The human Organism

Anatomical anomalies are the structures that unusual and different from the normal pattern.

Anatomical imaging involves the use of x-ray , ultrasound , magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

Anatomy is the scientific discipline that investigates the structures of the body.

Atom can combine to form molecules such as water, sugar, fats, proteins, and DNA

Atomia is a Greek term means to dissect, cut apart, and separate.

Regional anatomy is the study of the organization of the body by areas.

Surface anatomy is the study of external features.

Systemic anatomy is the study of the body by systems

Physiology is the study of nature; the scientific discipline that deals with the processes or functions of living
things.

Human physiology is the study of a specific organism.

Chemical level- atoms combine to form molecules.

Cell level - molecules form organelles such as the nucleus and mitochondria which make up cells.

Organelles which are the small structures that makes up cells.

Tissue level- similar cells and surrounding materials make up tissues.

Tissue is a group of similar cells and materials surrounding.

Organ level-different tissues combine to form organs such as the urinary bladder.

Organ is composed of two or more tissue types that together perform one or more common functions.

Organ System Level is a group of organs classified as a unit because of a common function or set of function.

Organ system is a group of organs classified as a unit because of a common function or set of functions.

Organism level- organ systems make up an organism.

Organism is any living thing considered as whole.

Organization is the condition in which the parts of an organism have specific relationship to each other.

Metabolism is the sum of the chemical and physical changes taking place in an organism.

Responsiveness is the ability of an organism to sense changes in its external environment.

Growth results in an increase in size or amount of substance surrounding cells.

Development includes the changes an organism undergoes through time.

Differentiation is change in cell structure and function from generalized to specialized.

Reproduction is the formation of new cells or new organism.

Homeostasis is the existence and maintenance of a relatively constant environment within tin body the
body.

Set point-normally maintain body temperature near an ideal normal value.

Negative means that any deviation from the set point is made smaller or is resisted.

Positive implies when a deviation from a normal value occurs.

Receptor which monitors the value of a variable.

Control center which receives information about the variable from the receptor.

Effector which produces responses that change the value of the variable.

Etymology the origin of the word.

Foramen is a Latin word for hole; Magnum means large.

Suffix itis means an inflammation. (Appendicitis is an inflammation of appendix.)

Anatomical position refers to a person standing erect with the face director forward, the upper limbs
hanging to the sides, and the palms of the hands facing forward.

Supine is when lying face upward; prone is when lying face downward.

Superior(Up) , Inferior(Down) , Cephalic(toward the head), Caudal(toward the tail), Proximal(nearest),

Distal(distant) , Anterior(Front), Posterior(Back) , Ventral( belly) , Dorsal(Back)

Arm extends from the shoulder to the elbow. Thigh extends from the hip to the knee.

Forearm extends from the elbow to the wrist.

Central region of the body consists of the head, neck, and trunk.

Trunk can be divided into the thorax (chest), abdomen and pelvis.

Abdomen-region between the thorax and pelvis; Pelvis- the inferior end of trunk associated with the hips.

Sagittal plane runs vertically through the body and separates it into right and left parts.

Median plane is a sagittal plane that passes through the midline of body and divides it into equal right and
left parts.

Transverse or horizontal plane runs parallel to the surface of the ground and divides the body into
superior and inferior parts.

Frontal or Coronal plane runs vertically from right to left and divides the body into anterior and posterior
parts

Longitudinal section- long axis of the organ; Cross or transverse section-a right angle to the long axis.

Oblique section-made across the long axis at other than a right angle.
 Basic Chemistry

Matter which is anything occupies space and has mass.

Weight is the gravitational force acting on an object of a given mass.

The international unit for mass is the kilogram (kg).

An object with the mass of the standard kilogram cylinder is defined to have a mass of 1 gram (g).

Element is the simplest type of matter with unique chemical and physical properties.

Atom is the smallest particle of an element that has the characteristics of the element.

Neutron has no electric charge; Proton has one positive change; Electron has one negative charge.

Nucleus at the center of an atom.

The region where electrons are most likely to be found can be represented by an electron cloud.

Atomic number of an element is equal to the number of protons in each atom.

Mass number of an element is the number of protons plus the number of neutrons in each atom.

Isotopes are two or more forms of the same element that have the same number of protons but a different
number of neutrons.

Chemical bonding occurs when the outermost electrons are transferred or shared between atoms.

Ionic bonding- an atom is electrically neutral. (Has an equal number of protons and electrons)

A charged particle called an ion. Positively charged ions are called cations. Negatively charged ions are
called anions.

Ionic bonding-cations tend to remain close to anions.

Covalent bonding results when atoms share one or more pairs of electrons.

Single covalent bond result when two atoms share a pair of electrons.

Double covalent bond result when two atoms shared two pairs of electrons.

Nonpolar covalent bond occurs when electrons are shared equally between atoms.

Polar covalent bond results when electrons are shared unequally between atoms.

Molecules with this asymmetrical electric charge are called polar molecules.

Molecules with symmetrical electric charges are called nonpolar molecules.

Hydrogen bond is formed when the positive end of one polar molecule is weakly attracted to the negative

end of another polar molecules.

Compound is a substance composed of two or more different types of atoms that are chemically combined.
Dissociation when ionic compounds dissolve in water, their ions dissociate or separate from each other.

Nonelectrolytes molecules that do not dissociate form solutions that do not conduct electricity.

Electrolytes- ions that dissociate in water.

Reactants are substances that enter into a chemical reaction.

Products are substances that result from the chemical reaction.

Synthesis reaction occurs when two or more reactants combine to form a larger, more complex product

Dehydration reactions are synthesis reactions in which water is a product.

Decomposition reaction occurs when reactants are broken down into smaller, less complex products.

Hydrolysis reactions-requires that water be split into two parts and that each part be contributed to one of
the new glucose molecules.

Reversible reaction is a chemical reaction in which the reaction can proceed from reactants to products and
from products to reactants.

Equilibrium is equal to the rate of reactant formation.

Energy is defined as the capacity to do work. Potential energy is stored energy that could do work.

Kinetic energy is energy caused by the movement of an object and is the form of energy that actually does
work.

Mechanical energy is energy resulting from the position or movement of objects.

Chemical energy is energy results from the relative positions and interactions among its charged subatomic
particles.

Adenosine Triphosphate(ATP) is an important molecule involved with the transfer of energy in cells ;
capable of both storing and providing energy.

Catalyst is a substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction without being changed or depleted.

Enzyme is a protein molecule that acts as a catalyst.

Acid is a proton donor; base is a proton acceptor.

pH scale- indicates the H+ concentration of a solution.

Pure water is defined as neutral solution.

Neutral solution has an equal number of H+ and OH- and has a pH of 7.0

Acidic solution has a pH less than 7.0 and has a greater concentration of OH-

Alkaline or basic solution has a pH greater than 7.0 and has fewer H+ than OH+

Salt is a compound consisting of a positive ion other than a H+ and a negative ion other than OH-
Buffer is a chemical that resists changes in pH when either an acid or base is added to a solution containing
the buffer.

Inorganic chemistry deals with those substances that do not contain carbon.

Organic chemistry is the study of carbon-containing substances.

Oxygen consists of two oxygen atoms bound together by a double covalent bond.

Carbon dioxide consists of one carbon atom bound to two oxygen atoms.

Water consists of one atom of oxygen joined by polar covalent bonds to two atoms of hydrogen.

Carbohydrates are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.

Monosaccharides- smallest carbohydrates; disaccharides -2 monoccharides join ; polysaccharides-many

monosaccharides.

Lipids are substances that dissolve in nonpolar solvents.

Fats are important energy-storage molecules.

The building blocks of fats are glycerol and fatty acids.

Glycerol is a three-carbon molecule with a hydroxyl group.

Fatty acids consist of a carbon chain with a carboxyl group.

Monoglycerides has one fatty acid, Diglycerides have two fatty acids , Trigycerides have three fatty acids
bound to glycerol

Saturated contains only single covalent bonds between the carbon atoms.

Unsaturated if it has one or more double covalent bonds.

Monounsaturated fats have one double covalent bond carbon atoms.

Polysaturated fats have two or more double covalent bonds between carbon atoms.

Phospholipids are similar to triglycerides except that one of the fatty acids bound to the glycerol.

Hydrophilic (water loving), hydrophobic(water fearing)

Eicosanoids are a group of important chemicals derived from fatty acids.

Steroids are composed of carbon atoms bound together into four ring like structures

The building blocks of proteins are amino acids (amino group)

Peptide bond is a covalent bond that binds two amino acids together.

Dipeptide(2 amino acids) , tripeptide(3 amino acids) ,polypeptide(many amino acids)

The primary structure of a protein is determined by the sequence of the amino acids bound by peptide
bonds.
The secondary structure results from the folding or bending of the polypeptide chain caused by the
hydrogen bonds between amino acids.

The tertiary structure results from the folding of the helices or pleated sheets.

Quaternary structure is the spatial relationships between the individual sub-units.

Enzyme is a protein catalyst that increases the rate at which a chemical reaction proceeds without the
enzyme being permanently changed.

Activation energy - which is the minimum energy necessary to start a chemical reaction.

Lock-and-key model (the shape of an enzyme and that of the reactants allow the enzyme to bind easily to
the reactants.

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is the genetic material of cells and copies of DNA are transferred from one
generation of cells to the next.

Ribonucleic acids (RNA) play important roles in protein synthesis.

Nucleic acids are large molecules composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and phosphorus.

DNA and RNA consist of basic building blocks called nucleotides.

Complementary base pairs are organic bases held together by hydrogen bonds.

A sequence of DNA bases that directs the synthesis of proteins or RNA is called genes.

Cell Organization and Functions

Plasma or cell membrane forms the outer boundary of the cell.

Organelles (specialized structures)- perform specific functions.

Cytoplasm located between the nucleus and plasma membrane, contains many organelles.

Intracellular substances- inside the cell ; Extracellular substances- outside the cell

Phospholipids readily assemble to form a lipid bilayer.

Lipid bilayer which is double layer of phospholipid molecules.

Fluid-mosaic model-modern concept of the plasma membrane: suggest that plasma membrane is highly
flexible and can change its shape and composition through time.

Marker molecules are cell surface molecules that allow cells to identify one another or other molecules.

Glycoprotein is protein with attached carbohydrates.

Glycolipid is lipids with attached carbohydrates.

Attachment proteins allow cells to attach to other cells.

Cadherins are proteins that attach cells to other cells.

Integrins are proteins that attach cells to extracellular molecules.

Transport proteins extend from one surface of the of membrane to the other.

Membrane Channels which are like small pores extending from one surface of the plasma membranes to
the other.

Receptor proteins are proteins or glycoprotein in the plasma membrane with an exposed.

Receptor site which can attach to specific chemical signals.

Enzymes are protein catalysts which increase the chemical reactions on either the inner or outer surface of
the plasma membrane.

Selectively permeable is allowing some substances to pass into or out of the cells.

Diffusion is the tendency for ions and molecules to move from an area of higher concentration to an area of
lower concentration in a solution.

Lipid-soluble molecules diffuse directly through the plasma membrane.

Non-lipid soluble molecules do not diffuse through the plasma membrane.

Solution which the substances are uniformly distributed with no clear boundary between the substances.

Concentration gradient is the concentration difference between two points divided by the distance between
the two points.

Osmosis is the diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane.

Rapid movement of water through the plasma membrane occurs through water channels or aquaporins.

Osmotic pressure is the force required t prevent the movement of water.

Hydrostatic pressure which moves water out of the tube back into the distilled water surrounding the tube.

Isosmotic solutions have the same concentration of solute particles and the same osmotic pressure.

Hyperosmosis has a greater concentration of solute particles and therefore a greater osmotic pressure.

Hyposmotic the more dilute solution with lower osmotic concentration and pressure.

Hypotonic solution- usually has a lower concentration of solutes and a higher concentration of water than
the cytoplasm of the cell.

If the cell swells enough, it can rupture, a process called lysis.

Isotonic solution-the concentration of various solutes and water are the same on both sides of the plasma
membrane.

Hypertonic solution usually has a higher concentration of solutes and a lower concentration of water than
the cytoplasm of cell.

Mediated transport is the process by which transport proteins mediate, assist in, the movement of ions and
molecules across the plasma membrane.
Specificity means each transport protein moves particular molecules.

Competition occurs when similar molecules or ions can be moved by the transport protein.

Saturation means that the rate of movement of molecules or ions across the membrane is limited by the
number of available transport proteins.

Channel proteins form membrane channels. Ions channels are membrane channels that transport ions.

Carrier proteins or transporters are membrane proteins that move ions or molecules from one side of the
plasma membrane to the other.

Uniport is the movement of one specific ion or molecule across the membrane.

Symport is the movement of two or more different ions or molecules in the same direction across the
plasma membrane.

Antiport is the movement of two or more different ions or molecules in the opposite direction across the
plasma membrane.

Facilitated diffusion is the movement of ions or molecules by a uniporter.

ATP-powered pumps are transport proteins that use energy derived from the breakdown of adenosine
triphosphate to move specific ions and molecules from one side of the plasma membrane to the other.

Active transport is the movement of ions and molecules by ATP-powered pumps.

Vesicle is membrane-bound sac that surrounds substances within the cytoplasm of cells.

Vesicular transport is the movement of materials by vesicles.

Endocytosis is the vesicular transport into cell.

Phagocytosis means cell-eating; Pinocytosis means cell-drinking

Macrophages- specialized cells from the body.

Receptor-mediated endocytosis- the plasma membrane contains receptors that bind to specific molecules.

Exocytosis is the movement of materials out of cells by vesicle.

Secretory vesicle accumulate materials for release from cells.

Cytoplasm is the cellular material outside the nucleus but inside the plasma membrane.

Cytosol consists of a fluid portion, a cytoskeleton and cytoplasmic inclusions.

Colloid is a mixture in which large molecules or aggregates of atoms, ions or molecules do not dissolve in a
liquid but remain suspended in the liquid.

Cytoskeleton consists of proteins that support the cell, hold organelles in place and enable the cell to
change shape.

Microtubules are hollow structures formed from protein subunits.

Actin filaments or microfilaments are small fibrils formed from protein subunits that form bundles, sheets
or networks in the cytoplasm of cells.

Intermediate filaments are fibrils formed from protein subunits that are smaller in diameter than
microtubules but larger in diameter than microfilaments.

Cytoplasmic inclusions which are aggregates of chemicals either produced by cell or taken in by the cell.

Nucleus is a large organelles usually located near the center of the cell.

Nuclear DNA and associated proteins are organized into discrete structures called chromosomes.

Histones which are important for the structural organization of DNA.

The chromosomes are dispersed throughout the nucleus as delicate filaments as chromatin.

Chromatids which are attached at the centromere.

Kinetochore- a protein structure within the centromere, provides a point aof attachment for microtubules
during cell division.

Nucleoli are rounded, dense, well-defined nuclear bodies with no surrounding membrane.

Ribosomal ribonucleaic acid(rRNA) which combines with proteins produced in the cytoplasm to form large
and small ribosomal subunits.

Ribosomes are the organelles where proteins are produced.

Free ribosomes are not attached to any other organelles in the cytoplasm.

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a series of membranes forming sacs and tubules that extends from the outer
nuclear membrane into the cytoplasm.

Cisternae are the interior spaces of those sacs and tubules.

Rough ER is ER with ribosome attached to it; Smooth ER is ER without ribosome.

Golgi apparatus collects, modifies, packages and distributes proteins and lipids.

Transport vesicle- small sac.

Secretory vesicles are sacs that transport material produced in cells to the exterior cells.

Lysosomes are bound vesicles formed from the Golgi apparatus.

Peroxisomes containing enzymes that break down fatty acids ,amino acids and hydrogen peroxide.

Proteasomes are tunnel-like structures, similar to channel protein, and are not bounded by membrane.

Mitochondria are bean-shaped, rod-shaped, threadlike organelles with inner and outer membranes
separated by a space.

Matrix is the substance located within the space formed by the inner membrane.

Centrosome is a specialized zone of cytoplasm.

Centrioles normally oriented perpendicular to each other.

Microtubules called spindle fibers extend out in all directions from the centrosome.

Cilia have a cylindrical shape contain specialized microtubules similar to the orientation in centrioles and
are enclosed by the plasma membrane.

Flagella have a structure similar to that of cilia but are much longer and they usually occur only one per cell.

Microvilli are specialized extensions of plasma membrane that are supported by microfilaments.

Messenger RNA (mRNA)travels from the nucleus to the ribosomes where the information in the copy is
used to construct a protein by means of translation.

Transfer RNA- specialized transport molecules that carry the amino acids to the ribosome.

Transcription is the synthesis of mRNA, tRNA and rRNA.

Exons -code for parts of protein as well as sections; Introns -do not code for parts of a protein.

Exons are spliced together by enzymes called spliceosomes.

Translation is the synthesis of proteins in response to the codons

Genetic code is carried in sets of three nucleotide units.

Start codon signals the beginning of translation, stop codon signals the end of translation.

Anticodon consists of three nucleotides and is complementary to a particular codon of mRNA.

Polyribosome is the resulting cluster of ribosome attached to the mRNA.

Cell division is the formation of two daughter cells from a single parent cell.

The new cells necessary for growth and tissue repair are formed through mitosis.

The sex cells called gametes. Males- sperm cells, Females- oocytes , egg cells

Diploid number is the normal number of chromosomes in a somatic cell.

Haploid number is the normal number of chromosomes in a gametes.

The remaining 22 pairs of chromosomes are called auto-somes.

Cytokinesis is the division of the cytoplasm of the cell to produce two new cells.

Formation of a cleavage furrow is an identification of the plasma membrane.

Differenciation is the process by which cells develop specialized structures and functions.