the heart while the systemic circulation carries blood from
the heart to all parts of the body and back to the heart.
These two separate circulations make up the double circulatory
system.
It means in a complete circulation, the blood flows through the heart
twice.
The Double Circulation is to ensure that oxygenated blood is
constantly delivered to the cells.

LEARNING OBJECTIVE: 1.3 Understanding the mechanism of blood

clotting.
Learning outcome :
Explain the necessity for blood clotting at the side of damaged blood
vessels.
Explain the mechanism of blood clotting.
Predict the consequences of impaired blood clotting mechanism in an
individual.
Previous knowledge : The general function of blood in previous lesson.
CONTENT:
Blood clotting is necessary to:
(a) prevent serious blood loss when a person is injured
(b) maintain blood pressure.
(c) maintain the circulation of blood in a closed circulatory system.
(d) prevent the entry of microorganisms and foreign substances into
the body through the damaged blood vessels.
Blood clotting mechanism
2
1 Platelets stick rapidly 3
When a blood vessel in to the collagen fibres in The aggregation of
the body is damaged, the connective tissue platelets forms a plug
the connective tissue in and release chemicals called a platelet plug. A
the vessel wall is called clotting factors platelet plug can stop
exposed to blood that make the blood loss completely if
plasma surrounding platelets the damage to the
sticky vessel is small.
6
These activators
(thromboplastins), together 4
5
with calcium ions and When the damage in the
The clumped platelets, vessel is severe, the plug
vitamin K, convert the the damaged cells and
prothrombin (an inactive is reinforced by a clot of
clotting factors in the fibrin which is formed
plasma protein) to thrombin plasma form activators
(active plasma protein which through a series of steps.
acts as an enzyme)
(Continue to the next page)
(from previous page)
7 8
9
Thrombin catalyses Fibrin will aggregate to
The resulting blood clot
the conversion of the form a mesh of long
hardens when exposed
soluble protein threads over the wound,
to air to form a scab.
(fibrinogen) in trapping red blood cells
blood plasma into thus sealing the wound.
the insoluble fibrin.
Consequences of impaired blood clotting mechanism in an individual.

Blood clotting mechanism would be impaired if there are defects in the:
(a) blood vessels
(b) blood clotting factors or in
(c) platelets.

There are 2 types of blood disorders identified as the consequences of

impaired blood clotting mechanism:
(a) Haemophilia
(b) Thrombophilia
(a) Haemophilia
Haemophilia is a hereditary illness.
It is caused by a lack of clotting factors.
It impairs the bodys ability to control bleeding.
When a blood vessel is injured, a scab will not form.
The vessel will continue to bleed excessively for a very long
period of time.
The bleeding can be external, due to skin by a scrape, a cut or
an abrasion.
It can be internal, into muscles, joints or as hollow organs.

It might therefore be visible as skin bruises or invisible like

bleeding in the brain.
For haemophiliacs, the bleeding even from minor cuts can
cause excessive bleeding and death.
Today, haemophilia can be controlled quite successfully.
Regular injections of clotting factors like Factor VIII can
prevent excessive bleeding.
(b) Thrombophilia
Thrombophilia is the reverse when compared to haemophilia.
It is caused by a defect in the blood vessel walls.
The present of a blood clot attaching to the vessel walls will
decelerate the blood flow.
Defect in the vessel wall: the present of a blood clot
Impaired blood clotting factors and mutation of prothrombin

also can cause thrombophilia.
People with thrombophilia have an increased tendency to
dangerous blood clots in the arteries or veins.
A clot formation inside an unbroken blood vessel is known as
thrombosis.
The blood clot is called thrombus.

Sometimes, a thrombus may dislodge and move along the blood

circulatory system.
The blood clot which moves in a bloodstream is called an
embolus.
The embolus moves along until it gets stuck to a narrow artery.
When this happens, the blood flow in the blood vessel is
obstructed.
The consequences due to embolism depend on the size of
embolus and which artery it is obstructing.
If a clot is lodged in a coronary artery, the cardiac tissue will
no longer receive oxygenated blood.
The cardiac tissue may die and leads to a heart attack.
If a clot blocks the blood flow to the brain, it may cause stroke.
LEARNING OBJECTIVE: 1.4 Synthesising the Concept of Lymphatic System.
Learning outcome :
Describe the formation of interstitial fluid.

State the composition of interstitial fluid.
State the importance of interstitial fluid.
Describe the fate of interstitial fluid.
Previous knowledge : The content of blood plasma in previous lesson.
CONTENT:
How is interstitial fluid formed?

When blood flows through the capillaries a pressure is exerted on the

capillaries.
The pressure is called hydrostatic pressure.
The pressure is generated by the pumping action of the heart.
At the same time, osmotic pressure is created between the capillaries
and surrounding tissues.
This is due to the inability of large solute to penetrate the capillary
walls.
However, the hydrostatic pressure is more than the osmotic pressure.
So, the fluid from the blood is pushed out by filtration.
The net pressure inside the artery is more than the outside.
Hence the water is forced out of the capillaries by filtration and fills
the spaces between the cells.
The water which contains dissolved substances forms interstitial fluid.
What are the compositions of interstitial fluid?

Interstitial fluid is a clear fluid which originates from blood.
Therefore it contains most of the substances found in the blood such as
water, dissolved nutrients, hormones, waste products, gasses and small
proteins except erythrocytes, plasma protein and platelets.
Leucocytes are present in the interstitial fluid since they can squeeze
through the pores in between the capillary cells.
What is the importance of interstitial fluid?

Fills the space found in between the cells.
Acts as the medium of diffusion of nutrients (from the blood to the

cells) and waste products (from the cells into the blood)
Provides optimal environment for the cells.
Nutrients uptake and waste products elimination are examples of
cellular activities.
A constant and stable environment is needed for cellular
activities.
This environment of individual cell is the interstitial fluid.
For example, the pH of interstitial fluid is kept between pH 7.35
to pH 7.45 for optimal cellular activities.
The optimal temperature that is kept constant is 370C.
Neurotransmission between neuron and target cells happen across the
interstitial fluid.
Intercellular communication becomes easier with the presence
of interstitial fluid, hormones and neurotransmitters.
They fill up the gaps between cells.
For instance, leucocytes release hormone into the interstitial fluid.
These hormones diffuse to the nearby target cells, through
interstitial fluid.
The more specialised synaptic signalling occurs through
neurotransmitters.
Neurotransmitters are released into the interstitial fluid by
neuron.
The neurotransmitters are transmitted to the target cells through
interstitial fluid.
Provides moist medium for the cells.
A cell needs moist environment for effective exchange of
substances.
The interstitial fluid bathes the cells.
The cells environment therefore becomes moist thus allows the
exchange of materials to occur effectively.
What is the fate of interstitial fluid?

About 90% of the fluid that leaves the blood at the arterial end of the
capillary re-enters at the venous end.
This is due to the net pressure inside the capillary is less than the
interstitial space and also as the blood flows towards the venous
end, it becomes more concentrated with solutes.
This build-up of solutes induces osmosis.

Hence, the interstitial fluid is drawn back into the blood vessel again.
The interstitial fluid must be returned to the circulatory system to
maintain the normal blood volume.
However, not as much fluid is absorbed back into the blood capillary
as is filtered out.
About 10% of the fluid that still remains in the interstitial space is
equivalent to about 4 litres of fluid lost from the blood capillaries each
day.
The fluid loss is returned to the blood through the lymphatic
system.
If the interstitial fluid is not passed into the lymphatic system, the area
will swell up. This condition is called oedema.
LEARNING OBJECTIVE: 1.4 Synthesising the Concept of Lymphatic System.
Learning outcome :
Describe the structure of lymphatic system.

Explain how the lymphatic system compliments the circulatory system.
Compare the content of blood, interstitial fluid and lymph.
Predict what will happen if interstitial fluid fails to return to the
circulatory system.

Conceptualise the relationship between the lymphatic system and

circulatory system
Previous knowledge : The importance of interstitial fluid in previous lesson.
CONTENT:
The structure of lymphatic system.

The lymphatic system is also a circulatory system.
It has vessels that branches out through the body except for the brain.
They begin with blind-ended capillaries.
The blind-ended capillaries originate in connective tissues of nearly

all parts of body.
The capillaries converge into small lymph vessels which eventually
converge into larger vessels.
Within the lymphatic vessels there are one-way valves that ensure the
continuous flow of the lymph away from the tissues. These valves also
prevent the backflow of lymph.
Located at intervals along the lymphatic vessels are lymph nodes.
These nodes produce and store lymphocytes; hence they help to
defend the body against infection.
The lymphatic vessels drain into two larger ducts:
1. Right lymphatic duct
2. Thoracic duct.
C
E
D B
Lymph
A
nodes
A Afferent vessel; B nodule; C Valve

Structure of Lymphatic vessel D Capsule; E Efferent vessel
The right lymphatic duct receives lymph from the right arm, shoulder
area and the right side of the head and neck.
The thoracic duct receives lymph from the left of the head, neck and
chest, the left upper limb and the entire body below the ribs.
These ducts drain to the large veins in the neck: the right and left
subclavian veins. Hence, lymph drains back into the blood.
Lymphatic system does not have a pump.
The lymph is propelled along its vessels by:
1. one-way valves
2. skeletal muscles contraction
3. breathing movement
4. Intestinal movement
5. smooth muscle contraction of lymphatic vessels
The lymphatic system includes other body organs such as thymus and
spleen.

Thymus is a soft, bilobed organ which is located behind the sternum.

It is surrounded by a connective tissue capsule. The connective tissue
extends inside the thymus thus dividing it into lobules. The lobules
contain lymphocytes which eventually will mature into T-lymphocytes
(or T-cells) in thymus.
The spleen lies in the upper abdominal cavity. It is the largest
lymphatic organ. The spleen contains blood instead of lymph. The
white pulp of spleen contains lymphocytes while the red pulp contains
red blood cells, macrophages and lymphocytes.
Explain how the lymphatic system compliments the circulatory

system
1. By maintaining the blood volume and pressure
Plasma is forced out into the interstitial spaces when the blood
flows through the capillaries.
85% of the fluid that leaves the blood at the arterial end of the
capillary re-enters at the venous end.
The other 15% diffused into the lymphatic vessels to form
lymph.
The lymphatic system restores excess interstitial fluid into the
circulatory system.
This process maintains the normal blood volume and hence the
pressure.
2. As means of transportation of fatty acids and plasma proteins
Blood capillaries are not permeable to plasma protein.
On the other hand, lymphatic vessels are permeable to big
molecules such as plasma proteins and fatty acids.
They are porous.
So the lymphatic capillaries collect any plasma protein in the
interstitial space.
These proteins might have leaked into the interstitial space.
In the small intestine, the fatty acids are not absorbed into the
capillaries.
Instead they are absorbed into the lymphatic vessels called
lacteals.
Lacteals transport fatty acids and drain them into the
circulatory system.
3. Centre of production of blood cells
Monocytes, macrophages and lymphocytes are cells found in
the blood.
They defend the body against pathogens.
These blood cells are produced by spleen and lymph nodes.
These cells mature and are released into the circulatory system.
4. Centre of destruction of blood cells

The spleen filters worn out red blood cells and deformed
platelets.
Macrophages found in the spleen destroy these blood cells by
phagocytosis.
Compare the content of blood, interstitial fluid and lymph.
BLOOD INTERSTITIAL LYMPH

FLUID
SIMILARITIES
Contents:
1. Water is the main component.
2. All of them contain glucose,amino acids,minerals,
vitamins,hormones,enzymes and respiratory gases.
Functions:
1. All of them make up the internal environment of the body.
2. All of them function in transport of substances.
3. All of them function in the bodys defense system.
DIFFERENCES

BLOOD INTERSTITIAL FLUID LYMPH

Contents: Contents: Contents:
1. Erythrocytes present. 1. Erythrocytes absent. 1. Erythrocytes absent.
2. Plasma proteins 2. Plasma proteins 2. Plasma proteins
present. absent. absent.
3. Contains white blood 3. Has the least white 3. Has the most white
cells. blood cells. blood cells.
Functions: Functions: Functions:

1. Transports mainly 1. Functions in 1. Transports mainly
water-soluble providing nutrients to lipid-soluble
substances. body cells and substances.
removing their waste
products.
Comparison on the content of blood, interstitial fluid and lymph
Predict what will happen if interstitial fluid fails to return to the

circulatory system.
If the excess fluid is not returned to the bloodstream, body tissues will
become swollen because too much fluid is retained.
An excessive accumulation of interstitial fluid in the spaces between
the cells will result in a condition known as oedema. It is not a disease
but a clinical condition.
It occurs when the bodys normal balance of fluid intake and output is
disturbed.
Oedema may be caused by a blocked lymphatic vessel.
A prolonged oedema will cause the skin to swell and stretch. The skin
will become taut and shinny.

The prolonged and excessive swelling will cause the connective

tissues under the skin to be damaged.
This will lead to skin hardening.
Conceptualise the relationship between the lymphatic system and

circulatory system
network of capillaries
body cells
Interstitial space
Interstitial fluid
lymph capillary Venule
arteriole
lymph
lymphatic vessel
As the blood flows through the circulatory system, fluid from the
plasma diffuses into the interstitial spaces in the arterial end.
The interstitial fluid is reabsorbed into the bloodstream at the
venous end.
The interstitial fluid that has not been reabsorbed into the
bloodstream diffuses into the lymph capillaries.
The lymph collected throughout the body drains into the blood
circulation via the thoracic ducts and the right lymphatic duct
that join the veins in the neck.
Comparison between the blood circulatory system and the lymphatic system.

Circulatory System Similarities Lymphatic System
Both are circulatory systems

The medium is contained in vessels
Circulatory System Differences Lymphatic System

Closed continuous Structure Open circuit from the
circuit throughout the tissues into lymphatic
body. vessels.
Comprises heart, Comprises right
arteries, veins and lymphatic duct and
capillaries. thoracic duct, lymph
nodes, lymphatic
vessels and capillaries
thymus and spleen
Blood Medium Lymph

Erythrocytes, Composition of Leucocytes, dissolved
leucocytes, platelets, medium substances, waste
dissolved substances, products and protein
waste products and plasma.
protein plasma.
Collects and distributes Role of medium Collects and removes
oxygen, nutrients, waste waste products left
products, and hormones behind in the tissues.
to the tissues of entire
body.
By the kidneys. Filtration By lymph nodes.

Blood is visible and Vessel damage Lymph is invisible and
damaged blood vessels damaged lymphatic
caused obvious signs system is difficult to
detect
Blood is propelled Propulsion Lymph is not pumped. It
throughout the body by passively flows from the
the pumping of the heart tissues into the lymph
and the muscular capillaries aided by
movement. muscular movement,
breathing mechanism
and blood circulation.
LEARNING OBJECTIVE: 1.5 Understanding the role of the circulatory

system in bodys defense mechanism

Learning outcome :
State another function of the circulatory system.

Identify the three lines of defence mechanism.
Describe phagocytosis.
State the meaning of antigen and antibody.
State the meaning of immunity and immunisation.
Relate antigen and antibody to immunity.
Name and give examples of various types of immunity.
State the effects of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) on the bodys
defence mechanism.
Describe the transmission of HIV.
Suggest ways to prevent the spread of acquired immune deficiency
syndrome (AIDS).
Previous knowledge : The general functions of blood circulatory system in

previous lesson.
CONTENT:
State another function of the circulatory system.

Besides transport, the circulatory system of our body is also important to
protect our body from infectous diseases caused by harmful
microorganisms called pathogens.
Identify the three lines of defence mechanism.

Defence Mechanism
Comprises of
Non Specific Specific
Classified into Classified into
Third line of
First line Second line defence
of defence of defence
Consist of
Consist of
Tears n Saliva;
Immune System
HCl (gastric juice)
Phagocytic by way of
Skin white
blood cells Production of
Mucous antibody by the
membrane lymphocytes
Describe phagocytosis.
A B
Bacteria-
Pseudopodium containing
vacuole
Enzyme-
C containing D E
lysosome
A - Neutrophyl moves towards the bacteria once it senses the

chemical secretions released by the microbe. (Chemotaxis)
B - Neutrophyl attaches itself against the bacteria. (Adherence)
C - Neutrophyl projects its pseudopodium to trap the bacteria into
a vacuole. (Ingestion)
D - The enzyme-containing lysosome fuses with the bacteria-
containing vacuole.
E - The bacteria cell is digested by the enzyme and the product of
the digestion is absorbed into the entire cell of neutrophyl.
(Digestion)
State the meaning of antigen and antibody.

Antigen is a protein molecule or soluble polysaccharides that can be
found in the walls or membranes of a pathogen while antibody is a
globulin protein molecule produced by lymphocytes in response to the
entry of pathogens or antigens.
State the meaning of immunity and immunisation.

Immunity is bodys ability to fight diseases caused by infection of
pathogens.
Immunisation is the process of obtaining immunity through either
vaccination or injection of antiserum.
Relate antigen and antibody to immunity.

Immunity is the bodys ability to fight diseases caused by infection of
pathogens or any foreign substance when introduced into the body. The
foreign substance which is also known as antigen will induce the
production of antibodies by the lymphocytes. Antigen is destroyed and
antibodies remain in the body. The infected person gets well. Further
entry of the same type of antigen is quickly destroyed by antibodies
caused by the presence of memory cells. The person does not get ill

again. He is said to be immuned to the disease. This is known as the

immune response.
Name and give examples of various types of immunity.

IMMUNITY
Comprises of
ACTIVE IMMUNITY PASSIVE IMMUNITY
Comprises of Comprises of
Artificial Artificial
Natural Active Acquired Natural Acquired
Immunity Active Passive Passive
Immunity Immunity Immunity
Examples
Examples Examples Examples
Tuberculosis,
Smallpox and Rubella, Antibody Antiserum for
Measles Hepatitis B, found in tetanus and
Poliomyelitis colostrum diphtheria
during breast
feeding
State the effects of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) on the

bodys defence mechanism.
During HIV infection, the virus attacks the lymphocytes known as T-
Cells which are responsible in protecting the body from infection of
pathogens. The reduction of the number of T-cells cause the improper
function of the immune system to fight against HIV as well as other
secondary infections (caused by bacteria and other viruses).
Describe the transmission of HIV.

HIV can be transmitted through seminal fluid, blood, breast milk and
vaginal discharge. Transmission may occur during blood transfusion from
donor to recipient; or during sexual contact with an HIV carrier or AIDS
patient; or through sharing of needles especially among drug addicts; or
from an HIV positive mother to the baby either during the foetal stage or
during breast feeding.
Suggest ways to prevent the spread of acquired immune deficiency

syndrome (AIDS).
Avoiding drug use and never share needles for drugs, steroids,
medications, tattooing or body piercing.
Counselling to the HIV positive patients, so that they do not spread the
virus to others
Practising safe sex using condoms as a barrier to prevent contact with

infectious semen
Educating the school children and public about the risk factors of AIDS
through awareness campaigns
Strict screening of blood before transfusion
LEARNING OBJECTIVE: 1.6 Appreciating a Healthy Cardiovascular System

Learning outcome :
Select and practise suitable ways to maintain a healthy cardiovascular

system
Previous knowledge : The functions of cardiovascular system in previous

lesson.
CONTENT:
Cardiovascular diseases and its descriptions:
Type of cardiovascular diseases Definition of diseases

Heart Failure The inability of the heart to pump
blood at an adequate rate
Heart Attack Sudden interruption or insufficient
blood to the heart
Stroke A sudden loss of brain function caused
by a blockage or a rupture of a blood
vessel to the brain
Cardiomyopathy Disease or disorder of the heart muscle
High Blood Pressure High pressure in the arteries
Risk factors contributing to cardiovascular diseases:

makes High Blood caused by
Pressure
The heart works

harder than normal Diet high in LDL stress
(bad cholesterol)
As a result
The heart expands
and contracts at a Heart attacks, strokes, and
faster rate arteriosclerosis
As a consequence
thus
Heart & arteries increases the risk of
become more
prone to injuries
Obesity and
Overweight
over intake of caused by Lacks of vitamin Bs
carbohydrates n fats and folic acid in diet
increases
caused by amount of amino acid

Improper diet Homocysteine
found in the blood
promotes
Physically
The oxidation of
inactive good cholesterol to
coronary heart LDL
diseases, stroke
& peripheral closely related to
Tobacco vascular
smoke diseases High Blood
cholesterol
Low in High-density related to
Lipoprotein (HDL) and high Diabetes
triglycerides levels mellitus
Ways to maintain a healthy cardiovascular system:
1. Avoid smoking - The nicotine content in a cigarette smoke will cause

the contraction of artery and increase the blood pressure. As a result the
heart has to pump harder in order to ensure the blood flows.
2. Avoid misused of drugs - Drugs like cocaine can cause irregular beat
of the heart and therefore might lead to heart attack and stroke.
3. Maintain suitable body weight - Maintaining body weight according
to Body Mass Index (BMI) is advisable to reduce the risk of having
high blood pressure and cardiovascular diseases.
4. Take healthy food (balanced diet) - Low in salt and sugar content, low
in saturated fat and cholesterol.
5. Eat more fruits and vegetables - Antioxidant containing food,
vitamins A, C and E may destroy the free radicals that damage the
artery wall
6. Stay fit - Optimum exercise for 30 minutes every 3 times a week may
help you to hinder stress and reduce body weight.
LEARNING OBJECTIVE: 1.7 The Transport of Substances In Plants
Learning outcome:
A student is able to:
State the necessity for transport of substances in plants.

Identify the vascular tissue in stem, root and leaf.

State the role of vascular tissue in the transport of substances.
Describe the structure of vascular tissue.
Relate the structure of xylem to transport.
Relate the structure of phloem to transport.
Predict the effect of removing a ring of phloem tissue from a plant.
Previous knowledge : The concept of transport of substances in the human

circulatory system had been studied in previous lesson.
CONTENT:
State the necessity for transport of substances in plants.

Water and mineral salts absorbed by the roots have to be transported to all
parts of the plant. Water is an important component of cells. It acts as
solvent and is often a reactant in cell metabolism. Mineral ions are
required for chlorophyll synthesis, healthy plant growth and development.
Organic food materials synthesised by the leaves during photosynthesis
need to be sent to growing regions, storage organs and other parts of
plants.
Identify the vascular tissue in stem, root and leaf.

The vascular tissues transport substances in plants.
There are two types of vascular tissues: xylem and phloem.
Xylem transports water and dissolved mineral salts absorbed by the
roots up the stems and to the leaves. In woody plants, the xylem
tissue also provides mechanical support to the plant.
Phloem transports organic substances from the leaves down to the
storage organs and from the storage organs such as the roots up to the
growing regions such as the buds.
Vascular tissues are found in the roots, stems and leaves of a plant.

The various arrangement of vascular tissue in root, stem and leaf
Describe the structure of vascular tissue.
The Stem
The stem has an epidermal layer that helps maintain the shape of the
stem.
a. In young plants, the epidermal cells secrete a waterproof cuticle.
b. In older plants, the epidermis may be absent, and is replaced by
bark.
Inside the epidermis is the cortex layer. The cortex layer is made up of
collenchyma cells which provide support and flexibility to the stem.
The inner parts of the stems consist of vascular bundles and the pith
which is the central region of a stem.
a. The pith is used for food storage in young plants.
b. The pith may be absent in older plants, making them hollow.
In dicotyledonous plants, the vascular tissues of the stem are
grouped together to form vascular bundles.
a. The vascular bundles are arranged in a ring around the pith.

b. In each vascular bundle, xylem is found towards the inside of the

stem with the phloem on the outside. A tissue called the cambium
lies between the xylem and the phloem.
In monocotyledonous plants, the vascular bundles are scattered
throughout the stem.
Dicotyledonous Stem Monocotyledonous Stem
Vascular
bundle
Vascular
tissue
Pith
Xylem Phloem
Xylem Cambium
Phloem
Note that: The vascular bundle encircles the Note that: The vascular bundles are
pith. The phloem is found on the outer side scattered throughout the stem
while xylem on the inner side of the bundle.
The root
Dicotyledonous Root Monocotyledonous Root
Pith
Phloem
Phloem
Xylem
Xylem
Note that: The vascular bundle is in a star Note that: The vascular bundles form a ring
shape whereby the phloems fill the area around the pith, with the xylem tissue
between the xylems alternating with the phloem tissue.

The outmost layer is the epidermis. The epidermis of the roots does not
have waxy cuticles.
The epidermis absorbs water and dissolved mineral ions from the soil.
Specialised epidermal cells grow outwards to form root hairs.
Root hairs increase the surface area for water absorption.
The region between the epidermis and the vascular cylinder is the
cortex. The cortex is made up of parenchyma cells which store starch
grains.
Located immediately after the cortex is a single layer of cells called the
endodermis.
Next to the endodermis is the pericycle. The pericycle consists of
sclerenchyma tissue which provides mechanical support for the roots.
In the roots, the vascular tissue is located in the vascular cylinder
consists of vascular tissue and the pericycle.
The vascular tissues of roots are continuous with the vascular tissues of
stems.
In a dicotyledonous plant, the xylem radiates from the centre of the
vascular cylinder, usually forming the shape of a star while the phloem
fills the area between the xylem.
In a monocotyledonous plant,
a. the vascular cylinder has a central core called the pith.
b. the pith contains parenchyma cells.
c. the vascular tissues form a ring around the pith, with the xylem
tissue alternating with the phloem tissue.
The leaf
Xylem
Phloem
Vascular
bundle

The leaf consists of a broad portion called the lamina (leaf blade).
The leaf blade is connected to the stem by a stalk called the petiole.
Inside the petiole are the vascular tissues of xylem and phloem that are
continuous with those in the stem, root and lamina.
The leaf blade contains leaf veins. Vascular tissues are found in the
leaf veins.
Xylem forms the upper part of a vascular bundle in the leaf while
phloem forms the lower part of the vascular bundle.
a. The xylem transports water and mineral salts to the leaves.
b. The phloem transports sucrose and other products of
photosynthesis from the leaves.
Relate the structure of xylem to transport.

Sclerenchyma Parenchyma
cells cells
Xylem contains four types of cells:

1. xylem vessels
2. tracheids
3. fibres (a type of sclerenchyma)
4. parenchyma
Tracheids Xylem vessel
The parenchyma stores food substances while the fibres provide

support to the xylem.
Xylem vessels and tracheids are water-conducting cells.
They are elongated cells arranged end to end.
During growth, the walls of the xylem vessels and tracheids are
thickened with lignin deposits making them strong and impermeable
so that they do not collapse under the tension created by the upward
pull of water during transpiration (transpirational pull).
The lignin also prevents the entry of food substances. Hence, the
cytoplasm of these cells disintegrates leaving a cavity in the centre of
the cells. As a result, mature xylem vessels and tracheids are hollow
and dead.
The walls of the xylem vessels and tracheids are perforated by a
series of holes called pits. The pits allow water and mineral salts to
pass sideways between the cells.
Tracheids are longer and have a smaller diameter compared to xylem
vessels. They are pointed at the ends. The end walls breakdown in
the pits and this allows water to pass from cell to cell.
The end walls of the xylem vessels are open so that the cells join end
to end to form a long continuous hollow tube.
This arrangement allows water to flow upwards continuously from
one cell to the next.
Relate the structure of phloem to transport.

Phloem tissue is composed of four types of cells:
1. sieve tubes Sclerenchyma Parenchyma
2. companion cells cells cells
3. fibres (a type of sclerenchyma)
4. parenchyma
Sieve tubes
Companion cells
Organic substances such as sucrose and amino acids are transported

along the sieve tubes of the phloem.
(a) The sieve tube is a cylindrical column comprising long cells
arranged end to end.
(b) The sieve tube is a living cell.
(c) When mature, it has no nucleus and its cytoplasm is pushed to the
sides of the cell.
(d) The end walls of each cell are perforated by pores to form sieve
plates which allow substances to pass from one cell to another.
(e) Each sieve tube cell is kept alive and its function is supported by one
or more companion cells.
A companion cell is a normal cell with a nucleus and a large number
of mitochondria, indicating that it has active metabolism. It provides
the sieve tube cell with proteins, ATP and other nutrients.
The parenchyma stores food substances while the fibres provide
support to the phloem.
Below are the differences in structure and function between phloem
and xylem.

Xylem Aspect Phloem
Composed of tracheids and vessel Composed of sieve tubes and

elements companion cells
Cell walls are thick Cell walls are thin
Impermeable cell walls Permeable cell walls
Dead at functional maturity Living at functional maturity

Cytoplasm is in a form of strand
No cytoplasm
that lines the cell
Cell walls are lignified Cell walls are made of cellulose
F
Transports water and mineral ions U Transports sucrose and other
to all parts of plants N organic compounds
C
T
Flows upwards I Flows both up and down
(Root Stem Leaves) O (source sink)
N
Predict the effect of removing a ring of phloem tissue from a plant.
The tissue just above the ring swells whereas that below the ring
withers.
The removal of phloem tissue interrupts the downward movement
of the organic substances synthesised in the leaves.
The accumulation of organic substances causes the swelling above
the ring.
The leaves above the ring do not wilt because the xylem has not been
removed. Hence the flow of water in the xylem vessels is not
disrupted.

LEARNING OBJECTIVE: 1.8 The Transport of Organic Substances and

Water In Plants
Learning outcome:
A student is able to:
state what translocation is.

explain the importance of translocation in plants.
describe the process of transpiration.
explain the importance of transpiration.
describe the pathway of water from the soil to the leaves.
state external conditions affecting transpiration.
design experiments to study factors affecting the rate of transpiration.
explain the role of root pressure in the movement of water in plants.
explain the role of cohesion and adhesion of water in the movement of
water in plants.
conceptualise the transport mechanism in plants
Previous knowledge : The concept of transport of water and organic substances

had been studied in previous lesson.
CONTENT:
State what translocation is.
Translocation is the movement of sugar, other organic and inorganic
solutes from one place to another within the plant through phloem.
Concentration gradient drives this process. The locations where the
solutes are produced are the sources. The locations where these solutes
are needed are the sinks. The sources have high concentration of solutes
while the sinks have low concentration of solutes.
Explain the importance of translocation in plants.

(a) The survival of a plant depends on the transport of organic
substances from the leaves to the storage organs such as the roots,
fruits or to the growth regions such as buds.
(b) Translocation enables sucrose the product of photosynthesis, to be
stored or converted into other sugars when it reaches its destination.
Explain the importance of transpiration.

Transpiration is the loss of water vapour through evaporation in plants.
This loss of water is replaced by the absorption of water from soil by
the plant roots.
(a) only 1% of this water is used by plant cells for photosynthesis
and to remain turgid.
(b) The remaining 99% evaporates from the leaves and is lost to the
atmosphere through transpiration.
About 90% of transpiration takes place through the stomata of the

leaves. Transpiration also occurs through the lenticels of woody stems.
Stomatal pore Lenticels

Transpiration is important in:
(a) helping in the absorption and transport of water and mineral ions
from the roots to the different parts of the plants.
(b) producing a cooling effect in plants.
(c) helping to supply water to all plant cells for metabolic processes.
(d) helping to prevent plants from wilting by maintaining cell
turgidity.
The continuous stream of flowing water from the roots to leaves is
called the transpiration stream.
describe the process of transpiration.

1. The surfaces of the mesophyll cells are covered by a thin layer of
water.
2. Heat from the sun causes the water on the external surfaces of the
mesophyll cells to evaporate, thus saturating the air spaces in the
mesophyll with water vapour.
3. Outside the stomata, the air in the atmosphere is less saturated.
4. This means that the concentration of water vapour in the atmosphere is
lower than the concentration of water vapour in the air spaces of the
leaf.
5. Hence, the water vapour in the air spaces of the leaf evaporates and
diffuses into the atmosphere through the stomata.
6. The movement of air carries water vapour away from the stomata.
7. The loss of water from a mesophyll cell makes the cell hypertonic
to an adjacent cell.
8. Water from the adjacent cell diffuses into the mesophyll cell by
osmosis.

9. In the same way, water continues to diffuse from the neighbouring

cells into the adjacent cells by osmosis.
10.Eventually water is drawn from the xylem vessels in the veins.
11.A pulling force is then created to pull water up the xylem vessels
as a result of the evaporation of water vapour from the mesophyll
cells.
12.This pull is called the transpirational pull.
describe the pathway of water from the soil to the leaves.

explain the role of root pressure in the movement of water in plants.
explain the role of cohesion and adhesion of water in the movement
of water in plants.
The pathway of water from the soil to the leaves is assisted by:
(a) root pressure.
(b) capillary action.
(c) transpirational pull
The movement of water through transpirational pull
During transpiration, water evaporated from the spongy mesophyll

cells.
Transpiration in the leaves forces the movement of water from the soil
up the stem.
The water vapour fills the air spaces between the spongy mesophyll
cells.
Water vapour diffuses to the atmosphere through the stomata.
The lost of water from a mesophyll cell makes the cell hypertonic as
compared to an adjacent cell/ increase the cell osmotic pressure.
As a result, the water molecule diffuses from the adjacent cells by

osmosis.
In the same way, water continues to diffuse into adjacent cells from
neighbouring cells.
Eventually, water is drawn from the xylem vessels in the veins.
A pulling force is thus created to draw water up the xylem vessels
due to the evaporation of water from the mesophyll cells.
This pull is called the transpirational pull.
The movement of water through capillary action

The cohesive and adhesive properties of water which is due to
hydrogen bonding holds the water molecules together and enables a
continuous column of water along the stem and upwards to the
leaves.
The long narrow xylem vessels of stem provide capillary action that
drives water from the roots to the tree top.
The water molecules adhere to one another by cohesive forces. The
cohesion of water prevents the water column from breaking apart as it
is pulled upwards.
The water molecules adhere to the walls of the xylem vessels by
adhesive forces. The adhesion of water molecules to the walls of
xylem vessels and tracheids prevents gravity from pulling the water
down the column.
The movement of water through root pressure

The cytoplasm of root hair cells is hypertonic to the surrounding soil
water.
The water from the soil thus moves into the cell sap of the adjacent
cells in the cortex by osmosis.
In this way, water continues to move inwards from cell to cell until
eventually it reaches the cortex.
Water flows through the cytoplasm, vacuoles and cell walls of the
parenchyma cells in the cortex until it reaches the endodermis.
Once it reaches the endodermal cells, the water moves through the
cytoplasm and vacuoles instead of the cell walls due to the presence of
special features called Casparian strips which line the sides of the
endodermal cells.
The Casparian strip is impermeable to water thus blocking the water
flow. The water somehow continues to move inwards through the
cytoplasm and vacuoles until it gradually reaches the xylem vessels.
The gradient of water concentration which exists across the cortex
creates a pushing force that results in the inflow of water into the
xylem.
At the same time, ions from the soil are actively pumped into the
xylem and this causes osmotic pressure to increase.
These phenomena produces root pressure that helps to push water and
mineral ions into the xylem from the roots upwards to the stem.
State external conditions affecting transpiration.

The external conditions that affect the rate of transpiration are:
(a) Light intensity
(b) Temperature
(c) Air movement
(d) Relative humidity
Light intensity
An increase in light intensity increases the rate of transpiration.

Light stimulates the opening of the stomata.
As a result, the stomata open wider. Hence, more water vapour
evaporates through the stomata.
Temperature
An increase in temperature increases the rate of transpiration.

As the temperature increases the rate of evaporation of water from the
surfaces of the mesophyll cells also increases.

Air movement
As the water vapour that diffuses through the stomata accumulates near
the leaf surface, a faster air movement helps to remove the water
vapour.
Air movement increases the concentration gradient between the water
vapour in the leaf and that outside the leaf. This increases the
transpiration rate.
When the air is still, the transpiration rate decreases or stops altogether.
Relative humidity
High humidity surrounding the leaves reduces the evaporation of water

from the stomata.
This causes transpiration to slow down.
A rise in temperature lowers the relative humidity of the surrounding
air, and this increases the rate of transpiration.

Effect of the relative humidity on the rate of transpiration
Explain the regulation of transpiration by the stomata

Stomata are found abundantly on the lower epidermis of a
dicotyledonous leaf.
Each stoma is surrounded by two guard cells which regulate gaseous
exchange by opening and closing the stoma.
To allow the plant to photosynthesise and at the same time, prevent the
excessive loss of water, the stomata open in response to high light
intensity and a decrease in the levels of carbon dioxide in the air
spaces of the leaf.
Stomata open during the day and close at night.
stomatal pore
opens
stomatal pore
closes
thick inner wall
chloroplast
guard cell pair

attached at both
ends
The opening of a stoma The closing of a stoma
The mechanism of the opening of a stoma.

1. During the day, light stimulates photosynthesis in the guard
cells.
2. They start synthesising glucose and generate the energy required
for active transport.

3. The guard cells accumulate potassium ions (K+) from adjacent

cells through active transport.
4. They become hypertonic and water enters the cells by osmosis.
5. As a result, they swell up and become turgid.
6. Since the inner cell walls of the guard cells are thicker than the
outer walls, the guard cells bend outward and the stoma opens.
This is because the thinner outer wall stretches more than the
thicker inner wall.
The mechanism of the closing of a stoma.

1. At night, when photosynthesis does not take place, potassium ions
exit the guard cells and water also leaves the cells by osmosis.
2. The guard cells become flaccid and the stoma closes.
conceptualise the transport mechanism in plants
Cooling effects
effects Transport mechanism in
plants
maintaining constant osmotic
pressure in plants
absorption of water and of substances
mineral ions
and mineral salt Water & mineral Food
important for
The opening and Transpirational
regulated by closing of stomata pull
transported by
Transpiration driven by
results in
affected involves
in
driven by water Involves in
by
Capillary action movement xylem phloem Translocation
driven by consists of
Air
Root pressure Vessels and
movement Sieve tubes
tracheids
Light intensity
make up
Temperature
Vascular tissues
Relative humidity

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BIOLOGY CHAPTER 1: TRANSPORT 1

LEARNING OBJECTIVE: 1.1 The importance of having a transport system in

Identify the problem that could be faced by multicellular organisms in

Previous knowledge : Unicellular and multicellular organisms.

Introduction: Living organisms

Earth worm Frog

Mr.Velavan Arumugam@Yeosham Education

Through a process of diffusion They need a system

Mr.Velavan Arumugam@Yeosham Education

LEARNING OBJECTIVE: 1.2 Synthesising the concept of circulatory system.

State what a circulatory system is

Previous knowledge : Circulatory system (lower form)

What is a circulatory system?

the body. Without this important function toxic substances would

The components of circulatory system in humans and animals are:

The medium of transport in humans and animals

Humans and Animals Invertebrates

Transportation Regulation Protection A blood-like

Blood Clotting Body Immune

DIAGRAM 1: Blood and haemolymph as medium of transport in humans

Mr.Velavan Arumugam@Yeosham Education

The composition of human blood

55% Plasma 45% Cellular Components

Erythrocytes Leucocytes Platelets

DIAGRAM 2: Composition of human blood

DIAGRAM 3: Major functions of constituents in the plasma

Photograph Structure Functions

Mr.Velavan Arumugam@Yeosham Education

Blood Cells Structure Functions

Neutrophils Eosinophils Basophils Lymphocytes Monocytes

Engulf and Release Involved in Produce the

Mr.Velavan Arumugam@Yeosham Education

LEARNING OBJECTIVE: 1.2 Synthesising the concept of circulatory system.

Describe the structure of human blood vessels

Previous knowledge : blood as a component of circulatory system in previous

The structure of human blood vessels (Refer to Diagram 4)

Mr.Velavan Arumugam@Yeosham Education

Characteristic arteries capillaries veins

The Human Heart

Mr.Velavan Arumugam@Yeosham Education

Blood flows to the

Blood goes to the right lung

Key: Oxygenated blood; Deoxygenated

Mr.Velavan Arumugam@Yeosham Education

Explain how blood is propelled through the human circulatory system

The pumping of heart

Characterized as Electrica bundle Sympathetic

Electrical Need no SA node

Mr.Velavan Arumugam@Yeosham Education

Contraction of skeletal muscles around veins

Mr.Velavan Arumugam@Yeosham Education

The regulatory mechanism of blood pressure

1. Blood pressure is defined as the pressure which is exerted by the blood

DIAGRAM 7: Baroreceptors in the arch of the aorta and carotid arteries

Mr.Velavan Arumugam@Yeosham Education

Compare and contrast the circulatory systems in the following:

2 types of circulatory systems:

1. The open circulatory system consist of:

Mr.Velavan Arumugam@Yeosham Education

The open circulatory system

2. The closed circulatory system comprises single and double circulatory

Mr.Velavan Arumugam@Yeosham Education

Circulatory System In Amphibians