B05/29610/2009
08/02/2013
0
FROM WASTE TO PRODUCT; RECYCLING WASTE TYRES TO SAVE THE
ENVIRONMENT
By
Design Department
University of Nairobi
1
DECLARATION
This is my original work and has not been presented in any other university as
Signature
Date
Supervisor
Signature
Date
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DEDICATION
I would like to dedicate this project to my mother Mrs A. Muiti Maorwe for
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
people without whom I would have floundered about aimlessly. First and
foremost I would like to thank God for keeping me sane and enabling me carry
I would like to thank the Jua kali Artisans in Kariokor Market and Garage owners
in Nairobi west for taking their time out of their normal schedules to answer my
questions.
encouragement throughout the writing of this paper. Words cannot express the
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DEFINATIONS
Recycling- this means any recovery operation by which waste materials are reprocessed into
products, materials or substances whether for the original or other purposes. It includes the
reprocessing of organic material but does not include energy recovery and the reprocessing into
Pyrolysis- is a process of converting waste plastic and tyres into Pyrolysis oil, Carbon black and
hydrocarbon gas. Pyrolysis is process of molecular breakdown where larger molecules are broken
Devulcanization - means reverting rubber from its thermoset, elastic state back into a plastic,
moldable state. This is accomplished by severing the sulfur bonds in the molecular structure. With
the proper devulcanization method, a much higher percentage of crumb rubber old tires can be
used as compounding.
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ABSTRACT
This report analyses the amount of waste tyres produced in Nairobi and then
discarded. The importance of doing this research is to find out ways to recycle the
waste tyres into products to reduce the amount of waste tyres in Nairobi. The
waste so that it can enter into a new cycle of life - extending the functional value
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CONTENTS
1.0 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................................. 9
1.1 Background of the study........................................................................................................... 10
1.2 Statement of the problem ........................................................................................................ 12
1.4 Objectives ...................................................................................................................................... 12
1.5 hypothesis of the study ............................................................................................................. 13
1.6 Scope of the study ....................................................................................................................... 13
1.7 justification of the study ........................................................................................................... 13
1.8 limitations to the study ............................................................................................................. 13
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW .................................................................................................................... 14
2.1 TYRES .............................................................................................................................................. 14
2.1.1 History ..................................................................................................................................... 14
2.2 ECO DESIGN ................................................................................................................................... 16
2.2.1Principles of eco-design ..................................................................................................... 17
2.3 DESIGN FOR ENVIRONMENT (DfE) ........................................................................................ 22
2.4 DESIGN FOR RECYCLING (DfR) ............................................................................................... 25
2.4.1 Recycling of waste tyres .................................................................................................... 28
2.4.2 Scrap tyre ............................................................................................................................... 30
2.4.3 Problems associated with uncontrolled or illegal scrap tire disposal ............. 31
3.0 RESEASRCH METHODOLOGY....................................................................................................... 41
3.4 Data collection Procedures.................................................................................................. 41
3.4 Data analysis ............................................................................................................................. 42
4.0 ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION ......................................................................................................... 43
Case Study 1: Kariokor Market ...................................................................................................... 43
Case study 2. Nairobi west garages .............................................................................................. 46
4.2 RESEARCH FINDINGS ................................................................................................................. 48
5.0 RECOMMENDATIONS ..................................................................................................................... 58
5.1Recycling ......................................................................................................................................... 58
5.2 Long-Term Solutions ................................................................................................................. 59
5.2.1 Creation of wrecking yards .............................................................................................. 59
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5.2.2 Public campaigns ................................................................................................................. 59
5.2.3 Creation of Art Centres for recycling. ........................................................................... 60
BIBLIOGRAPHY ....................................................................................................................................... 61
APPENDICES ............................................................................................................................................. 64
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1.0 INTRODUCTION
Wastes generally are inevitable products that are generated by every living organism. This extends
from the simple unicellular organism such as amoeba to the complex multi cellular organism such
as man. The volume of waste generated by various organisms is related to their size or complexity.
Before the industrial era, anthropogenic wastes include but not limited to those from physiological
processes, ashes from burning wood, agricultural and animal wastes which are buried in the
ground. However, with increase in population, the volume of waste generated also increases.
The industrial era brought tremendous improvement in the standard of living of man. This was
also accompanied by the introduction of different kinds of waste materials some of which are
detrimental to our lives and the environment. These wastes are in form of solid wastes e.g. waste
tires, broken glass, spent nuclear fuels, plastics; liquid wastes e.g. leachates, general chemical and
gaseous waste such as methane emitted from landfills, carbon monoxide etc. Waste tires has been
classified tires that are bald and worn down to the tread belt or have bulges or sidewall damage and
As Rachel Louise Carson (1907-1964) successfully noted in her phrase The human race is
challenged more than ever before to demonstrate our mastery - not over nature but of ourselves,
we are challenged to find ways to produce more energy, reduce our waste production while
Recycling of scrap tires until the 1960s in the US can be taken as an example; about half of the
manufactured automobile tires used to be recycled since only synthetic or natural rubber was used
in the tire manufacturing process and tires could have been directly used without major processing.
Recycling of used tires was further encouraged by the fact that these materials were also
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expensive. The increasing use of the synthetic rubber, however, lowered the manufacturing costs
and reduced need for recycling. Moreover, the development of steel belted tires in the late 1960s
was almost the end of tire recycling since additional processing of tires was needed. Consequently,
by 1995, the rate of rubber recycling fell to only 2%. (Reschner, 2008)
The average motor vehicle will go through several sets of tires in its lifetime. As
the number of vehicles on our roads continues to rise, the problem of scrap tire disposal presents
serious waste management challenges for society. Used tires become waste when worn tires are
replaced and when vehicles reach the end of their life. The industry has been created virtually due
to government regulations enacted to address the environmental concerns about illegally dumped
or stockpiled tires. Governments are also trying to improve the viability of the industry by
providing incentives to end-markets that use scrap tire derived products. The scrap tire recycling
Automotive tires are made of synthetic rubber which is obtained from petroleum. The development
of tires was based on improving the performance of natural rubber which is obtained from the
liquid latex secreted by certain plants. At the beginning, natural rubber was used to produce
waterproof fabrics and to make balls, containers and shoes by Pre- Colombian people in South and
Central America. Until the 18th century, Europeans did not make use of rubber except that they
utilized it for manufacturing elastic bands and pencil erasers. Joseph Priestley, a founder of the
modern study of chemistry, named the substance "rubber" for its use as an eraser. (History:The
In the long run this project will aim to produce a culture of sustainable design where every product
produced can be recycled at the end of its life cycle. Sustainable design is defined as the
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philosophy of designing physical objects, the built environment, and services to comply with the
principles of economic, social and ecological sustainability. Furthermore products made through
sustainable design are intended not to harm the environment either when being created or when
they are being used. These products are also often designed to allow users to feel more connected
This recycling goes hand in hand with Design for Environment, which is championed as a more
responsible form of design. Design for Environment (DFE) is a general concept that refers to
variety of design approach that attempts to reduce the overall environmental impact of a product,
process. Or service, where environmental impacts are considered across its life cycle. It is a
product philosophy that aims at generating minimum waste during the products lifecycle during
Design for Environment is the product design philosophy that aims at generating minimum waste
during production, marketing, distribution, use and disposal. It involves the following
considerations:
Non-toxic & production materials. Manufacturing processes and materials used should
contain little if no toxic effluents that may harm the environment of the vicinity.
Minimum energy utilization. The product should be made efficiently without wastage of
Minimize emissions. The design process should eliminate toxic gases from the
manufacturing process.
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Minimize waste, scrap & by-products. The manufacturing process must ensure the product
eliminates excessive use of materials and only required amounts of materials are used in
The tire recycling industry is heavily invested in infrastructure specifically designed to recycle
existing tires into products for growing markets. Such investments reflect a studied decision based
products that are not easily recycled, could put these investments at risk. Further, without the
exchange of information between manufacturers and recyclers regarding the types of new products
tire manufacturers will introduce into the market place, it is impossible for recyclers to make
appropriate business decisions regarding future investments in equipment for processing such tires
as well as the exploration of new markets and technologies. (Tires international environmental
solutions.)
Even with laws in place, illegal dumping still occurs, presenting negative environmental impacts.
The dumping of tires is a problem in urban areas of Kenya. Most people think that the best way to
dispose scrap tires is to burn them or throw them in dumpsites but this creates environmental
1.4 Objectives
To explore creative use of scrap tires to provide raw materials usable in design of new
products
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To create innovative sculptures plastics ceramics glass leather and jewelry products out of
reclaimed tires
This study is restricted to Nairobi area due to the availability and accessibility to the problem.
Nairobi has the largest volume of motor vehicles as compared to the rest of the country. The
proposed focus will be on Nairobi west garages and Kariokor market towards how they use tires.
The study will also look into how ceramics, glass, tires can be used in the creation of sculptures,
plastic, leather and jewelry products. This is in line with the academic need of design degree
Tires that are simply thrown away are a serious environmental problem. Recycling of scrap tires
on a global scale can drastically reduce waste yards, soil and atmospheric contamination caused by
Time is a major limitation as most of the research has to be done with the time available.Un co-
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2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter examines the root of the problem. Here researcher looks at vehicles in Kenya
generally first then focuses on tyre disposal after they can no longer serve for their intended
purpose. The researcher will also look at different types of tyres and how they are incorporated
into the various recycling design options. The purpose of this paper is to provide resources for
designers creating new building or landscape products made of whole tires or shredded tires.
The sources will be from published and unpublished materials, electronic sourcing and factual
information n formal interviews. This chapter also seeks to compare possible ways and means of
recycling with case studies of recycling with case studies of recycling and the rest of the world.
2.1 TYRES
2.1.1 History
A motor vehicle is a wheeled vehicle whose propulsion is provided by an engine or motor. The
During the 19th century, Charles Goodyear studied on making rubber more resistant to various
chemicals. He started his working by mixing rubber with various dry powders, and aimed to find a
way to make natural rubber stickier. In 1839, he achieved to obtain the best product by applying
steam heat under pressure, for four to six hours at 132 Celsius (270 Fahrenheit) degrees (Good
Following the discovery of vulcanization, manufacturers began producing tires from solid rubber
which yielded a strong material to resist cuts and abrasions. Although this was a great progress, the
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tires were too heavy and rigid. In order to decrease vibration and improve traction, Robert W.
Thomson, first produced the pneumatic rubber tire which consisted of rubber filled in with air. His
idea could not a commercialized since it was introduced too early for its time. John Boyd Dunlop
from Ireland, who did not know about Thomsons earlier invention, once more introduced the
pneumatic tire to the market in 1888. This time, pneumatic tire caught the publics attention
because bicycles were becoming extremely popular and the lighter tire provided a much better ride
(Year, 2011)
The following is a brief discussion about some characteristics of whole and processed waste tires
intended to help designers create new products from them. For most practical purposes, tires and
tire products function as homogeneous mixtures, but processing can impact physical characteristics
as size and shape are altered and as reinforcing wire and fabric are removed.
Therefore, variations are discussed in subsequent sections where they may be important. Some of
Density: Tires are slightly heavier than water and will sink in water unless entrapped air provides
enough buoyancy to allow them to float. This generally occurs only with whole tires or fine crumb
rubber particles. However, tires and tire products are much lighter than soil or stone. The density
of whole and shredded tires depends upon size, depth, and compaction.
Durability: Tire rubber contains carbon black, antioxidants, and UV stabilizers to enhance
resistance to wear, chemical decomposition, and sunlight, respectively. These characteristics are
independent of particle size. Strength of whole tires is further enhanced by reinforcing wire and
(like nylon or polyester), but this additional strength is lost as wire and fabric are removed from
smaller particles. Abrasion resistance is illustrated by the long life of tires in contact with roads.
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Tires and shreds are not easily damaged by blunt trauma, but they can be cut or punctured by sharp
objects.
Moisture Absorption: Tires and shreds can trap water on the surface and in irregular contours, but
Flammability: Tire shreds have a reported flash point of 582 F, higher than some other materials
used for architectural purposes such as wood, paper, foam, and fabric. The flash point is the
temperature at which a material will initially ignite, and the temperature to support continuing
combustion (fire point) is even higher. When crumb rubber is combined with a binder, the binder
may control the flammability of the resulting product if the binder has a lower flash point.
Color: Passenger tires are predominantly black, but white pigment is used to provide visible
sidewall lettering. As a result, shreds and crumb rubber made from passenger tires have a mixture
of black and white coloring. Truck tires do not have white pigment, so resulting products are
product as well as stakeholders requirements into product design and development (Lee & Park,
2006)
Johansson says its Minimizing a products environmental impact throughout its life cycle by taking
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Design which addresses all environmental impacts of a product throughout the complete life cycle
without unduly compromising other criteria like function, quality, cost and appearance (Poyner &
Simon, 1995)
2.2.1Principles of eco-design
Until now, the emphasis in business has been on minimising the effects of own manufacturing
processes or operations; the pressures for eco-design require additional life cycle thinking.
Product use.
End-of-life.
The RMA (Rubber Manufacturers Association) defines a scrap tire as a tire that can no longer
serve its original intended purpose. Tire is a thermoset material that contains cross-linked
molecules of sulphur and other chemicals. The process of mixing rubber with other chemicals to
form this thermoset material is commonly known as vulcanization. This makes postconsumer tires
very stable and nearly impossible to degrade under ambient conditions. Consequently, it has
resulted in a growing disposal problem that has led to changes in legislation and significant
researches worldwide. On the other hand, disposal of the waste tires all around the world is
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becoming higher and higher through time. This keeps on increasing every year with the number of
vehicles, as do the future problems relating to the crucial environmental issues. (Groom, Hanna, &
Tutu, 2005.)
As a result, tires that can be retreaded or used again are excluded from the scrap tire count.
According to the Waste Tire Working group comprising key stakeholders such as NEMA, Kenya
Revenue Authority, cement manufacturers, tire manufacturers, and dealers, Kenya generates over
one million scrap tires annually. Only a small fraction of the scrap tires is managed in an
environmentally sound manner while the rest continues to pileup in cities and various urban
centers. Currently, scrap tires are stockpiled in consumers yards or continually dumped into the
environment where they become a fire hazard, breeding grounds for snakes, bees and rodents
particularly rats, and human disease vectors such as mosquitoes. This is because appropriate
disposal methods or technologies are lacking. Further, open burning of tires to recover steel wire as
well as burning of tires during riots pollutes the environment with dioxins and furans, posing
The basic principle of eco-design consists of three elements based on the lifecycle of a product
(The first element is the cost of the product, which represents economic value. The second element
is impact, which represents environmental value and the influence on the global environment
through global warming, ozone layer destruction, and depletion of resources. The third is
performance, which represents consumer satisfaction and is related to safety, benefits, and
convenience. The integrated value of an eco-design product is the total of cost, impact, and
impact. Until recently, products have only been evaluated against the ratio of their performance
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divided by cost, which fails to recognize the impact of the product. However, it is a basic principle
of eco-design that we must maximize the value of the ratio of performance divided by the multiple
In applying eco-design to the design process, the product is assessed twice in terms of its
environmental aspects. The first assessment follows completion of the initial product design.
Environmental aspects are assessed a second time after confirmation of product quality and
performance through tests of prototypes. If there is a problem at either assessment stage, the design
process stops and repeats the previous stage. Furthermore, market information on products already
sold in the market is utilized to improve the design of the product. (Yamamoto, 1999.)
Tires not bound for tire recycling pose an environmental risk. These tires may find their way to
illegal tire piles, which pose a combustible risk: an uncontrolled tire fire can burn for days,
releasing toxic elements into the air and groundwater. States, in partnership with tire recyclers and
other stakeholders, have invested considerable time, energy, and other resources into eradicating
many of the tire piles that once were strewn across the nations landscape. Recycling tires from
Products are the source of all environmental problems. Major issues such as pollution,
deforestation, species loss, and global warming are all side-effects of the activities that provide
consumers with food, transport, shelter, clothing and the endless array of consumer goods on the
market today. Ecological and social issues are becoming more important than ever before, and a
vital new role is opening up for design. Many beautiful-looking products have an underlying
ugliness that is hidden to the consumer and is often invisible to the designer as well. This site
reveals these environmental and social impacts and shows how they can be designed out to create
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products that have a "total beauty". Sustainable products are those that are the best for people,
described as the next step on from eco-efficiency because it moves beyond simply reducing
environmental impact (less bad) to the creation of products, buildings or systems with beneficial
Cradle-to-cradle design has also been described as a business strategy that generates ecological and
social, as well as economic prosperity. The cradle-to-cradle concept views population growth as a
benefit not a burden, because of the opportunity for cradle-to-cradle consumption. A cradle-to-
cradle approach to design aims to restore the health of water, soil and the atmosphere. It
eliminates the idea of waste by proposing that waste can equal food. Products and building
components should be 100 per cent biodegradable or 100 per cent recyclable to avoid cross-
contamination of the waste and resource streams. Rather than specifically looking at buildings,
humans or ecosystems. Waste is seen as potential resource. Emphasize on living systems and the
Kazazian (2005) focuses on eco-conception, which is the process of applying the concepts of
ecodesign. With this approach, the environment is considered to be equal in importance to factors
such as technical feasibility, cost control, and market demand. Eco-conception can lead to three
different levels of eco-design intervention when designing a product: (a) optimization for
environmental impact reduction, (b) more intensive development efforts, such as modifying the
product, and (c) radical intervention, such as substitution of different products or services
(Kazazian T. , 2005)
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(Boks, 2006) stresses the importance of product designers, emphasizing their unique position and
ability to influence environmental strategies. Designers can have a key impact when they enlarge
the focus of their efforts, giving the environment a prominent position in defining the parameters
of product development. (Karlsson & Luttropp, 2006) note that ecodesign incorporates priorities
related to sustainability into the overall business scenario. The eco in ecodesign can refer to both
environmental aspects)
unusable. Contaminants such as additives, coatings, metal plating of plastics e.t.t. Also have to be
limited.
Drivers for the increasing demand for sustainable building include: lower operating costs;
increased occupant satisfaction and health; increased adaptability of the building; an increased
understanding of the necessity of addressing environmental issues; and a general global trend
towards sustainable building. In this case the cost of materials of decorating a garden or a backyard
can be cut by recycling of tires to make most of the products. This includes planters, backyard
furniture etc.
Reduced environmental impact is a significant benefit and perhaps the main motivation behind
eco-efficiency. Reduced (rather than no) environment impact is useful because it delays
environmental degradation while new methodologies and technologies are devised to remediate or
reverse past environmental damage A functioning and healthy natural environment is vital for
providing the ecosystem goods and services that enable humans to survive and thrive. This will
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2.3 DESIGN FOR ENVIRONMENT (DfE)
Design for Environment is the process of minimizing the environmental impact of products
Also defined as a design process that must be considered for conserving and reusing the earths
scarce resources; where energy and material consumption is optimized, minimal waste is generated
and output waste streams from any process can be used as the raw materials (inputs) of another
Ultimately, Design for Environment can be defined as a methodology directed at the systematic
reduction or elimination of the environmental impacts implicated in the whole life cycle of a
product, from the extraction of raw materials to disposal. This methodology is based on evaluating
the potential impacts throughout the entire course of the design process. In addition to its specific
primary objective and its orientation toward the life cycle, DFE is characterized by two other
aspects
the proactive action of intervention, based on the presupposition of the greater efficacy of
intervening early in the product development process (i.e. in the early design phases (Fabio
Catania, 2006)
The central theme unifying the various experiences of Design for Environment can be identified in
the common objective of reducing the environmental impact of a product over its entire life cycle,
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from design to disposal. The concept of reduction of the environmental impact is not, however,
limited to the simple quantification and minimization of direct impacts on the ecosystem. Rather,
in this context it has to be understood in wider terms, as the improvement of the environmental
Reduction of scrap and waste, allowing a more efficient use of resources and a decrease in
the volumes of refuse, and more generally a reduction in the impact associated with the
Optimal management of materials, consisting of the correct use of materials on the basis of
the performance required, in their recovery at the end of the products life and in the
Improvement of the product, with particular regard to its behavior during the phase of use,
to reduce the consumption of resources or the need for further additional resources during
its operation (Fabio Giudice - DIIM Department of Industrial and Mechanical Engineering
Scoping, consists of defining the target of the intervention (product, process, resource
Data Gathering, consists of acquiring and evaluating the more significant environmental
data
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Data Translation, consists of transforming the results from the preliminary analysis data
into tools (from simple guidelines and design procedures to more sophisticated software
systems assisting the design team to apply environmental data in the design process) (Fabio
Catania, 2006)
These tools, and the issues correlated with them (evaluation of environmental impact of products
and processes, choice of materials and processes, disassembly of the product or subsystems,
extension and optimization of the useful life, recovery at end-of-life through reuse of components
and recycling of materials), are the specific subject of our research activity. However, it should be
noted that these tools are based on a wide-ranging series of suggestions and guidelines for the
Reducing the use of materials, using recycled and recyclable materials, reducing toxic or
polluting materials
disassembly of components
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Controlling and limiting the economic costs incurred by design interventions aimed at
Applying these guidelines in relation to the main phases of the products life cycle, as a general
rule it is possible to obtain useful information and to explore the whole set of environmental
opportunities for an eco-efficient intervention in the product design and development process.
Catania, 2006)
(Fiksel , 2011) Defines DfE as a Systematic consideration of design performance with respect to
environmental health, and safety objectives over the full product and process life cycle
Recycling of waste has drawn attention of society based on the slogan There is gold in our
garbage on hand and growing concern about the environmental protection on the other hand. The
main constituent of a tyre is rubber and the largest single application of rubber is vehicle tyres.
Also the requirement of tyre is directly related to growth of automobile. The production of
automobiles is forecast to continue to rise and is indicative of buoyant economic conditions for
tyre industry, but at the same time guarantee and annual discarded scrap tyre volume growing at
ISRIs Design for Recycling policy seeks to balance quality control and safety issues with the need
for manufacturers to explore opportunities during product design that might help increase the yield
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of recoverable materials at end of life so as to maximize opportunities for recycling. To this end,
ISRI seeks to open a dialogue with tire manufacturers and suggest the creation of a working group
that will encourage communication and cooperation between the two industries. (Scrap tire
management council)
Scrap tyres are classified as hazardous waste in Kenya. Their management comprises minimal
environmentally friendly re-use and disposal such as small-scale manufacture of carpet underlay
and sandals, retreading especially in the truck sector and limited use as an alternative fuel.
However more economically viable and environmentally friendly technological options are
available globally and include shredding and using them in civil works (roads-rubber, bitumen,
asphalt mix), processing them into carbon black for UV protection of water tanks and tyres,
processing scrap tyres into drainage sheet lining for sanitary landfills and open oxidation ponds
Investing in appropriate technologies to handle the available scrap tyre stockpiles and the million
scrap tyres that are generated annually in Kenya should make business sense and the government
should create an enabling environment for investment in these by the private sector. This would
help address the public health and environmental risks and create jobs that would enable the poor
To support design for recyclability, design for disassembly needs to be addressed. Design for
materials, components parts, assemblies, and modules. There are a number of principles to
facilitate disassembly: in recycling tires Avoid use of adhesives in order to join parts. Adhesives
make separation of parts difficulty and can lead to breakages thus in some cases, rendering the
product
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The center for sustainability systems at the University of Michigan recommends guidelines
Design for disposal & recyclability is the design of product with extendable lifecycles as a result of
usage of materials that can be re used in one form or another. It also involves the following
considerations;
easily got as they are mass produced to facilitate usage of the product for longer
Material selection to enable re-use (e.g. thermoplastics) and minimize toxicity. Some
materials are better suited than others to be used in the creation of a product as they are
Avoids filler materials in plastics such as fiber glass and graphite. This will ensure the
Minimum number of materials/ colors to facilitate separating materials and re use. The
Recycling of scrap tires on a global scale can drastically reduce waste yards, soil and atmospheric
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2.4.1 Recycling of waste tyres
Recycling of waste tyres is a business like any production process where efficiency is central to
sustainability Environmental consideration is another integral factor, although its not the sole
driver of the initiative. Energy or resource economics might be the determinants of resource
recycling. In the interest of the environment, governments are putting measures to integrate
environmental management into production process of all business initiatives. As a result, reuse
and recycling of resources is not by choice but in the interest of environmental protection.
Consequently recycling of any material in a substantial manner requires the critical consideration
of:
1. Economic growth
2. Environmental protection
Its crucial that a balance between this considerations is attained the use of cost benefit analysis in
environmental policy can be used to strike a balance between economic growth and environmental
From an environmental standpoint, the use of a waste material for its originally intended purpose is
the most preferential recycling method. Miscellaneous uses for scrap tires include a wide range of
applications like the ubiquitous silo covers, playground swings, woven door mats from scrap tire
strips, handicrafts, shoe soles, die cut products, etc. When referring to incineration, some people
use the term energy recovery or even thermal recycling. While this sounds more impressive
that incineration or burning, the fact remains that the use of a material for its originally
intended purpose more preferable, both from an environmental and from an economic standpoint.
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This becomes obvious when we take a closer look at the typical energy consumption to produce
tire rubber and compare it to the energy gained by burning a tire: (Reschner, 2008)
As concern for the environment grows, and tire recycling becomes a larger part of protecting it,
new rules and regulations will be proposed and considered. Its important that these laws protect
the environment, without making it more difficult to recycle tires. An open dialogue with
lawmakers on these issues should occur to make sure that all sides of the issue are considered
before enacting new rules and regulations. Recyclable rubber is a valuable commodity that has
been finding its way into more and more durable goods and products. With the opening of new
markets and opportunities for the use of recyclable rubber, tire recycling will be there to take
advantage of and ensure tires are recycled in a responsible, environmentally friendly way. (Tires
Saves energy because less energy is used to manufacture brand new products
Produces less greenhouse gases because industries burn fewer fossil fuels
Wherever they can, Michelin support the establishment of organizations giving tyre manufacturers
responsibility for the development and management of recycling facilities for worn tyres.
Throughout the world, numerous industries have elected to use worn tyres as an alternative fuel
source in furnaces in power stations, industrial boilers, incinerators, cement works, etc. In the
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USA, more than 150 million tyres have been processed and used in the form of energy over the
past 10 years. Worn tyres can also be used in numerous material applications. (Michelin.com,
2012-2013)
According to Gopinath Sekhar of SRI Elastomers, there are three barriers to the widespread use of
treated or de-vulcanised rubber goods in general and tyres in particular. Two of these are
managerial while the other is technical. The main technical issue with treated or de-vulcanised
materials is the shelf life, but the biggest problems are the managerial and branding issues of
professionalism on the one hand, and logistics and volume on the other. (Shaw, 2011)
On the technical side, SRI, like a few other companies, supplies a compounding material which is
based on a treatment applied to granulate. The treatment is claimed to selectively break the sulphur
bonds within the rubber compound. There are a range of treatments which claim to break the
sulphur bonds, but all of them face certain problems. At first glance these treatments lead to fresh
compound, but in reality, the compound contains accelerators, excess curing agents and other
active ingredients. In many of these treated compounds, these chemicals start to react during
storage, leading to substantial reductions in the shelf-life and reducing cure safety margins
Scrap tires can be a valuable commodity. Beneficial end uses for scrap tires can curb illegal tire
dumping while diverting tires from landfill disposal. Creating long-term sustainable uses for scrap
tires can help local governments. Tires are designed and built to last and as such be not naturally
degradable and difficult to treat. This poses a huge problem in recycling them.
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Though most tires currently in the marketplace are recyclable, some, due to their manufacturing
processes, are not. This raises the concern that future products may also be designed and released
into the marketplace that do not take into consideration resource awareness, societal health and
safety, and end-of-life management. These tires might not be recyclable and essentially will have
been Designated for Landfill. At the end of their useful life they could be rejected by tire
processors due to the problems they pose in scrap processing. These tires might find their way to
landfills or illegal tire piles, or they simply might be discarded without regard to the hazards they
could potentially pose to the environment or to society. A leading industrial organization, the
Institute for Scrap Recycling Industry (ISRI) is concerned that tires Designated for Landfill
could exacerbate an already daunting problem that municipalities are working to alleviate.
Preventing these tires from being landfilled by designing for recycling will preserve the limited
amount of space many municipalites have for material that is truly waste and cannot feasibly be
recycled. Furthermore, the tire manufacturers that embrace Design for Recycling in their
manufacturing process will help promote resource awareness, environmental conservation, and
public and worker health and safety. (Tires international environmental solutions.)
Waste tyres are considered a problem because they are difficult to get rid of safely through normal
means such as leaving them in a landfill to decay or incinerating them. A tyre by itself is generally
fairly large, but a great deal of that is open space. Their nature does not allow compression or
folding in order to reduce the space occupied during disposal at landfills and they also do not
degrade easily because of the chemical and physical feature. This often causes the following
problems.
31
Land Filing
Waste tyres are bulky and difficult to dispose because of their large size and hollow structure.
Tyres generally do not decay nearly as quickly as other waste in the landfill. This is due to the
process of vulcanization, a method of treating rubber with extreme heat and adding sulfur to make
it extremely durable; because of this, other material around the tyre will decompose and cause the
tyre to rise to the surface of the landfill .Subsequently, many landfills around the world stopped
accepting waste tyres due to the aforementioned problem of size among others where the land
Shredding of the waste tyres before disposal has been suggested and tried for size reduction before
disposal. The high operational costs of this process made it an unattractive option.
This situation eventually leads to waste tyres becoming litters in the environment, occupying large
Figure 1
32
Human health problems
Indiscriminate and illegally discarding of waste tyres in the environment make Waste tyres
reservoir of rain water hence providing breeding space for mosquitoes and other vectors of
diseases like malaria, dengue and yellow fever. Other disease carrying pests such as rats c
The composition of tyres include hazardous chemicals like cadmium, lead and chromium which
poses further risk to human health and the environment when disposed of inappropriately into the
environment. This occurs when the waste tyres are indiscriminately combusted. (tyre recycle line ,
2010)
Fire hazard
Figure 2
Deliberate or unintentional fire problems emanating from tyre can be very difficult to extinguish
especially when the pile is very huge involving about ten million waste tyres. When piles of tyres
ignite, various environmental, health and social problems occur. Significant pollution such as
33
thick, black, foul smelling smog from the burning rubber is produced. The smog from the burning
Air Pollution: Complete combustion of a tyre, will produce carbon dioxide that contribute to
greenhouse effects water vapor and inert residues that may contain sulphur dioxide. Incomplete
combustion release dioxins and noxious gases. Furthermore, the following substances: volatile
organic
compounds and hazardous air pollutants such as polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs),
dioxins, furans, hydrogen chloride, benzene, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), arsenic, cadmium,
nickel, mercury, zinc, chromium and vanadium are released into the atmosphere.
Water Pollution: Tyre combustion causes pyrolysis of the rubber, resulting in oily decomposition
waste. The oily discharge can flow into nearby streams, ditches and waterways or can leach into
the ground water. In cases where water is used to put out the fire, chemical compounds like
aromatic liquids and paraffin may be carried by the water. Then the used water needs to be treated,
before it is disposed of, which does not often happen in practice. The situation can pollute nearby
Soil Pollution: Residues that remain on the soil after a fire can have an impact on
the environment in two ways: Immediate pollution resulting from decomposing liquid products
penetrating the soil. Gradual pollution caused by leaching of ash and unburned residues. Gradual
leaching of oily discharge can occur and the toxic residues of the burnt tyre such as zinc salts can
34
cause harm to fauna and flora It usually takes long time for the contaminated soil to recover unless
remediation and or rehabilitation measures are taken. (tyre recycle line , 2010)
Figure 3
In response to the environmental problems and health hazards caused the by countless illegal scrap
tire piles around the globe, most industrialized countries have instigated legal guidelines
addressing this issue. Regulations vary from country to country, but the main purpose of these
regulations is to provide for an environmentally safe disposal, limit the amount of tires being
stored at any given location, and to encourage the use of tire derived recycling products. While
grants and subsidies are sometimes instrumental for the implementation of a recycling project, it is
ultimately up to the ingenuity of business community to come up with economically sound and
market driven solutions. The key factors for a long term economic success in this field are:
35
A local and national government that is supportive of recycling (Reschner, 2008)
Waste tyres can be used for a range of civil engineering applications. Examples are the building of
retaining walls, erosion control, shoring up embankments, and so on. They also have marine
application and can be used in wharf buffers and floating docks. They can also be used for fencing,
Techniques have been developed to create wall building blocks. This is achieved by removing the
sidewall of the tyre, creating a structural unit which can be filled with crushed rock, gravel or sand
to create a block. This is apparently cost-competitive with conventional methods, and as a low-
technology solution could be suitable for non-urban areas. Tyres can also be baled, and used in
construction, sea-walls and jetties, and so on. Portable balers are available. (pdf, 2007)
This is generated from old tyres. The tyres are destroyed by various different technologies, which
result in granulate or rubber powder. This powder varies in many ways, such as composition, size,
Composition of the powder would, in an ideal world, be based around the different components of
a tyre so that granulate produced exclusively from truck tyre tread compounds is made from
mixtures of natural rubber, carbon black and various chemicals and accelerators. On the other
hand, granulate produced exclusively from inner liner material would end up being composed of
halobutyl rubber, also mixed with carbon black and some active chemicals.
36
This level of discrimination is not possible at the current state of the art, so in practice, the industry
* The basic and most common grade is granulate made from mixed whole tyres.
* Next in the scale is granulate made exclusively from truck tyres and
The materials made from buffings are composed almost exclusively of natural rubber, carbon
black and active ingredients. Material sourced from whole truck tyres has around 20 percent
synthetic rubber content, including butyl from the innerliner, and SBR and BR from the carcass
and sidewalls. Nevertheless, the polymer in this material is typically around 80 percent natural
rubber. Granulate derived from car tyres is usually around 60-40 synthetic and natural rubber. It
also contains silica and other materials and is less repeatable in terms of content. Crumb made
from mixed tyres may have content ranging from 60 percent synthetic down to less than 10 percent
The surface texture of each granule depends on the production process. Cryogenic grinding takes
less energy to break the rubber apart, as the rubber fractures, leaving smooth, glass-like surfaces
whereas ambient grinding rips the rubber apart, leaving rough textures with a high surface area-to
Road surfacing, rubberized bitumen and asphalt, incorporation into rubber and plastic products,
molded and extruded rubber products, synthetic turf, Protecting coatings, industrial flooring,
building materials, traffic guide posts, soil conditioner, production of new tyres.
37
3. Pyrolysis
Tyre pyrolysis is a process of converting waste plastic and tyres into Pyrolysis oil, Carbon black
and hydrocarbon gas. Pyrolysis is process of molecular breakdown where larger molecules are
broken down into smaller molecules. Pyrolysis plant is an industry designed to carry out pyrolysis
of waste plastic & tyre. In case of plastic/tyre pyrolysis, long chain polymer is broken down into
smaller chains of Hydrocarbon Gas and Pyrolysis Oil. Heat and catalyst are required for the
reaction.
The scrap tires will decompose when it heated up to a 160C in the reactor. The decomposed tires
transformed into oil gas. Waste gas will be processed in the emissions scrubber transmitted by the
pipe on the top of the cracking reactor, by the processing of emissions scrubber the harmful gas
will changed into clean air then release into the air .
When crude oil get through the gas separate the Impurities will be filtrated, so that crude oil can be
refined .Crude oil get through the depositing tank to the cooling pool for cooling in it, then
transform into liquid. Liquid crude oil will delivered to tanks for store, and the exhaust gas from
the crude oil in the tank will transported to exhaust gas recycle system then transported to The
bottom of the cracking reactor as fuel to heat up the the cracking reactor .
In pyrolysis as a process, the polymer waste is not burned; instead it is broken down into usable
finished products like Pyrolysis Oil, Hydrocarbon Gas and Charcoal. In case of plastic/tyre waste
burning of waste which leads to loss of valuable energy from polymer waste. Dumping of polymer
waste is known to cause land pollution. By pyrolysis of polymer waste, it is possible to recover
38
value from waste in the form of Pyrolysis oil, Hydrocarbon gas and charcoal. (Oracle World Wide,
2010)
3. Devulcanization
In chemical terms, devulcanization means reverting rubber from its thermoset, elastic state back
into a plastic, moldable state. This is accomplished by severing the sulfur bonds in the molecular
structure. With the proper devulcanization method, a much higher percentage of crumb rubber old
Traditional devulcanization methods involved exposing cured rubber to elevated temperatures for
an extended period of time. However, this thermal reclaim process not only severs the sulfur
bonds in the polymer matrix, but also breaks the polymer chains, causing a significant decrease in
The current price increase of virtually all types of polymers, including natural rubber, means that
for most rubber manufacturers, reprocessing rubber scrap is no longer an interesting alternative,
Scrap tires can be utilized by making use of their sturdy nature and steel reinforcement inside the
rubber. The steel wires are usually protected inside the rubber if the rubber is not severely cracked
or eroded. Therefore, the tires can survive for long periods of time even under harsh environments
39
5. Whole tyres in making products
Tyres can be used in making products like. The tire swing lives on as a simple recycling project for
a tire. You can hang the tire vertically or horizontally, just make sure to pick a thick branch that
can support the weight of someone swinging wildly on a tire. For the vertical tire swing, attach the
rope from the tree branch to the top of the tire. Also Tire sandals never go out of style as a way to
recycle tires. Draw an outline of each foot on a piece of paper, then draw another outline outside
that one, making it about one-half inch bigger around the sides and toes of your foot. Furniture can
Recycling helps to limit the amount of tyre that must be produced. Ads jobs to the economy
slows the consuming of natural resources. You reduce the amount of resources needed to make
Makes governments and businesses choose programs and apply policies in consideration of
It saves natural resources as it takes less energy to make something with recycled material rather
something new
It saves space in landfills. The items that we recycle are not biodegradable.
40
3.0 RESEASRCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Research Design
The design of my research followed the following procedures that enabled the researcher produce
a well-balanced project paper. A target population was identified first from which information was
got from through observation and interviews. This research focuses on qualitative and quantitative
research procedures. It involves close observations of car dumpsites, recycled products and
3.2 Population
The population of this research was restricted to experts in institutions and individuals who are
either directly or indirectly involved with the automotive industry in Kenya. The researcher
selected 5 garage sites in Nairobi west and 5 people in Kariokor Market due to the major fact that
3.3 Sample
Photography
The researcher took pictures of tire dumpsites in Kariokor Market and Nairobi west garages; this
helped the researcher define the different methods of recycling. The researcher also took pictures
of garages in Nairobi west and Kariokor market and how they use their waste tires after they have
41
Observation
The researcher observed various garages in Nairobi west and Kariokor Market and how they
Note taking.
The researcher took notes from time to time during the research on how the respondents were
Interviews
The researcher wrote a list of themes and questions that were used to do research for people who
are directly affected and indirectly affected by the dumping of tyres. The researcher randomly
interviewed 5 people from Kariokor market and 5 people from Nairobi west.
This was done to account for the data collected. Patterns were explored and emergent ideas on tire
waste recycling and the cycles documented. This includes comparison of data collected.
This is used later on collection and analysis of structured questions. It includes pie charts, tables
42
4.0 ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION
Kariokor market is situated at the Eastlands area Nairobi and has established itself as a prime base
dealing jewellery. Kariokor market has and with leather and jewellery. Kariokor has even been
known to supply the famous maasai market with its products. As you enter kariokor market a
dumpsite full of papers and tyre waste. People in the market throw the reminder tyres in the dump
and when its too much they burn the tyres. Garbage collectors also dump waste in the same
dumping site. This is just next to the road as you pass kariokor market towards Eastleigh and
pangani.
Figure 4
Source: Author
43
A large section of the traders are from the Akamba community world renowned for their skills in
the arts. The merchandize is usually sold outside wood sheds, hang on the outside allowing passing
The main products made here are tire sandals commonly known as akala, jewellery for both
genders and leather products e.g. shoes and leather swatches. The main materials used in the akala
designs are rubber tires and leather. However artisans have begun incorporating other materials
into their products in view of diversity and customer preference and ease of use. Akala shoe design
is all tyres. Different parts of the tyre are cut in pieces, this forms the shoe design. The artisans
however have started incorporating beads and plastic ornaments in the shoes.
Figure 5
Source: Author
The tires produced at the market from respective dealers who get them from garages or
independent sellers. The dealers process the tyres into strips of varying length and type to sell them
44
whole. There are two types that are got from tires to make the shoes. These are hard sole and soft
sole. Hard sole is the inner part of the tyre and is the lighter of the two. Soft sole is the outer ring
that usually has the tread and is heavier. The middle part of the tyre is thrown away. This is the
part that mostly in the dumpsite. Sandals meant for leisure and simpler activities use the former
sandals meant for more strenuous walking and activities use the latter.
Figure 6
Figure 7
45
Leather is sold at the market depending on foot (lengthwise) or per kilogram. Per kilogram method
is usually done in the case of small pieces of leather while per foot method applies to large
swatches of leather. Artisans usually use the latter as it makes their work much easier and enables
mass production as more templates can be cut from a swathe. This leads to faster production as
compared to piecing small pieces of leather together which is a time consuming process.
The other materials are also in reach of the artisans. Paper cartoon sheets sack cloth, plastic foam
either produce sheets, and jeans are procured at the market or at Gikomba. They are sold in sheet
form whilst materials like sack cloth are sold in kilogram form.
The carton sheets acts as to stiffen the sandal in between the tyre foam leather. The plastic foam
makes the sandal soft allowing the wearers foot to easily curve the sandal when walking and acts
as a cushion from the hard tire sole and ground. The tire basis of the shoe provides grip on the
ground as the treads provide the necessary traction. The leather and jeans alternative of outside
In Nairobi west there are a few garages along langata road and others inside the Nairobi west
shopping centre. One of the garages that I was privileged to interview was at Ben Auto Repair
garage located at Langata /Rongai Bus station. The location of this garage is an advantage because
Bens auto repair garage mostly handles spare parts. When it comes to tyres most of the customers
use second hand tyres. A second hand tyre at this shop goes from 3000kshs to 5000kshs
46
Waste tyres in this shop are a problem because theyve taken up most of the storage facility. They
even store them at the backyard of the shop because the garage is full and the customers leave all
Figure 8
Source: Author
47
4.2 RESEARCH FINDINGS
Table 1
FREQUENCY PERCENT
Customers who come to replace old tyres with new ones hence
7 63.64
they end up pilling up
Total 11 100.00
Source: Author
For most garages the main source of waste tyre is from customers who come to exchange old tyres
when they want new ones for their cars. They end up leaving the old tyres in the garages hence the
garages have a heap in their storage. Hence the 63%of the waste tyres that turns up in garages.
Most garages in Nairobi west have so many tyres in store that can no longer be used in cars or
sometimes are sold to people who cant afford new tyres; a new tyre that hasnt been used may
cost 7000kshs. For an average person living in Kenya it may be hard to acquire a single tyre for
700kshs. But a second hand tyre may go for 2000kshs or at most 3000kshs. Once the tyres are
worn out the customers go to exchange and buy a new pair hence the tyres keep piling up.
In Kariokor most garages get their tyres from companies who own garages. For example Mash
Auto. Such companies have customers that range from the Kenyan middle class Kenyans to the
upper class Kenyans. Most of these customers dont use second hand tyres. Once the tyres is not
up to standards this customers go to get new ones from such companies. His companies sell the
48
tyres to garages who then sell them to the Kenyans who cant afford a new tyre. This tyres end up
Source: Author
Chart 1
In Nairobi west most people working in garages did not think of tyre as a problem. Some however
did not like the fact that waste tyres were filling up their garage and not generating any money.
The ones who saw the tyres as a problem in the area suggested that sometimes throwing the tyres
away helped ease the amount in the garage, the ones who thought tyre waste was not a problem in
the area mostly sell the old tyres to workshops who have dedicated themselves to collecting the
49
waste old tyres and selling them to garages when they need second hand tyres or even to individual
customers. Trouble is after the product life cycle the tyres end up in the garages again.
Figure 9
Source: Author
In kariokor most individuals viewed tyre waste as a problem in the area. Although most of them
said that the tyres are recycled into shoes but then again theres a lot of waste generated at the end
of making the akala shoes. The waste tyre remaining is thrown in the dumpsite just outside the
50
Figure 10
Source: Author
Table 2
FREQUENCY PERCENT
They are a burden to the mechanics since they fill up the garage 3 27.27
No response 1 9.09
Total 11 100.00
Source: Author
Most of the people in Nairobi west who thought that tyre waste was a problem in the area said that
the tyres pile up and they are a burden to them. In other words they fill up the garage and when
vendors come to buy them so they can go to sell in kariokor they sell them at a very low price and
51
do not generate any profits. So sometime they opt to throw them away and keep a new stock
instead of waiting on the vendors to come and get them. What most people dont know in the area
is that most garages in the area have their very own small dumpsite where they throw them away
and burn them. Some garages leave the tyres lying around the streets and in the evening the
women who cook along the streets use the tyres as a stepping stone for their jikos. Most of them
In Kariokor Market the dumpsite lying just beside the road is evidence enough of tyre waste as a
problem in the area. The dumpsite has also become a place where companies who collect garbage
can dump waste. Mostly the dumpsite is filled with tyre waste that remains after cutting out the
parts for making the akala shoes have been removed the remaining bit of the tyre is thrown in the
The market is densely populated and most of the people who work in the market work with tyres.
The waste deduced in the process of making the shoes, goes to the dumpsite beside the road. This
52
Chart 2
Most people in both areas are aware of the environmental pollution caused by tyres but still choose
to dump the tyres or burn them. Some are not aware at all of the pollution caused by tyres so even
if the dump them in a dumpsite or burn them for them its a way of creating more spaces in their
garages.
Some are aware of the environmental pollution caused by tyres but are ignorant to addressing the
issue. Some have a clue but they are not sure what exactly the problem is if one throws away a
53
Figure 11
Source: Author
Table 3
METHODS OF DISPOSING OLD USED TYRES
FREQUENCY PERCENT
Total 11 100.00
In Nairobi west they mostly sell the waste tyres to artisans who make the akala shoes in kariokor
market. The tyres that get to kariokor are not used sometimes instead some of them end up in the
dumping site.
54
Graph 1
55
Chart 3
56
Chart 4
57
5.0 RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1Recycling
Recycling and industrial design go hand in hand In a new world that will want to produce products
that are environmental friendly, safe and compliant, this means that the products should not cause
health problems and any aspects of the product that could harm the user will be taken in
consideration.
Industrial design ensures that all the areas pertaining to environmental conservation are
incorporated into the design process. Proper measures must be taken to ensure products can be
recycled or have benefits even after the end of their end product life cycle. This problem has been
prevalent in the disposal of paper waste. Initiatives were started to ensure plastic bags could be
recycled and people were urged to make more use of them instead of discarding or burning them
after use.
A designer has to incorporate anaesthetics practically and materials into the overall design of a
product. Since technology is not yet at the desired state in Africa, crafts are being encouraged to
make new products out of recyclable arts in this case tyres. The researcher aims to make products
The researcher will create functional sculpture, incorporating different media and inspirations from
tyres. Most of the products will aim a predominantly female crowd. The researcher will also
incorporate leather, glass, plastics and other materials in coming up with different designs of
products. The researcher will create a setting whereby tyre will be used as a whole to avoid
unnecessary waste. This will include a few pieces of furniture made from tyres.
58
Ceramics will provide both a utilitarian and sculptural purposes in their designs. The research will
Despite the innovations that industrial design can help bring to the table a lot more has to be done
in order for this problem To be fully tackled awareness has to be created about the impending
crisis that may result to a tyre waste crisis in a few years considering more and more people are
buying cars. The government municipal council is in charge of the tyres in the CBD and can
A wreck yard, salvage yard, breakers yard (sometimes known as a scrapheap) is the location of a
dismantling business where wrecked or decommissioned vehicles are brought, their usable parts
are sold and the unusable metal parts known as scrap metals sold to metal recycling companies. A
sector should be set aside for tyres. Tyres should be arranged in groups of tyres that can be sold for
re-treading, for recycling, and for second hand sales. Many salvage yards operate on a local level
in industrialized countries. When the tyres are beyond second hand selling the owner may sell
them to the junkyard or exchange them for new ones. Most yards have computerized inventory
systems which allow customers to phone in and get spare tyres or spare parts from the junkyard.
Sensitizing the public on environmental awareness on the dumping of tyre waste and the pollution
the waste tyres cause on different situations. People should be aware that waste tyres are harmful
to the environment.
59
The government should also introduce a class on environmental pollution in the 844 system so
There should be art centres which practice recycling and other types of arts. These centres will also
be able to create employment and other opportunities for people in the communities.
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APPENDICES
Appendix 1 Questionnaire
UNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI
RESPONDENTS DETAILS.
2. Date of interview.
3. Age..
PART B
............................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................
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3. Are you aware of environmental pollution caused by tyre waste?
............................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................
7. Do you think waste tyre utilization and recycling will reduce environmental pollution?
............................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................
APPENDIX 2- Maps
Kariokor market
Nairobi west
65
66
67
MabB
68