NDT20 Course Notes

Radiographic Testing (RT) - Welds
NDT20
Training and Examination Services

Granta Park, Great Abington
Cambridge CB21 6AL
United Kingdom
Copyright TWI Ltd
Radiographic Testing (RT) - Welds
Contents
Section Subject
Preliminary pages
Contents
Standards and Associated Reading
COSHH, H&S, Cautions and Warnings
Introduction to NDT Methods
NDT Certification Schemes
1 Properties of Penetrating Radiation

2 The Electromagnetic Spectrum
3 Simple Atomic Theory
4 Ionising Radiation
5 X-rays or Bremsstrahlung
5.1 X-ray equipment
6 Gamma Rays
6.1 Alpha and beta emission
6.2 Sealed sources
6.3 Penetrating power of gamma radiation
6.4 Quantity of gamma radiation
6.5 Radioactive isotope containers for industrial radiography
6.6 Comparison of X- and gamma rays
7 Methods of Producing a Radiographic Image
7.1 Radiographic film
7.2 Advanced imaging techniques
8 Production of a Radiograph (Film Radiography)
8.1 Radiographic quality
8.2 Radiation scattering and scatter control
8.3 Determining the correct exposure: Exposure charts
9 Sensitivity
9.1 Radiographic sensitivity
9.2 Controlling radiographic quality
9.3 EN ISO 19232-1 wire type IQIs
9.4 Other wire type IQIs
9.5 EN ISO 19232-2 Step-Hole type IQIs
9.6 ASTM E 1025 plaque type penetrameters
9.7 IQI sensitivity
9.8 Duplex wire IQI
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Contents Copyright TWI Ltd
10 Radiographic Techniques (for Welds in Plate and Pipe)
10.1 IQI type and placement
10.2 Location markers
10.3 Identification of radiographs
10.4 Radiation energy
10.5 Source to film distance
10.6 SWSI techniques
10.7 Double wall single image
11 Interpretation of Radiographs
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Viewing conditions
11.3 Reporting
11.4 Film quality
11.5 Interpretation of radiographic images
11.6 Artefacts
11.7 Interpretation of weld radiographs
11.8 Interpretation of casting radiographs
12 Localisation
12.1 90method
12.2 Tube (source) shift method
12.3 Tube (source) shift method with lead markers
13 Units Used in Radiography
13.1 Ionisation (exposure)
13.2 Absorbed dose
13.3 Man mammal equivalent or radiobiological equivalent
13.4 Dose rate
13.5 Source strength or activity
13.6 Specific activity
13.7 Output
14 Radiation Monitoring Devices
14.1 Survey meters
14.2 Personal monitors
15 Radiation Safety
15.1 Precautions
15.2 Exposure limits for radiation workers
15.3 Permitted levels
15.4 Safe working distances
16 Glossary
Appendix
Product Technology Notes
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Contents Copyright TWI Ltd
Preface
These notes are provided as training reference material and to meet the study
requirements for examination on the NDT course to which they relate.
They do not form an authoritative document, nor should they be used as a reference for
NDT inspection or used as the basis for decision making on NDT matters. The standards
listed are correct at time of printing and should be consulted for technical matters.
NOTE: These training notes are not subject to amendment after issue.
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Prelims 1 Copyright TWI Ltd
Standards and Associated Reading
EN ISO 1330-1 Non Destructive Testing Terminology

Part 1: List of general terms

Part 2: Terms common to NDT methods

Part 3: Terms used in industrial radiographic testing
EN ISO 5579 Non-destructive testing General principles for radiographic

examination of metallic materials by X- and gamma-rays
EN ISO 19232-1 Non-destructive testing Image quality of radiographs

Part 1: Image quality indicators (wire type) Determination of
image quality value

Part 2: Image quality indicators (step/hole type) Determination
of image quality value

Part 3. Image quality classes for ferrous metals

Part 4: Experimental evaluation of image quality values and image
quality tables

Part 5. Image quality indicators (duplex wire type), determination
of image unsharpness value
EN ISO 11699-1 Non-destructive testing Industrial radiographic film

Part 1: Classification of film systems for industrial radiography
EN ISO 11699-2 Non-destructive testing Industrial radiographic film

Part 2. Control of film processing by means of reference values
EN ISO 17636-1 Non-destructive testing of welds Radiographic testing. Part 1: X-

and gamma-ray techniques with film.
EN ISO 17636-2 Non-destructive testing of welds Radiographic testing Part 2: X-
and gamma ray techniques with digital detectors.
BS 4094-1 Recommendation for Data on shielding from ionizing radiation

Part 1: Shielding from gamma radiation
BS 4094-2 Recommendation for Data on shielding from ionizing radiation

Part 2: Shielding from X radiation
EN ISO 10675-1 Non-destructive testing of welds Part 1: Evaluation of welded

joints in steel, nickel, titanium and their alloys by radiography
Acceptance levels
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EN ISO 10675-2 Non-destructive testing of welds Part 2: Evaluation of welded
joints in aluminium and its alloys by radiography Acceptance
levels
EN 12681 Founding Radiographic examination
EN 25580 Minimum requirements for industrial radiographic illuminators

for non-destructive testing
BS M 34 Method of preparation and use of radiographic techniques
BS M 38 Guide to compilation of instructions and reports for the in-

service non-destructive testing of aerospace products.
EN 4179 Aerospace series. Qualification and approval of personnel for

non-destructive testing
EN ISO 9712 Non-destructive testing. Qualification and certification of

personnel
Associated Reading
NDT Ed.org Introduction to radiographic testing
http://www.ndt-
ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/Radiography/cc_rad_index.htm
Mathematics and Formulae in NDT. Edited by Dr. R Halmshaw.

Obtainable from the British Institute of Non-Destructive Testing
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COSHH, H&S, Caution and Warnings Relevant to TWI Training & Examination
Services
Introduction
The use of chemicals in NDT is regulated by law under the Control of Substances
Hazardous to Health (COSHH) Regulations 2005. These regulations require the School to
assess and control the risk of health damage from every kind of substance used in
training. Students are also required by the law to co-operate with the Schools risk
management efforts and to comply with the Control Measures adopted.
Hazard Data Sheets
The School holds Manufacturers Safety Data Sheets for every substance in use. Copies
are readily available for students to read before using any product. The Data Sheets
contain information on:
Trade name of the product; eg Magnaglo, Ardrox, etc.

Hazardous ingredients of the products.
Effect of those ingredients on peoples health.
Hazard category of the substance; eg irritant, harmful, corrosive or toxic, etc.
Special precautions for use; eg the correct personal protective equipment (PPE) to
wear.
Instructions for First Aid.
Advice on disposal.
EH40 Occupational Exposure Conditions
Electrical Hazards include the following

- Electrical shock and burns from contact with live parts
- Injury from exposure to arcing or fire from faulty equipment
- Explosion caused by electrical apparatus (or static electricity)
- Electric shocks can lead to other types of injury such as falling from ladders or
scaffolds.
It is therefore important that workers know how to use electrical equipment and that
it should be properly maintained and switched off when cleaning, adjusting or
moving/transporting.
As is the case with all items of test equipment and safety equipment, national
regulations in the country of operation must be adhered to.
What is Exposure?
Exposure to a substance is uptake into the body. The exposure routes are:
Breathing fume, dust, gas or mist.

Skin contact.
Injection into the skin.
Swallowing.
Many thousands of substances are used at work but only about 500 substances have
workplace exposure limits (WELs). Until 2005 it had been normal for HSE to publish a
new edition of EH40, or at least an amendment, each year. However, with increasing use
of the website facilities, the HSE no longer always publishes a revised hardcopy edition
or amendment.
The web-based list applicable from 1 October 2007 can now be found at
http://www.hse.gov.uk/coshh/table1.pdf
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Safety and Environmental Requirements
Ultrasonic testing requires the use of couplant and cleaning fluids, some of which may be
hazardous to health. Extended or repeated contact of such materials with the skin or
mucous membranes shall be avoided.
Testing materials shall be used in accordance with manufacturers instructions. National

accident prevention, electrical safety handling of dangerous substances and personal and
environmental protection regulations shall be observed at all times.
Cautions and Warnings

Some of the test samples used on the ultrasonic courses are heavy and become slippery
when covered in couplant. Care should be taken when moving the samples and suitable
PPE, particularly safety boots and barrier cream, should be used.
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Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing
Non-destructive testing (NDT) is the ability to examine a material (usually for
discontinuities) without degrading it or permanently altering the article being tested, as
opposed to destructive testing which renders the product virtually useless after testing.
Other advantages of NDT over destructive testing are that every item can be examined
with no adverse consequences, materials can be examined for conditions internally and
at the surface and, most importantly, parts can be examined whilst in service, giving a
good balance between cost effectiveness and quality control. NDT is used in almost
every industry with the majority of applications coming from the aerospace, power
generation, automotive, rail, oil & gas, petrochemical and pipeline markets, safety being
the main priority of these industries. When properly applied, NDT saves money, time,
materials and lives. NDT as it is known today has been developing since around the
1920s, with the methods used today taking shape later and vast technological
advancements being made during the Second World War. The basic principal methods
are:
Visual testing (VT).

Penetrant testing (PT).
Magnetic particle testing (MT).
Eddy current testing (ET).
Ultrasonic testing (UT).
Radiographic testing (RT).
In all NDT methods, the interpretation of results is critical. Much depends on the skill and
experience of the technician, although properly formulated test techniques and
procedures will improve accuracy and consistency.
Visual testing (VT)

With sufficient lighting and access, visual techniques provide simple, rapid methods of
testing whilst also being the least expensive. Close visual testing (CVT) refers to viewing
directly with the eye (with or without magnification) whereas remote visual inspection
(RVI) refers to the use of optical devices such as the boroscope and the fibrescope.
Visual testing begins with the eye; however, the first boroscopes used a hollow tube and
a mirror with a small lamp at the end to investigate the bores of rifles and cannons for
problems and discontinuities. In the 1950s, the lamps were replaced by glass fibre
bundles which were used to transmit the light. These became known as fibrescopes
which were also less rigid, increasing the capabilities of testing. With usage expanding,
many users began to suffer from eye fatigue which led to the development of video
technology. This was first used in the 1970s and relies on electronics to transmit the
images rather than fibreoptics.
Further enhancements to video technology include pan, tilt and zoom lenses, and
mounting cameras to platforms and wheels, all allowing more parts to be tested and
better images for improved inspection. Video devices also allow recordings of inspections
to be taken, meaning permanent records can be kept. This has a number of advantages
such as enabling other inspectors to observe the test as it was performed and allowing
further review and evaluation.
Penetrant testing (PT)

Penetrant testing locates surface-breaking discontinuities by covering the item with a
penetrating liquid, which is drawn into the discontinuity by capillary action. After removal
of excess penetrant, the indication is made visible by application of a developer. Colour
contrast or fluorescent systems may be used.
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Advantages Disadvantages
Applicable to non-ferromagnetics Only detects defects open to the surface
Able to test large parts with a portable kit Careful surface preparation required
Batch testing Not applicable to porous materials
Applicable to small parts with complex Temperature dependent

geometry
Simple, cheap, easy to interpret Cannot retest indefinitely
Sensitivity Compatibility of chemicals
History of penetrant testing

A very early surface inspection technique involved the rubbing of carbon black on glazed
pottery. The carbon black would settle in surface cracks, rendering them visible. Later, it
became the practice in railway workshops to examine iron and steel components by the
oil and whiting method. In this method, heavy oil, commonly available in railway
workshops, was diluted with kerosene in large tanks so that locomotive parts such as
wheels could be submerged. After removal and careful cleaning, the surface was then
coated with a fine suspension of chalk in alcohol so that a white surface layer was
formed once the alcohol had evaporated. The object was then vibrated by being struck
with a hammer, causing the residual oil in any surface cracks to seep out and stain the
white coating. This method was in use from the latter part of the 19th century to
approximately 1940, when the magnetic particle method was introduced and found to be
more sensitive for ferromagnetic iron and steels.
A different (though related) method was introduced in the 1940s. The surface under
examination was coated with a lacquer, and after drying, the sample was caused to
vibrate by the tap of a hammer. The vibration causes
the brittle lacquer layer to crack generally around
surface defects. The brittle lacquer (stress coat) has
been used primarily to show the distribution of
stresses in a part and not for finding defects.
Many of these early developments were carried out by

Magnaflux in Chicago, IL, USA in association with
Switzer Bros, Cleveland, OH, USA. More effective
penetrating oils containing highly visible (usually red)
dyes were developed by Magnaflux to enhance flaw
detection capability. This method, known as the visible
or colour contrast dye penetrant method, is still used
quite extensively today. In the 1940s, Magnaflux
introduced the Zyglo system of penetrant inspection where fluorescent dyes were added
to the liquid penetrant. These dyes would then fluoresce when exposed to ultraviolet
light (sometimes referred to as black light), rendering indications from cracks and other
surface flaws more readily visible to inspectors. UV lights have become increasingly
portable with hand held UV torches now readily available.
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Magnetic particle testing (MT)
Magnetic particle testing is used to locate surface and slightly sub-surface discontinuities
in ferromagnetic materials by introducing a magnetic flux into the material.
Will detect some sub-surface defects Ferromagnetic materials only
Rapid and simple to understand Requirement to test in two directions
Pre-cleaning not as critical as with dye Demagnetisation may be required

penetrant testing (PT)
Will work through thin coatings Oddly-shaped parts difficult to test
Cheap equipment Not suited to batch testing
Direct test method Can damage the component under test
History of magnetic particle testing

The origins of MT can be traced to the 1860s when cannon barrels were tested for
defects by first magnetising the barrel and then running a compass down the length of
the barrel. By monitoring the needle of the compass, defects within the barrel could be
detected.
This form of NDT became much more common after the First World War, in the 1920s,
when William Hoke discovered that flaws in magnetised materials created distortions in
the magnetic field. When a fine ferromagnetic powder was applied to the parts, it was
observed that they built up around the defects, providing a visible indication of their
location.
Magnetic particle testing superseded the oil and chalk method in the 1930s as it proved
far more sensitive to surface breaking flaws. Today it is still preferred to the penetrant
method on ferromagnetic material and much of the equipment being used then is very
similar to that of today, with the only advances coming in the form of fluorescent coating
to increase the visibility of indications and more portable devices being used. In the early
days, battery packs and direct current were the norm and it was some years before
alternating current proved acceptable.
Magnetism
The phenomenon called magnetism is said to have been discovered in the ancient Greek
city of Magnesia, where naturally occurring magnets were found to attract iron.
The use of magnets in navigation goes back to Viking times or maybe earlier, where it
was found that rods of magnetised material, when freely suspended, would always point
in a north-south direction. The end of the rod which pointed towards the North Pole star
became known as the North Pole and consequently the other end became the South
Pole.
Hans Christian Oersted (1777-1851) discovered the connection between electricity and
magnetism, followed by Michael Faraday (1791-1867), whose experiments revealed that
magnetic and electrical energy could be interchanged.
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Historical perspective
Electromagnetic testing the interaction of magnetic fields with circulating electrical
currents - had its origin in 1831 when Michael Faraday discovered electromagnetic
induction. He induced current flow in a secondary coil by switching a battery on and off.
D E Hughes performed the first recorded eddy current test in 1879. He was able to
distinguish between different metals by noting a change in excitation frequency resulting
from effects of test material resistivity and magnetic permeability.
Introduction to electromagnetic testing

Many electromagnetic induction or eddy current comparators were patented in the period
from 1952. Innumerable examples of comparator tests were reported in the literature
and in patents. Many involved simple comparator coils into which round bars or other
test objects were placed, producing simple changes in the amplitudes of test signals, or
unbalancing simple bridge circuits. In nearly all cases, particularly where ferromagnetic
test materials were involved, no quantitative analyses of test objects dimensions,
properties, or discontinuities were possible with such instruments. Often, difficulties were
encountered in reproducing test results. Some test circuits were adjusted or balanced to
optimise signal differences between a known good test object and a known defective test
object for each group of objects to be tested. Little or no correlation could then be
obtained between various types of specimens, each type having been compared to an
arbitrarily selected specimen of the same specific type.
Developments in electromagnetic induction tests

Rapid technological developments in many fields before and during the Second World
War (1939-45) contributed both to the demand for NDT and to the development of
advanced test methods. Radar and sonar systems allowed the viewing of test data on
the screens of cathode-ray tubes or oscilloscopes. Developments in electronic
instrumentation and magnetic sensors used both for degaussing ships and for actuating
magnetic mines brought a resurgence of activity.
Eddy current testing (ET)

Eddy current testing is based on inducing electrical currents in the material being
inspected and observing the interaction between those currents and the material. Eddy
currents are generated by coils in the test probe and monitored simultaneously by
measuring the coils electrical impedance. As it is an electromagnetic induction process,
direct electrical contact with the sample is not required; however, the material must be
an electrical conductor.
Sensitive to surface defects Very susceptible to permeability changes
Can detect through several layers Only on conductive materials
Can detect through surface coatings Will not detect defects parallel to surface
Accurate conductivity measurements Not suitable for large areas and/or complex
geometries
Can be automated Signal interpretation required
Little pre-cleaning required No permanent record (unless automated)
Portability
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History of eddy current testing
The principles of eddy currents arose in 1831 with Faradays discovery of
electromagnetic induction; eddy current testing methods have their origins in a period
just after the First World War, when materials with a high magnetic permeability were
being developed for electrical power transformer cores and motor armatures. Eddy
currents are a considerable nuisance in electrical engineering they dissipate heat and
efforts to reduce their effect led to a discovery that they could be used to detect material
changes and cracks in magnetic materials. The first eddy current testing devices for NDT
were in 1879 by Hughes, who used the principles of eddy currents to conduct
metallurgical sorting tests and the stray flux tube and bar tests.
It was left to Dr Friedrich Frster in the late 1940s to develop the modern day eddy
current testing equipment and formulate the theories which govern their use. The
introduction by Frster of sophisticated, stable, quantitative test equipment and of
practical methods for analysis of quantitative test signals on the complex plane was by
far the most important factor contributing to the rapid development and acceptance of
electromagnetic induction and eddy current testing. Frster is rightly identified as the
father of modern eddy current testing.
By 1950, he had developed a precise theory for many basic types of eddy current tests,
including both absolute and differential or comparator test systems and probe or fork coil
systems used with thin sheets and extended surfaces.
Continued advances in research and development, advanced electronics and digital

equipment have led to eddy currents becoming one of the most versatile of the surface
methods of inspection. Eddy current methods have developed into a wide range of uses
and are recognised as being the forerunner of NDT techniques today. From the mid-
1980s, microprocessor-based eddy current testing instruments were developed which
had many advantages for inspectors. Modern electronics have made instruments more
user friendly, providing reduced noise levels which made certain test applications very
difficult, but also improving methods of signal presentation and recording capabilities.
Applications for microcomputer chips abound, from giving lift-off suppression in simple
crack detection to providing signal processing for immediate analysis of condenser tube
inspection. As with other testing methods, improvements to the equipment have been
made to increase its portability and computer-based systems now allow easy data
manipulation and signal processing. Eddy current testing is now a widely used and
understood inspection method for flaw detection as well as for thickness and conductivity
measurements.
Ultrasonic testing (UT)

Ultrasonic testing measures the time for high frequency (0.5-50MHz) pulses of
ultrasound to travel through the inspection material. If a discontinuity is present, the
ultrasound will return to the probe in a time period other than that expected of a fault-
free specimen.
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Sensitive to cracks at various orientations No permanent record (unless automated)
Portability Not easily applied to complex geometries

and rough surfaces
Safety Unsuited to coarse grained materials
Able to penetrate thick sections Reliant upon defect orientation
Measures depth and through-wall extent
History of ultrasonic testing

In Medieval times craftsmen casting bells for churches were aware that a properly cast
bell rang true when struck and that a bell with flaws would give out a false note. This
principle was used by wheel-tappers inspecting rolling stock on the railways; they struck
wheels with a hammer and listened to the note given out. A loose tyre sounded wrong.
The origin of modern ultrasonic testing (UT) is the discovery by the Curie brothers in
1880 that quartz crystals cut in a certain way produce an electric potential when
subjected to pressure - the piezo-electric effect, from the Greek piedzein (to press or
strike). In 1881 Lippman theorised that the effect might work in reverse, and that quartz
crystals might change shape if an electric current was applied to them. He found that
this was so and experimented further. Crystals of quartz vibrate when alternating
currents are applied to them. Crystal microphones in a modern stereo rely on this
principle.
When the Titanic sank in 1912, the Admiralty tried to find a way of locating icebergs by
sending out sound waves and listening for an echo. They experimented further with
sound to detect submarines during the First World War. Between the wars, marine echo
sounding was developed and in the Second World War ASDIC (Anti-Submarine Detection
Investigation Committee) was extensively used in the Battle of the Atlantic against the
U-boats.
In 1929, the Russian physicist Sokolov experimented with through-transmission

techniques, passing vibrations through metals to find flaws; this work was taken up by
the Germans. In the 1930s the cathode ray tube was developed and miniaturised in the
Second World War to fit small airborne radar sets into aircraft. It made the UT set as we
know it possible. Around 1931 Mulhauser obtained a patent for a system using two
probes to detect flaws in solids and following this Firestone (1940) and Simons (1945)
developed pulsed UT using a pulse-echo technique.
In the years after the Second World War, researchers in Japan began to experiment on
the use of ultrasound for medical diagnostic purposes. Working largely in isolation until
the 1950s, the Japanese developed techniques for the detection of gallstones, breast
masses, and tumours. Japan was also the first country to apply Doppler ultrasound, an
application of ultrasound that detects internal moving objects such as blood coursing
through the heart for cardiovascular investigation.
The first flaw detector was made by Sproule in 1942 while he was working for the
Scottish firm Kelvin & Hughes. Similar work was carried out by Firestone in the USA and
by German physicists. Sproule went on to develop the shear-wave probe.
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Initially UT was limited to testing aircraft, but in the 1950s it was extensively used in the
building of power stations in Britain for examining thick steel components safely and
cheaply. UT was found to have several advantages over radiography in heavy industrial
applications:
No health hazards were associated with radiography, and a UT technician could work
next to welders and other employees without endangering them of holding up work.
It was efficient in detecting toe cracks in boilers a major cause of explosions and
lack of fusion in boiler tubes.
It could find planar defects, like laminations, which were sometimes missed by
radiography.
A UT check on a thick component took no more time than a similar check on a thin
component as opposed to long exposure times in radiography.
Over the next twenty years, improvements focused on accurate detection and sizing of
the flaws with limited success, until 1977 when Silk first discovered an accurate
measurement and display of the top and bottom edges of a discontinuity with the time-
of-flight diffraction (TOFD) technique. Advances in computing technology have now
expanded the use of TOFD as real time analyses of results are now available.
It was also during the 1970s that industries focused on reducing the size and weight of
ultrasonic flaw detectors and making them more portable. This was achieved by using
semiconductor technology and during the 1990s microchips were introduced into the
devices to allow calibration parameters and signal traces to be stored. LCD display
panels and digital technology have also contributed to reducing the size and weight of
ultrasonic flaw detectors. With the development of ultrasonic phased array and increased
computing power, the future for ultrasonic inspection is very exciting.
Ultrasound used for testing

The main use of ultrasonic inspection in the human and the animal world is for detecting
objects and measuring distance. A pulse of ultrasound (a squeak from a bat or a pulse
from an ultrasonic source) hits an object and is reflected back to its source like an echo.
From the time it takes to travel to the object and back, the distance of the object from
the sound source can be calculated. That is how bats fly in the dark and how dolphins
navigate through water. It is also how warships detected and attacked submarines in the
Second World War. Wearing a blindfold, you can determine if you are in a very large hall
or an ordinary room by clapping your hands sharply; a large hall will give back a distinct
echo, but an ordinary room will not. A bats echo location is more precise: the bat gives
out and can sense short wavelengths of ultrasound and these give a sharper echo than
we can detect.
In UT a sound pulse is sent into a solid object and an echo returns from any flaws in that
object or from the other side of the object. An echo is returned from a solid-air interface
or any solid-non-solid interface in the object being examined. We can send ultrasonic
pulses into material by making a piezo-electric crystal vibrate in a probe. The pulses can
travel in a compression, shear or transverse mode. This is the basis of ultrasonic testing.
However, the information from the returning echoes must be presented for
interpretation. It is for this purpose that the UT set, or flaw detector as it is frequently
called, contains a cathode ray tube.
In the majority of UT sets, the information is presented on the screen in a display called
the A Scan. The bottom of the CRT screen is a time base made to represent a distance -
say 100mm. An echo from the backwall comes up on the screen as a signal, the
amplitude of which represents the amount of sound returning to the probe. By seeing
how far the signal comes along the screen we can measure the thickness of the material
we are examining.
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If that material contains a flaw, sound is reflected back from the flaw and appears on the
screen as a signal in front of the backwall echo (BWE) as the sound reflected from the
flaw has not had so far to travel as that from the backwall.
BWE
BWE
BWE
BWE
Defect
Defect
Ultrasonic signals
Anything that sends back sound energy to a probe to cause a signal on the screen is
called a reflector. By measuring the distance from the edge of the CRT screen to the
signal, we can calculate how far down in the material the reflector lies.
Radiographic testing (RT)

Radiography monitors the varying transmission of ionising radiation through a material
with the aid of photographic film or fluorescent screens to detect changes in density and
thickness. It will locate internal and surface-breaking defects.
Gives a permanent record, the radiograph Radiation health hazard
Detects internal flaws Can be sensitive to defect orientation and

so can miss planar flaws
Detects volumetric flaws readily Limited ability to detect fine cracks
Can be used on most materials Access is required to both sides of the

object
Can check for correct assembly Skilled radiographic interpretation is

required
Gives a direct image of flaws Relatively slow method of inspection
Fluoroscopy can give real time imaging High capital cost
High running cost
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History of radiographic testing
X-rays were discovered in 1895 by Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen
(1845-1923) who was a Professor at Wrzburg University in
Germany. Whilst performing experiments in which he passed an
electric current through a Crookes tube (an evacuated glass
tube with an anode and a cathode), he found that when a high
voltage was applied, the tube produced a fluorescent glow.
Roentgen noticed that some nearby photographic plates
became fogged. This caused Roentgen to conclude that a new
type of ray was being emitted from the tube. He believed that
unknown rays were passing from the tube and through the
plates. He found that the new ray could pass through most
substances. Roentgen also discovered that the ray could pass
through the tissue of humans, but not bones and metal objects.
One of Roentgen's first experiments late in 1895 was a film of
the hand of his wife.
Shortly after the discovery of X-rays, another form of

penetrating rays was discovered. In 1896 French
scientist Henri Becquerel discovered natural
radioactivity. Many scientists of the period were
working with cathode rays, and other scientists were
gathering evidence on the theory that the atom
could be subdivided. Some of the new research
showed that certain types of atoms disintegrate by
themselves. It was Becquerel who discovered this
phenomenon while investigating the properties of
fluorescent minerals.
One of the minerals Becquerel worked with was a

uranium compound. On a day when it was too cloudy
to expose his samples to direct sunlight, Becquerel
stored some of the compound in a drawer with
photographic plates. Later when he developed these plates, he discovered that they
were fogged (indicating exposure to light).
Becquerel wondered what would have caused this
fogging. He knew he had wrapped the plates
tightly before using them, so the fogging was not
due to stray light; in addition, he noticed that
only the plates that were in the drawer with the
uranium compound were fogged. Becquerel
concluded that the uranium compound gave off a
type of radiation that could penetrate heavy paper
and expose photographic film. Becquerel
continued to test samples of uranium compounds
and determined that the source of radiation was
the element uranium. Becquerel did not pursue
his discovery of radioactivity, but others did.
While working in France at the time of Becquerel's

discovery, Polish scientist Marie Curie became
very interested in his work. She suspected that a
uranium ore known as pitch-blende contained
other radioactive elements. Marie and her
husband, French scientist Pierre Curie, started
looking for these other elements.
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In 1898, the Curies discovered another radio-active element in pitchblende, and named
it polonium in honour of Maries native homeland. Later that year, the Curies discovered
another radioactive element which they named radium, or shining element. Both
polonium and radium were more radioactive than uranium. Due to her lifelong research
in this field, Marie Curie is widely credited with the discovery of gamma radiation and the
introduction of the new term: radio-active.
Since these discoveries, many other radioactive elements have been discovered or
produced. Radiography in the form of NDT took shape in the early 1920s when H H
Lester began testing on different materials. Radium became the initial industrial gamma
ray source. The material allowed castings up to 10 to 12 inches thick to be radiographed.
During the Second World War, industrial radiography grew tremendously as part of the
Navy's shipbuilding programme. In 1946, man-made gamma ray sources from elements
such as cobalt and iridium became available. These new sources were far stronger than
radium and much less expensive. The man-made sources rapidly replaced radium, and
the use of gamma rays increased quickly in industrial radiography.
William D Coolidge's name is inseparably linked with the

X-ray tube popularly called the Coolidge tube. This
invention completely revolutionised the generation of X-
rays and remains the model upon which all X-ray tubes
for medical applications are patterned. He invented
ductile tungsten, the filament material still used in such
lamps. He was awarded 83 patents.
Although the theories and practices have changed very

little, radiographic equipment has developed. These
developments include better images through higher
quality films and also lighter, more portable equipment.
In addition to conventional film radiography, digital

radiographic systems are now widespread within the
NDT industry. The use of photostimulable phosphor
(PSP) bearing imaging plates with photomultipliers to
capture image signals and analogue-to-digital
converters (ADC) are used extensively in computed
radiography (CR).
Direct radiography (DR) systems are also used based upon complementary metal oxide
sensor (CMOS) technology and TFT (thin film transistors). These systems have the
ability to directly convert light into digital format; additionally, they may be coupled with
a scintillator which coats CMOS and charged couple device (CCD) sensors. The
scintillator converts photon energy to light before the sensor and ADC converts to digital
format. Systems which use scintillators in this way are often referred to as indirect
systems.
Quality issues of any digital system are based upon the effective pixel size and the
signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). The benefits of using digital systems are the speed of
inspection and the absence of chemical processing requirements and wet film; however,
the initial equipment costs will be high.
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NDT Certification Schemes
CSWIP Certification Scheme for Personnel

Managed by TWI Certification Ltd (TWICL), a TWI Group company
formed in 1993 to separate TWIs activities in the field of
personnel and company certification thus ensuring continued
compliance with international standards for certification bodies
and is accredited by UKAS to BS EN ISO 17024.
TWICL establishes and implements certification schemes,

approves training courses, and authorises examination bodies and assessors in a large
variety of inspection fields, including; non-destructive testing (NDT), welding and plant
inspectors, welding supervisors, welding coordination, plastic welders, underwater
inspectors, integrity management, general inspection of offshore facilities, cathodic
protection, heat treatment.
TWI Certification Ltd

Granta Park,
Great Abington,
Cambridge CB21 6AL,
United Kingdom
Tel: +44 (0) 1223 899000
Fax: +44 (0) 1223 894219
Email: twicertification@twi.co.uk
Website: www.cswip.com
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PCN Personal Certification in Non-destructive testing
Managed and marketed by the British Institute of Non-Destructive
Testing (BINDT) which owns and operates the PCN Certification Scheme,
it offeres a UKAS accreditied certification of competence for NDT and
condition monitoring in a variety of product sectors.
The British Institute of Non-Destructive Testing

Certification Services Division,
Newton Building,
St. Georges Avenue,
Northampton,
NN2 6JB,
United Kingdom
Tel: +44 (0)1604 893811

Fax: +44 (0)1604 892861
Email: pcn@bindt.org
Website: http://www.bindt.org/Certification/General_Information
Both schemes offer NDT certification conforming to BS EN ISO 9712; Qualification and
Certification of NDT personnel, this superseding EN473.
The PCN Scheme

What follows is a summary of the general requirements for qualification and PCN
certification of NDT personnel as described in PCN/GEN Issue 5 Revision R.
PCN Certification is a scheme which covers the qualification of NDT inspection staff to
meet the requirements of European and International Standards. Typically a standard or
procedure will call for the Inspector to be certified in accordance with BS EN ISO 9712
and/or PCN requirements. The PCN Gen Document describes how the PCN system works.
The points below cover extracts from this document which are major items, the full
document can be viewed on the BINDT website www.bindt.org/certification/PCN.
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References
PCN documents
PSL/4 Examination availability
PSL/8A PCN documents issue status
PSL/30 Log of pre-certification experience
PSL/31 Use of PCN & UKAS logo
PSL/42 Log of pre-certification on-the-job training
PSL/44 Vision requirements
PSL/49 Examination exemptions for holders of certification other than PCN
PSL/51 Acceptable certification for persons supervising PCN candidates gaining
experience prior to certification
PSL/57C Application for certification, experience gained post examination
PSL/67 Supplementary 56 day waiver
PSL/70 Request for L2 certificate issue to a L3 holder
CP9 Requirements for BINDT authorised qualifying bodies
CP16 Renewal and recertification of PCN Levels 1 & 2 certificates
CP17 Renewal and recertification of PCN Level 3 certificates
CP19 Informal access to authorised qualifying bodies by third parties
CP22 Marking and grading PCN examinations
CP25 Guidelines for the preparation of NDT procedures and instructions in PCN
examinations
CP27 Code of ethics for PCN certificate holders
PCN/GEN Appendix Z1 NDT Training Syllabi
Levels of PCN certification

Level 1 personnel are qualified to carry out NDT operations according to written
instructions under the supervision of appropriately qualified Level 2 or 3 personnel.
Within the scope of the competence defined on the certificate, Level 1 personnel may be
authorised by the employer to perform the following in accordance with NDT
instructions:
Set up equipment.
Carry out the test.
Record and classify the results in terms of written criteria.
Report the results.
Level 1 personnel have not demonstrated competence in the choice of test method or
technique to be used, nor for the assessment, characterisation or interpretation of test
results.
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Level 2 personnel have demonstrated competence to perform and supervise non-
destructive testing according to established or recognised procedures. Within the scope
of the competence defined on the certificate, Level 2 personnel may be authorised by the
employer to:
Select the NDT technique for the test method to be used.

Define the limitations of application of the testing method.
Translate NDT standards and specifications into NDT instructions.
Set up and verify equipment settings.
Perform and supervise tests.
Interpret and evaluate results according to applicable standards, codes or
specifications.
Prepare written NDT instructions.
Carry out and supervise all Level 1 duties.
Provide guidance for personnel at or below Level 2.
Organise and report the results of non-destructive tests.
Level 3 personnel are qualified to direct any NDT operation for which they are
certificated and may be authorised by the employer to:
Assume full responsibility for a test facility or examination centre and staff.
Establish, review for editorial and technical correctness and validate NDT instructions
and procedures.
Interpret codes, standards, specifications and procedures.
Designate the particular test methods, techniques and procedures to be used.
Within the scope and limitations of any certification held carry out all Level 1 and 2
duties and;
Provide guidance and supervision at all levels.
Level 3 personnel have demonstrated:
Competence to interpret and evaluate test results in terms of existing codes,

standards and specifications.
Possession of the required level of knowledge in applicable materials, fabrication and
product technology sufficient to enable the selection of NDT methods and techniques
and to assist in the establishment of test criteria where none are otherwise available.
General familiarity with other NDT methods.
Level 3 certificated personnel may be authorised to carry out, manage and supervise
PCN qualification examinations on behalf of the British Institute of NDT.
Where Level 3 duties require the individual to apply routine NDT by a method(s) within a
particular product or industry sector, the British Institute of NDT strongly recommends
that industry demand that this person should hold and maintain Level 2 certification in
the applicable methods and sectors.
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Training
Table 1 Minimum required duration of training.

NDT method Level 1 hours Level 2 hours1 Level 3 hours
ET 40 40 40
PT 16 24 24
MT 16 24 32
RT 40 80 72
RI N/A 56 N/A
UT 40 80 72
VT 16 24 24
BRS 16 N/A N/A
RPS N/A 24 N\A
Basic knowledge (Direct access to Level 3 80

examination parts A- C)
Note 1. Direct access to Level 2 requires the total number of hours shown in Table 1 for Levels 1
and 2, and direct access to Level 3 requires the total number of hours shown in Table 1 for
Levels 1-3. Up to one third of the total specified in this table may take the form of OTJ training
documented using form PSL/42 provided it is verifiable and covered practical application of the
syllabus detailed in CEN ISO/TR 25107:2006.
Industrial NDT experience

Industrial NDT experience in the appropriate sector may be acquired prior to or
following success in the qualification examination.
In the event that the experience is sought following successful examination, the
results of the examination shall remain valid for up to two years.
Documentary evidence (in a form acceptable to the British Institute of NDT, i.e. on
PCN form PSL/30) of experience satisfying the following requirements shall be
confirmed by the employer and submitted to BINDT AQB prior to examination, or
directly to BINDT prior to the award of PCN certification in the event that experience
is gained after examination.
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Table 2 Minimum duration of experience for certification.
Experience, months
NDT method
Level 1
Level 2 Level 3
ET 3 9 18
MT 1 3 12
PT 1 3 12
RT 3 9 18
UT 3 9 18
RI N/A 6 N/A
VT 1 3 12
Work experience in months is based on a nominal 40-hour week or the legal week of work.
When an individual is working in excess of 40h/week, he may be credited with experience
based on the total hours, but he shall be required to produce evidence of this experience.
Direct access to Level 2 requires the total number of hours shown in Table 2 for Levels 1 and 2,
and direct access to Level 3 requires the total number of hours shown in Table 2 for Levels 1-3
Qualification examination
Table 3 Numbers of general questions.
NDT method Level 1 Level 2
ET 40 40
PT 30 40
MT 30 40
RT 40 40
RI N/A 40
UT 40 40
VT 30 40
BRS 30 N/A
RPS N/A 20 plus 4 narrative
Note: All Level 1 specific theory papers have 30 questions.

All Level 2 specific theory papers have 36 questions.
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Re-examination
a A candidate who fails to obtain the pass grade for any examination part (general,
specific or practical) may be re-examined twice in the failed part(s), provided the re-
examination takes place not sooner than one month, unless further training
acceptable to BINDT is satisfactorily completed, nor later than twelve months after
the original examination.
b A candidate who achieves a passing grade of 70% in each of the examination parts
(general, specific or practical) but whose average score is less than the required 80%
may be re-examined a maximum of two times in any or all of the examination parts
in order to achieve an overall average score of 80%, provided the re-examination
takes place not sooner than one month, unless further training acceptable to BINDT
is satisfactorily completed, nor later than twelve months after the original
examination.
c A candidate who fails all permitted re-examinations shall apply for and take the initial
examination according to the procedure established for new candidates.
d A candidate whose examination results have not been accepted for reason of fraud or
unethical behaviour shall wait at least twelve months before re-applying for
examination.
Summary
The PCN scheme is managed and administered by the British Institute of NDT (BINDT)
on behalf of its stakeholders. It meets or exceeds the criteria of BS EN ISO 9712.
There are 6 appendices covering various industry and product sectors,
1 Aerospace.
2 Castings.
3 Welds.
4 Wrought Products and Forgings.
5 Pre and in-service inspection (multi sector).
6 Railway.
There are many additional supporting documents varying from vision requirements
PSL44 to renewal and recertification (Levels 1 and 2 CP16; Level 3 CP17) and so on.
The document defines many terms used in certification of NDT personnel (PCN Gen
Section 3)
The certification body (BINDT) meets the requirements of BS EN ISO 17024 (PCN Gen
section 5)
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BINDT approves authorised qualifying bodies (AQBs) to carry out the examinations (PCN
Gen Section 5)
a The document sets out the Levels of PCN certification and what each level of
personnel is qualified to do (PCN Gen section 6). There are 3 Levels of PCN
certification.
b Candidates for examination must have successfully completed a BINDT validated
course of training at a BINDT authorised training organisation (PCN Gen Section 7).
c Table 1 shows the minimum required duration of training for all Levels and methods
plus a section of notes.
d Table 2 gives the minimum duration of experience for each Level and method.
e A candidate is required to have a vision test of colour perception and a near vision
test (Jaeger Number 1 or N4.5). PCN Gen Section a the near vision test to be taken
annually.
f Examination applications are made directly with the AQB.
g PCN Level 1s and 2 initial exams comprise general; specific and practical parts.
h Table 3 shows the number of general questions at Levels 1 and 2 examinations.
i There are 30 specific questions on the Level 1 papers.
j There are 36 questions on the Level 2 specific papers.
k A variety of practical samples are tested depending on the method and sector.
l A Level 3 examination comprises a basic and a method examination however the
basic examination needs to be passed only once. Table 4 shows the number of basic
examination questions. Table 5 shows the number of Level 3 examination questions.
Table 4 Number of basic examination questions.
Part Examination Number of

questions
A Materials technology and science, including typical defects in a 30

wide range of products including castings welds and wrought
products.
B Qualification and certification procedure in accordance with this 10

document
C 15 general questions at Level 2 standard for each of four NDT 60

methods chosen by the candidate, including at least one
volumetric NDT method (UT or RT).
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Table 5 Main method examination.
Part Subject Number

of
questions
D Level 3 knowledge relating to the test method applied 30
E Application of the NDT method in the sector concerned, including 20

the applicable codes, standards, and specifications. This may be
an open book examination in relation to codes, standards, and
specifications.
F Drafting of one or more NDT procedures in the relevant sector.

The applicable codes, standards, and specifications shall be
available to the candidate.
m A pass is obtained where each part is 70% or over with an average grade of 80% or
over.
n A PCN certificate is valid for 5 years.
o Renewal and recertification requirements are covered in CP16 for Level 1 and Level 2
and CP17 for Level 3.
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Section 1
Properties of Penetrating Radiation
(X- and Gamma)
1 Properties of Penetrating Radiation (X- and Gamma)
Radiation has six basic properties:
1 Can penetrate material (therefore penetrating radiation).

2 Can ionize matter (therefore ionizing radiation).
3 Propagates in a straight line (rectilinear propagation)
4 Can cause fluorescence of some materials.
5 Can cause chemical effects.
6 Has physiological effect.
Penetrating radiation can be used in non-destructive examination (NDE)

because it travels in a straight line and may be absorbed as it passes through
matter. The extent to which it is absorbed depends upon three factors:
1 Thickness of the absorber.

2 Physical characteristics of the absorber (in particular its density and atomic
number).
3 Wavelength or photon energy of the radiation itself.
Penetrating radiation can be detected using a photographic emulsion or by

other means. The system used to detect the radiation must be capable of
differentiating between different intensities of radiation.
Film
Object
Source
of radiation
Figure 1.1 Penetrating radiation passing through an object and the resulting
radiograph.
Note: In film radiography thin sections appear darker while thicker sections
appear lighter. The opposite is true if a fluorescent screen rather than a
photographic film is used as a radiation detector.
NDT20-71015
Properties of Penetrating Radiation 1-1 Copyright TWI Ltd
Film
Object
Source
of radiation
Figure 1.2 Radiation passing through an object containing two voids at

different depths and the resulting radiograph.
Two important points to keep in mind when viewing a radiographic image are:
1 A radiograph is a two-dimensional image of a three-dimensional object: The

through thickness position and size of an object producing a radiographic
image cannot be determined solely from the information given by a single
radiograph (demonstrated in Figure 1.2).
2 A defect will only appear as an image in a radiograph if the:
Defect causes a local difference in radiation absorption.

Method used for detecting the radiation is capable of detecting the
difference in radiation intensity so caused.
For example, suppose that a chosen radiographic technique is capable of

detecting a thickness difference of say 0.5mm in 50mm of steel. If we use this
technique to radiograph the weld shown in Figure 1.3 then:
1 The gas pore will readily be detected because 3 .
2 The lack of side fusion will not appear as an image on the radiograph
because 0.01 which is much too small to be detected by
the technique used.
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Set-up
Resultant
radiograph
Figure 1.3 Radiography of a weld.
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Section 2
The Electromagnetic Spectrum
2 The Electromagnetic Spectrum
From the early part of the nineteenth centrury it was understood that light was
a waveform. Light, however, was well known to be capable of passing through a
vacuum. Scientists of the day puzzled long and hard as to how it could be
possible that a waveform could travel without some form of matter to support
it, therefore the concept of a substance called ether, which filled otherwise
apparently empty space, was postulated and a lot of research time was
expended in trying to isolate this mysterious substance. The search continued
until around 1865 when a scientist called James Maxwell predicted the
existence of electromagnetic waves. Such waves, he said, would be capable of
passing through a vacuum, since they were supported by oscillating magnetic
and electrical fields mutually at right angles to each other and to the direction
of propagation. Moreover, using mathematics, Maxwell predicted a speed of
travel for such waves that was equal to the then known speed of light. It soon
became clear that light was in itself a form of electromagnetic radiation.
All types of electromagnetic radiation travel at the same velocity ( ), the

velocity of light, which is about 2.998 x 108ms-1 (ca. 300,000 km/s or 186,000
miles per second), but differ in terms of their wavelength ( ) and frequency ( ).
Wavelength can be defined as the distance travelled during one complete field
oscillation while frequency is the total number of oscillations occurring in one
second.
As scientific knowledge advanced it became clear that in some circumstances

light behaved not so much like a waveform, but more like a particle.
Considering such behaviour in 1900 a scientist, Max Planck, first put forward
the theory that light had, what he called, a quantum nature. Planck postulated
that electromagnetic energy could not exist in amounts (quantum being Latin
for amount) smaller than a given very small amount of energy and that all
larger amounts of electromagnetic energy were exact multiples of this amount
to which he gave the name photon. Planck believed that the photon energy of
any form of electromagnetic radiation would be equal to a constant multiplied
by its frequency. In later years Plancks hypothesis was proved to be true and
the constant in question became known as Plancks constant, usually
abbreviated as .
Where h is Plancks constant (= 6.63 x 1023Js) and is the photon energy of

electromagnetic radiation of frequency .
The properties of electromagnetic radiation, especially in the way it interacts

with matter are largely determined by its wavelength. Figure 2.1 shows the
electromagnetic spectrum.
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The Electromagnetic Spectrum 2-1 Copyright TWI Ltd
Wave length in nanometres
Photon energy in MeV
Figure 2.1 Electromagnetic spectrum
The electron volt (eV) is a unit of energy equal to the kinetic energy that an
electron obtains when it accelerates through an electric field of 1V. One electron
volt is equal to 1.6 x 10-19 Joules. A Mega electron volt (MeV) is equal to the
kinetic energy of an electron that has accelerated through an electric field of 1
million volts (see Figure 2.1).
From Figure 2.1 also outcomes that as wavelength increase the energy
decreases and vice versa. This relation reflects the formula .
This fact is important when penetration ability of radiation is considered. Photon

needs to have more energy to penetrate dense material (eg lead) in comparison
to case when aluminium (light metal) is to be penetrated.
Note: The relationship between wavelength and photon energy on which the
diagram above has been based is approximate.
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The Electromagnetic Spectrum 2-2 Copyright TWI Ltd
Section 3
Simple Atomic Theory
3 Simple Atomic Theory
To understand how X- and gamma rays are produced it is necessary to have a
basic understanding of atomic theory. An atom is the smallest part of any
chemical element. Atoms are known to consist of three basic types of particle,
these being the positively charged proton, the neutron (which has no electrical
charge) and the negatively charged electron. The electrical charge on the
proton and electron are equal in magnitude but opposite in polarity. The atomic
mass of a proton is, by definition, equal to 1 atomic mass unit (abbreviation:
amu; 1 amu = 1.6725 x 10-27kg). The electron has a tiny mass, around 1/1836
that of a proton (0.000545 amu or about 9.11 x 10-31kg), while that of a
neutron is very slightly greater than that of a proton at 1.0014 amu (or 1.6748
x 10-27kg). The atom is thought to consist of a positively charged nucleus
(which consists of protons and neutrons) surrounded by a cloud of orbiting
negatively charged electrons.
Shell consists of electrons
Nucleus consists of Protons + neutrons
Figure 3.1 Simple model of atomic structure.
In the equilibrium state the number of orbital electrons is equal to the number
of protons and there is no net electrical charge. When there is inequality
between the number of protons and electrons then there is a net electrical
charge and the atom is said to be ionised. Ions may be negatively charged if
the number of electrons exceeds the number of protons or positively charged if
the converse is true. So called electropositive elements, a group which includes
all metals, like to form positive ions while the electronegative elements such as
oxygen, phosphorus, chlorine and sulphur like to form negative ions.
The orbital electrons exist in fixed energy levels or shells. Each shell can contain
a fixed maximum number of electrons. The shells are identified by letters K,
L, M, N and so on. The lowest energy level is represented by the K-shell; this is
the innermost of the electron shells and it can contain a maximum of two
electrons. The L-shell can contain up to eight electrons while the M-shell
contains a maximum of 18 and the N-shell contains a maximum of 32. The
maximum total number of electrons in each shell is equal to 2n2 where n is the
shell number counting the K-shell as one, L-shell as two, etc. Within the M, N
and other shells certain groupings of electrons produce greater stability,
elements having an even number of electrons tend to less chemically reactive
than those which have an odd number. A group of eight electrons in the M or N
shells produces an element which is the most chemically inert of all elements
an inert gas. In electropositive elements the orbital electrons are relatively
loosely bound and there is a tendency to form positive ions. In electronegative
elements the orbital electrons are relatively tightly bound and there is a
tendency to form negative ions. The inert gases such as neon, argon, xenon
and krypton either have an outer shell that is completely full or one which
contains a very stable grouping of electrons. Based on their chemical properties
the elements can be organised into a periodic table as shown below. Elements
falling in the same vertical column share very similar chemical properties.
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Simple Atomic Theory 3-1 Copyright TWI Ltd
1 2
H He
1.008 4.003
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Li Be B C N O F Ne
6.940 9.012 10.81 12.01 14.01 16.00 19.00 20.17
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
22.99 24.30 26.98 28.09 30.97 32.06 35.45 39.95
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
39.10 40.08 44.96 47.90 50.94 52.00 54.94 55.85 58.93 58.71 63.55 65.38 69.74 72.59 74.92 78.96 79.90 83.80
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
85.47 87.62 88.91 91.22 92.91 95.94 98.91 101.1 102.9 106.4 107.9 112.4 114.8 118.7 121.8 127.6 126.9 131.3
55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
132.9 137.3 138.9 178.5 181.0 183.9 186.2 190.2 192.2 195.1 197.0 200.6 204.4 207.2 209.0 (209) (210) (222)
87 88 89
Fr Ra Ac
(223) 226.0 (227)
58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
Lanthanide Series Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
140.1 140.9 144.2 (145) 150.4 152.0 157.3 158.9 162.5 164.9 167.3 168.9 173.0 175.0
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103

Actinide Series Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lw
232.0 231.0 238.0 237.1 (244) (243) (249) (247) (251) (254) (257) (258) (259) (260)
Figure 3.2 Periodic table of elements.
The numbers above and below each chemical symbol are the atomic number
and the atomic weight of each element. Note: That the atomic weight differs
slightly from the atomic mass number.
X-rays result from ionisation and de-ionisation events: when a positively

charged ion captures a free electron the atom descends into a lower energy
state and the left over energy may be released in the form of an X-ray photon.
X-rays can also result as a negative ion loses a captured electron, because
again there is a reduction in the energy stored in the atom as it returns to a
state of zero electrical charge.
Each element has its own characteristic number of protons in the nucleus. This
number is the atomic number, usually abbreviated as Z. It is the atomic
number that determines the chemical properties of a given substance. However,
each element can exist as any one of a number of nuclides or isotopes. Each
isotope of a given element has the same atomic number, number of protons
and chemical properties, but each isotope has a different atomic mass number.
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The difference in atomic mass number is due to a difference in the number of
neutrons in the nucleus. The atomic mass number is equal to the total of
protons + neutrons in the nucleus. Most elements can exist in nature as any
one of several stable isotopes. Some isotopes, however, are not stable these
are the so called radioactive isotopes. The following notation is typically used,
for example:

Where:
59 is the number of protons + neutrons (the atomic mass number).
27 is the number of protons (the atomic number).
is the chemical symbol, in this case cobalt.
The example shown, if in a non-ionised state, would have 27 protons, 27

electrons and 32 neutrons in each atom.
Radioactive isotopes undergo fission as they decay towards a more stable

atomic structure. Some isotopes achieve stability in a single fission event while
others may undergo a series of fission events before the result is a stable
isotope or combination of stable isotopes. Some radioactive isotopes can decay
along any one of several decay paths. Each individual fission event is random;
however, each unstable atom of a given isotope has the same probability of
decay. One atom of an isotope may undergo fission with a life of a few
microseconds while its neighbour may not decay until several centuries have
passed, but both radioactive atoms still have the same probability of decay.
Applied to a very large number of active atoms, and a typical iridium 192
gamma ray source [as used in industrial radiography], despite its small physical
size, may contain around 1020 radioactive atoms (thats one hundred million
million million), the constant probability of decay gives rise to a constant half-
life. With such a large number the random nature of decay just averages out.
Gamma rays are an occasional by product of this process of nuclear fission.

Fission means splitting. There are several routes by which nuclear fission can
take place and two of these are of importance in the production of gamma rays.
These will be discussed in greater detail in Section 7.
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Section 4
Ionising Radiation
4 Ionising Radiation
The two types of penetrating radiation most used in industrial radiography, X-
and gamma rays, are often referred to as ionising radiation. This is because the
nature of their interaction with matter is to cause ionisation. Ionisation is
caused by loss of an orbiting electron which leaves the atom in an
electrically positively charged state (+ ion). Alpha and beta particles,
which are products of radioactive fission also cause ionisation and are therefore
included within the term ionising radiation. Neutron radiation is a hazard in the
nuclear power industry, it can [indirectly] cause ionisation, and it is therefore
often included within this group of types of radiation referred to as ionising.
Alpha and beta particle radiation are covered in greater detail in Sections 6 and
7.
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Ionising Radiation 4-1 Copyright TWI Ltd
Section 5
X-Rays or Bremsstrahlung
5 X-Rays or Bremsstrahlung
The term X-ray is applied to ionising radiation produced when a beam of high
velocity (ie high kinetic energy) electrons collides with the atoms of a target
material. The photon energy of the X-radiation thereby produced depends on
two factors:
1 Kinetic energy of the electron at the point of collision.

2 Relative efficiency of the process of stopping the incident electron does
this occur in a single large event or in a series of events of varying
magnitude?
Kinetic energy of the electron partially absorbed, low energy

X-ray photon emitted
X-ray photon
(low energy)
Deflected electron
Atom in target material

High
velocity X-ray photon
electrons (high energy)
Captured electron
Kinetic energy of the electron completely absorbed, high energy

X-ray photon emitted
Figure 5.1 X-ray production.
The maximum energy of the X-ray photons produced is determined by the

maximum kinetic energy of the high velocity electrons impacting upon the
target material. There is no minimum to the energy of the X-ray photons
produced, because there is wide variation in the amount of energy which the
electron loses on collision with an atom. Some of the electrons will score only a
glancing hit on the atom, in so doing interacting with the loosely bound
electrons in the outermost electron shells. This causes the impacting electron to
be deflected and it loses part of its velocity. The reduced energy electron may
then interact with another atom and in so doing produce another photon of
X-rays of variable although reduced energy. In addition to this the X-ray
photons produced by electron collisions can themselves interact with adjacent
atoms and thereby produce reduced energy photons. X-ray spectra are
commonly termed to be continuous, white or polychromatic (this is because
there is no minimum energy). Figure 5.2 shows the form of a typical X-ray
spectrum. Note: That higher energy X-rays have shorter wavelengths.
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X-Rays or Bremsstrahlung 5-1 Copyright TWI Ltd
Characteristic radiation peaks
Radiation intensity (photons per square metre)
Increasing wave length, decreasing photon energy
Figure 5.2 X-ray spectrum.
The value of the minimum wavelength produced by an X-ray tube having an

accelerating voltage V can be estimated using the following formula:
[nanometers]
The minimum wavelength, , is sometimes called the threshold wave-length.
The maximum intensity (the number of photons per square metre) in the
continuous spectrum produced occurs at approximately2 .
The ability of the X-rays to penetrate matter depends on their photon energy,
the shorter the wavelength, the higher the photon energy, the more
penetrating the radiation. The penetrating power of the X-rays can be controlled
by increasing or decreasing the accelerating voltage, the greater the
accelerating voltage, the more penetrating the radiation. In an X-ray set the
accelerating voltage is the tube voltage.
The total number of photons produced at all wavelengths is directly related to

the number of high velocity electrons arriving at the target. The total number of
electrons is directly proportional to the magnitude of the electric current
passing through the accelerating field. This current in an X-ray set is referred to
as tube current. Radiation intensity is directly proportional to tube current.
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The two characteristic peaks shown in Figure 5.2 are caused by target material
inner shell electrons jumping to a higher energy level, and then falling back to
their equilibrium state. Characteristic radiation generally occurs at relatively low
energy, long wavelength and is of no great importance in the industrial
radiography of metallic components although it can cause a problem known as
diffraction mottling (see the section on artefacts). As the name suggests, each
element produces its own specific characteristic peaks, and measurement of
these can be used to perform chemical analysis (X-ray fluoroscopy). Low
energy X-rays can be diffracted by crystalline materials such as metals. In the
diffraction process radiation is deflected from its original path at an angle that is
determined by its wavelength and the spacing of the atoms in the crystalline
material. This effect can be used to produce the mono-wavelength X-rays that
are used in X-ray crystallography.
5.1 X-ray equipment

In order to produce X-rays three things are required:
1 Source of electrons.
2 Target, constructed from a suitable high melting point material.
3 Means of accelerating electrons toward the target.
High velocity electrons cannot travel far in air, therefore the process of
acceleration must take place in a high vacuum.
5.1.1 The cathode

The source of electrons is called the cathode. In a conventional X-ray tube it
consists of a tungsten filament heated by passing a small current through it.
Heating the filament produces a cloud of loosely bound, low kinetic energy
electrons in close proximity to the filament. This process is known as thermionic
emission. Electrons are negatively charged and can be accelerated toward the
target by making it positively charged with respect to the source of electrons.
Copper focusing cup
Tungsten filament
Figure 5.3 Section through a typical X-ray tube cathode.
5.1.2 The anode (target)

The anode consists of a heavy section of high conductivity copper with a small
tungsten (or other high melting point high atomic number metal) insert which is
called the target. The anode has a positive electrical potential with respect to
the cathode. The body of the anode is always copper because it is an efficient
conductor of heat. This property is necessary because approximately 95 % of
the kinetic energy of the impacting electrons is converted to heat at the anode.
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The target material is usually tungsten because this has a very high melting
point (above 3400 C). This reduces the chances it will be vaporised by the
large amount of heat generated. Tungsten has a high atomic number and
therefore a large number of electrons, this makes it a relatively efficient
material for converting kinetic energy to X-ray energy which in turn helps to
reduce the amount of heat produced as a proportion of the total output of
energy. Sometimes the target is constructed from tantalum (melting point
3000C) and less frequently from other refractory metals.
Nearly all anodes are hooded (see Figures 5.4 and 5.5). The hood is a high
conductivity copper shroud which is designed to intercept stray electrons and
prevent them from hitting the tube walls. The hood has a window in the form of
a beryllium insert or a thinned section of copper which permits X-rays to exit
without unduly increasing inherent filtration. Inherent filtration is the term used
to describe removal of X-rays from the primary beam due to absorption by the
materials used in X-ray head construction. The reason that a beryllium window
is used in many X-ray heads is that beryllium has a very low absorption factor
and this minimises inherent filtration whilst still affording the tube walls
protection from stray electrons.
Anodes may be directional (Figure 5.4) or panoramic (Figure 5.5). In either

case anode design is such that the effective focus size in the direction of the
useful beam is much smaller than the actual focus size. This arrangement is
called a line or Benson focus and it serves to maximise anode life without
unduly compromising image quality.
High conductivity
copper
Hood
Electrons
Cooling fins
Beryllium
window
Tungsten target
Useful X-rays
Figure 5.4 Directional anode.
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High conductivity hood
Hood
Electrons
Cooling fins
Beryllium
window
Tungsten target
Useful X-rays
Figure 5.5 Panoramic anode.
The target is generally set at an angle of about 70 to the electron beam as

shown in Figures 5.4 and 5.5. This produces a small effective focus size whilst
maintaining a large actual focal spot size. The large actual focus size helps to
dissipate the heat generated more efficiently. Therefore higher tube currents
can be sustained without the risk of damaging the target. This design feature is
known as Benson or line focusing, see Figure 5.6 below.
Effective focus
size viewed
from
B = 4 x 3.8mm Actual focus size
viewed from
A = 4 x 11mm
Target
Electrons
70o
Figure 5.6 Line or Benson focus.
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5.1.3 X-ray tubes
The cathode and anode are mounted in an evacuated glass (or in modern tubes
metal-ceramic) envelope (Figure 5.7). The tube may be provided with shielding
to absorb any unwanted radiation that is not already shielded out by the natural
geometry of the anode. Directional type tubes produce a useful beam of
radiation that is usually in the form of a cone with a dihedral angle of around
40. X-ray tubes fitted with a panoramic anode produce a useful beam of
radiation through an angle of 360 about the tube axis.
Aluminium shell
Ceramic
insulator
Cathode Anode
Electrons
X-rays
Evacuated
chamber
Ceramic
insulator
Figure 5.7 Directional X-ray tube (metal-ceramic type).
The X-ray beam produced is filtered by the wall of the glass (or metal-ceramic)
envelope. This reduces the useful quantity of X-rays produced, with the low
energy components of the spectrum being particularly affected. Therefore it is
common in glass tubes that the tube wall is ground thinner in the region of the
useful beam in order to minimise the X-ray energy lost due to self-filtration.
Metal-ceramic X-ray tubes (and low kilovoltage glass tubes) may have beryllium
inserts (usually called windows) in order to minimise the filtration effect of the
tube wall. Beryllium is used because it has a very low X-ray absorption
coefficient and it is mechanically strong enough to contain the necessary
vacuum.
X-ray tubes are invariably mounted inside some form of tank. This is usually a
metal cylinder that may be fitted with a beryllium or plastic window to minimise
self-filtration of the X-rays produced. The tank contains a coolant which may be
oil or some type of gas. It provides high voltage insulation and mechanical
protection. In portable equipment the high voltage transformer is mounted
inside the tank.
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5.1.4 X-ray tube power supply
In order to produce a beam of electrons from the filament in the tube it is
necessary to make the anode positive with respect to the cathode. If an AC
supply is connected across the tube then the beam of electrons will pass only
when the anode is positive and the tube will act as a half-wave rectifier.
Applied single phase AC

voltage
Resultant tube current

flowing
Figure 5.8 Current flow across a half-wave self-rectified X-ray tube.
Older type portable X-ray sets were half-wave self-rectified. This produced a
considerable weight-saving compared with the earlier types of constant
potential unit. Most modern portable units are constant potential and use
lightweight solid state rectifiers to produce what is effectively DC current.
The metal-ceramic tubes used in modern equipment are able to safely

withstand a greater potential difference between the anode/cathode and the
tube wall. This permits the use of grounded anode type circuitry which in turn
permits direct water-cooling of the anode. In an older type unit operating at say
200 kV the cathode voltage would have been minus 100 kV while the anode
voltage would have been plus 100 kV, giving a maximum potential difference
between the electrodes and the glass tube wall of 100 kV. With modern
grounded anode circuitry it is safe to hold the cathode at minus 200 kV with the
anode at zero volts to produce the same 200 kV potential difference. An anode
held at zero volts can be safely cooled by water.
Water is a very efficient coolant and direct water-cooling of the anode permits
operation at greatly increased tube currents. For example, the maximum tube
current for an older type 200kV oil-cooled head was typically 5mA self-rectified.
With modern portable equipment maximum constant potential tube currents of
15 or 30 mA are not unusual for a 200kV head.
Older type constant potential industrial X-ray units were extremely heavy, bulky
and suitable for use only in fixed installations. Much of the weight and bulk
came from the rectification circuitry used, the so called Greinacher Circuit and
the large external oil-cooling system necessary to dissipate the large amount of
heat generated.
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Single phase
AC voltage
Full wave rectified

AC voltage
Greinacher circuit
Figure 5.9 Greinacher circuit voltage.
The total quantity of X-rays produced by an X-ray unit is directly proportional to

the area under the line showing voltage against time. Thus for the same tube
current and peak voltage, an X-ray tube using a smoothed and fully rectified
supply (ie a constant potential unit) will produce more X-rays than a self-
rectified tube. In fact the output of X-rays is more than doubled for the same
tube current. In a self-rectified unit the tube voltage varies from zero to the
peak voltage and back again with each cycle. In a constant potential unit the
tube voltage is close to constant. Thus, looking at the spectrum of X-rays
produced, a self-rectified unit produces proportionally more low energy
radiation than a similar constant potential unit.
Number of protons
Self-rectified
Constant potential
Wavelength
Figure 5.10 X-ray spectra of constant potential and self-rectified tubes.
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5.1.5 X-ray tube controls
The radiation produced by the X-ray tube can be varied in quantity and
penetrating power (or quality) by controlling the electrical supplies to the tube.
Penetrating power or radiation quality (kV)

The penetrating power of X-rays depends on the magnitude of the accelerating
voltage which is applied between the cathode and the anode. The higher the
voltage, the higher the kinetic energy of the accelerated electrons, the higher
the photon energy of X-rays produced. The higher the photon energy, the
shorter the wavelength, the greater the penetrating power. Thus the
penetrating power or quality of X-rays is controlled by the tube voltage.
Conventional X-ray tubes, as used in industrial radiography, are capable of

being operated in the range from below 50 to 450 kV. If greater penetrating
power is required high energy X-ray sources such as betatrons, linear
accelerators or Van der Graaf generators can be used to provide X-ray energies
of up to 30 or even 40 MeV.
Some recognised codes and standards such as ASME BPVC V/2 and
EN ISO 17636-1 relate the maximum kilovoltage which may be used to the
material thickness which is to be examined. Table 1 gives the approximate
limiting maximum economically penetrable thicknesses of steel for various
kilovoltages. The figures given are typical for film radiography using lead
intensifying screens and portable self-rectified equipment. Constant potential
units can be used economically on greater thicknesses than can self-rectify
units.
Figure 5.11 EN ISO 17636-1 maximum permissible X-ray tube voltage for
various materials.
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Occasionally penetrating radiation is referred to as being either hard or soft.
These terms are relative, but hard radiation is produced by high tube voltages
(above 150kV) whilst soft radiation is produced at lower tube voltage.
Table 5.1 Approximate penetrating power in mm of steel for various

kilovoltages.
Penetrating power,
Kilovolts mm of steel
120 6
160 20
200 30
250 45
300 60
Quantity of radiation (mA)

The quantity of radiation produced by the X-ray tube per unit time depends on
the number of electrons released by the cathode filament. The number of
electrons per second reaching the anode multiplied by the charge on the
electron is equal to the tube current. The tube current is not controlled directly,
it is increased or decreased by controlling the size of the heating current
supplied to the cathode filament - the higher the heating current, the hotter the
filament, the greater the thermionic emission of electrons and hence the
greater the tube current. Tube current will also be increased for the same
heating current if the tube voltage is increased. This is because higher voltages
can draw more electrons from the filament even though the filament
temperature does not change. So if the tube voltage is altered it will be
necessary to adjust the heating current if the same value of tube current is to
be maintained. Too high a tube current would cause damage to the anode due
to overheating; therefore X-ray equipment always incorporates a safety cut-out
switch to prevent the use of a too high value of tube current.
The total quantity of radiation produced by the X-ray set is directly proportional
to the product of the exposure time (ie the time for which the X-ray tube is
energised) and the tube current; therefore X-ray exposures are usually given in
milliampere minutes (mA.min) at a given tube voltage.
The standard controls on the X-ray set are:
Voltage control: This alters the tube voltage (kV) by varying the low voltage
supply to the high voltage transformer. Note: That high voltage is not
generated in the control panel, this minimises the hazard to personnel.
Milliampere control: An ammeter incorporated into the control panel

measures (albeit indirectly) the current flowing across the tube. This is
proportional to the number of electrons flowing from the cathode to the
anode per unit time. In order to increase the supply of electrons the heating
current to the filament is increased using the milliampere control. Note:
That the ammeter measures the current flowing between the anode and the
cathode, not the current flowing in the filament (ie the heating current).
Timer: Since the quantity of X-rays produced is proportional to the length of

time during which the tube is energised it is convenient to incorporate a
time-switch into the control panel of the X-ray set which automatically
terminates the exposure at a preset time.
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As explained above it is convenient to refer to X-ray exposures in terms of
milliampere minutes. For example an exposure which produces an acceptable
radiograph may have been determined to be, 36mAmins at 200kV. If this was
the case then any of the following exposures should give an identical acceptable
result:
a 9mA for 4min at 200kV.

b 18mA for 2min at 200kV. Reciprocity law
c 2mA for 18min at 200kV.
This is because the amount of radiation produced is the same in each case.
Obviously it would be desirable to use a high value of mA, in order to reduce
the exposure time, but as explained above the use of high tube currents can
severely damage the anode of the X-ray tube and thus reduce its service life.
Therefore it is usual to operate at a value of mA which is well within the tubes
specified capabilities.
The reciprocal relationship between time and tube current is sometimes

referred to as the reciprocity law or the Bunsen Roscoe reciprocity law.
5.1.6 High energy X-ray sources

Betatrons
Betatrons are used to produce ultra-hard extremely penetrating radiation with
photon energies in the range 1 - 30MeV. The efficiency with which the kinetic
energy of the accelerated electrons is converted to X-rays is much better at
high voltages than at those experienced in conventional X-ray tubes.
Consequently betatrons usually benefit from quite small focal spots. In
betatrons electrons are accelerated in a spiral path of perhaps 1,000,000
revolutions by means of alternating magnetic fields before being deflected
towards the target. The radiation produced by betatrons can penetrate 300 mm
or more of steel. They are primarily used for the radiography of castings or
large section welds in fixed installations but portable units are available. These
are sometimes used on site for the inspection of reinforcing bars in heavy
concrete sections. Up to around 10M eV betatrons are usually preferred to
linear accelerators because they are more compact and less expensive to
manufacture.
Linear accelerators
Linear accelerators (often called linacs) accelerate electrons to very high
velocities along a straight path by means of an electromagnetic waveform
generated by a device called a magnetotron. The particle velocities are similar
to those achieved in betatrons but a much higher output of radiation is
achievable. For radiation energies above 10MeV linear accelerators are
generally the preferred solution.
Van der Graaf generators

Van der Graaf generators generate a high voltage charge of static electricity by
mechanical means - friction. This can be used to accelerate electrons for X-ray
production. Van der Graaf generators can produce short intense pulses of X-ray
energy so have therefore found some application in the field of ballistic
radiography.
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5.1.7 Special types of X-ray unit
Microfocus X-ray sources
Standard X-ray equipment has an effective focus size usually in the range 0.8 -
4 mm. This is small enough to provide adequate image quality for most
standard techniques. Micro-focus X-ray equipment may have an effective focus
size as small as 0.1mm. Using such a small focus size geometric enlargement
techniques is possible whilst still producing an adequately sharp image.
Focus
Object
Image
Un-sharp image Sharp image

(standard 4mm focus) (0.2mm micro-focus)
Umbra
Penumbra
Figure 5.12 Focal spot size effect on penumbra.
Rod anode X-ray tubes

In a rod anode tube the target is at the end of a copper or aluminium tube
which is usually less than 20mm outside diameter and may be up to a metre
long. The target is invariably of the panoramic variety. Grounded anode
circuitry is essential for this type of tube. The anode can be positioned inside
small diameter pipes in order to carry out panoramic radiography of girth
welds; it can also be positioned in many other otherwise inaccessible locations.
Rod anode tubes are most often used in aerospace applications.
Aluminium
X-rays
Cathode tube
Electron Anode
X-rays
Evacuated
chamber
Ceramic Aluminium
insulator shell
Figure 5.13 Rod anode X-ray tube.
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Rotating anode X-ray equipment
In medical radiography a very large tube current is generally desirable as this
permits a very short exposure time which in turn helps to eliminate or reduce
unsharpness caused by relative movement during exposure. To maximise tube
current some medical equipment is fitted with a rotating anode, where the
anode rotates at high speed and the focus area of the target is therefore
constantly changing. Each section of the tungsten target is in use for a short
time followed by a slightly longer period of resting. This helps to prevent
overheating so the tube current can be greatly increased.
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Section 6
Gamma Rays
6 Gamma Rays
Gamma () ray is the term applied to the electromagnetic radiation which is
sometimes produced when the atomic nuclei of a radioactive isotope
disintegrate in the process known as atomic fission. Alpha () and beta ()
particles may also be produced during the disintegration process; in fact
gamma emission is always a by-product of alpha or beta emission. Of the three
main types of radiation produced by fission alpha is by far the most hazardous
to health; alpha and beta radiation must be taken into consideration when
assessing safety. Except as a health hazard, alpha and beta particle radiation
have no significance for industrial radiography since they are easily absorbed by
very thin materials.
The disintegration process is fixed for each radioactive isotope and as a result
the gamma ray energies produced are also fixed.
60
27 Co 28
60
Ni
0.31 MeV 1.17 MeV 1.33 MeV
The spectra produced are line or discrete spectra as opposed to the continuous
spectra produced by X-ray equipment. Table 6.1 lists the principal gamma
emissions for various commonly used isotopes. Figure 6.1 shows the line
spectrum for Iridium 192.
6.1 Alpha and beta emission

6.1.1 Alpha particles
Alpha particles are emitted during the decay of heavy nuclides such as uranium
(U) 238 and plutonium (Pu) 239. An alpha particle consists of 2 protons and 2
neutrons basically a helium (He) nucleus, emitted from the nucleus at very
high velocity.
For example:
239
94 Pu 235
92 U 2 He
4
Thus in alpha emission there is a loss of 4amu from the nucleus and a reduction
in atomic number of 2 (see the example above). Alpha particle radiation cannot
penetrate more than a thin sheet of paper or a few centimetres of air, it is,
however, very strongly ionising. The great danger to health with alpha emitters
is that they may be ingested radioactive contamination. Once within the
human body they will in most cases cause cancer.
6.1.2 Beta particles

Beta particles may be emitted during radioactive decay. A beta particle consists
of a very high velocity electron emitted from the nucleus of a radioactive atom
when a neutron converts to a proton. Note: That although the beta particle is
an electron it has very much higher kinetic energy than a free electron which
has resulted from an ionisation event.
For example:
14
6 C 147 N E
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Gamma Rays 6-1 Copyright TWI Ltd
Thus in beta emission there is no loss from the atomic mass number whilst the
atomic number increases by 1 (see the example above). Beta radiation is more
penetrating than alpha. It can penetrate the outer layers of the skin and lead to
fatal skin burns. The damage caused is very similar to sunburn, but much more
severe. Many of the early victims of the Chernobyl disaster died as a result of
skin burns caused by exposure to high intensities of beta radiation. If beta
emitters are ingested they will often lead to cancer.
6.2 Sealed Sources

The first gamma ray emitting radioisotopes to be used in industrial radiography
were naturally occurring radioactive materials such as radium. Such sources
were not sealed and therefore there was a danger of exposure to alpha () and
beta () particles, both of which are extremely damaging to human tissue.
Coupled with this was the even greater hazard of radioactive contamination by
which radioactive materials might find their way into the human body.
All gamma sources in use today are man-made. They are manufactured by
neutron bombardment of non-radioactive raw materials in the core of a small
nuclear reactor. The sources in use are all beta emitters, gamma rays being
produced as a by-product of beta emission. In order to prevent beta emission
or contamination hazard the sources used in industrial radiography are
invariably sealed sources. The fissile material is encapsulated in a high integrity
titanium or stainless steel shell. Beta radiation is not capable of penetrating the
walls of the capsule, and the capsule further precludes any possible
contamination hazard so long as it remains intact.
Note: That the Iridium 192 spectrum

includes several other less significant
gamma emissions. The emissions shown
account for more than 98% of all gamma
radiation produced.
Figure 6.1 Iridium 192 - principal gamma emissions.
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Table 6.1 Gamma emissions for commonly used isotopes.
Penetrating
Principal Equivalent X-ray power in mm
Isotope Half-life emissions, MeV kilovoltage, kV of steel
Iridium (Ir) 74.4 days 0.31, 0.47, 0.60 400 - 600 20 - 100
192
Cobalt (Co) 5.3 years 1.17, 1.33 2000 - 2500 40 - 200
60
Thulium (Tm) 127 days 0.052, 0.084 80 up to 5
170
Ytterbium 32 days 0.17, 0.20 145 1 - 15
(Yb) 169
Selenium 118.5 days 0.121, 0.136, 320 - 450 10 - 40
(Se) 75 0.265, 0.28,
0.401
Isotope
Glass fill material

Titanium capsule
High integrity weld
Connection device
(stainless steel)
Figure 6.2 Sealed source.
Figure 6.2 shows the typical encapsulation arrangement for iridium 192 and
cobalt 60. Some isotopes such as caesium 137 are double encapsulated. In the
case of caesium 137 this is because it is in the form of caesium chloride which
is highly corrosive and highly water soluble (but this is still an improvement on
caesium metal which causes an explosion on contact with water).
6.3 Penetrating power of gamma radiation

The penetrating power is fixed for each isotope because the spectrum of
gamma radiation emitted is fixed. If a material thickness is too great to produce
a radiograph using, say, iridium 192 then an isotope which produces higher
energy gamma radiation, such as cobalt 60, must be used.
6.4 Equivalent energy of isotopes

Due to fact that linear spectra of isotope usually consists of more than few
discrete energies it is not easy to determine which of these is predominant. In
order to allow comparing gamma sources with X-ray the term equivalent energy
was introduced sometime the equivalent energy is deducted from envelope of
linear spectra of given isotope. In such case it depends how much simplified
spectrum is used (Iridium has three of four main energy lines which are usually
considered, but in total there are 24 known lines) different approach is to
compare effect of radiation to detector. This approach reflects proved fact that
isotopes providing less contrast due to higher energy (compared to X-ray) see
Table 6.1.
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6.5 Radiation intensity
The amount of gamma radiation, the number of photons, produced by an
isotope is controlled by the number of disintegrations (atomic fissions) per unit
time. The source strength of an isotope is usually expressed in curies (Ci) or
Becquerels (Bq). Source strength may also be referred to as source activity.
1 Ci = 3.7 x 1010 disintegrations per second
1 Bq = 1 disintegration per second
The Becquerel, which is the SI unit of radioactivity, is a very small unit in terms
of what is required for industrial radiography. The Curie is therefore generally
preferred. If the Becquerel is used at all then it is usually in the form of
gigabecquerels (GBq). One gigabecquerel is equal to one thousand million (109)
becquerels. One curie is equal to 37 gigabecquerels (37GBq). In the majority of
cases gamma ray exposures are expressed in curie-hours, curie-minutes or
curie-seconds; this in each case being the product of source strength measured
in curies multiplied by exposure time measured in hours, minutes or seconds.
Example:
A steel section 50 mm thickness requires an exposure of 700 curie-minutes

using iridium 192 with a source to film distance of 1 metre using Kodak CX film
and lead intensifying screens.
All other factors being equal the exposure time would therefore be either:
a 1 hour 10 minutes with source strength of 10 curies.
b 20 minutes with source strength of 35 curies. Reciprocity law
c 7 minutes with source strength of 100 curies.
Gamma rays are produced by a disintegration process. Atoms having unstable

nuclei decay with a fixed probability to form other atoms having stable nuclei.
Therefore the source strength of the radioactive isotope will reduce with time.
The probability decay for a large number of unstable atoms is fixed and
proportional to the number of unstable atoms present. This means that the
strength of a radioactive source will always reduce exponentially: ie the
strength of a given source will reduce by 50 % in a fixed time. This fixed time is
referred to as half-life.
The half-life of various commonly encountered isotopes are given in Table 6.1.
If the half-life of an isotope is known then the source activity at a given time
can be calculated if the source activity had previously been measured.
Suppose that an isotope having a half-life h, had an activity S0, at time t = 0.
Then at time t, the source strength or activity St, can be calculated using:
St = S0 2-(t/h)
Alternatively the activity of a source can be estimated using a decay chart.

Figure 6.3 shows the decay chart for iridium 192.
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Figure 6.3 Iridium 192 decay.
6.6 Radioactive isotope containers for industrial radiography

Radioactive isotopes emit gamma rays continuously; the decay process cannot
be switched off or in any way slowed down. Gamma radiation is extremely
harmful to human body tissues so radioactive isotopes must be shielded when
not in use. The shielding materials used in isotope containers are always dense
materials such as lead, tungsten or (more commonly) depleted uranium. Most
modern containers use depleted uranium shielding because uranium is an
extremely efficient absorber of gamma radiation.
Uranium shielded isotope containers are much lighter and more portable than
their lead shielded counterparts. A uranium shielded container having a weight
of about 20kg can safely store 100 Ci of iridium 192. A lead shielded container
of the same weight would be capable of safely containing only 20 Ci of iridium
192.
Radioactive isotope containers are designed to fulfil two important functions:
1 Contain the radioactive isotope and reduce the emitted intensity of radiation
to a level which allows for safe transportation and storage.
2 Allow the radioactive isotope to be safely exposed in order that it may be

used for radiography.
In addition, radioactive isotope containers have to be capable of withstanding

possible accidents involving impact or fire.
All modern isotope containers are designed to be operated by cable (see Figure
6.6). They are of two basic types, (Figures 6.4 and 6.5). Of the two types
depicted the S tube type is intrinsically safer but around 30% heavier than the
equivalent shutter type. Older types of isotope container did not provide for
remote operation.
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Sealed
source Locking device
Connector for
delivery tube Connector for
wind-out
Fireproof packing material

Depleted uranium or tungsten shielding
Figure 6.4 S tube type radioactive source container.
Locked position Unlocked position
Figure 6.5 Shutter type radioactive source container.
Projection tube
Isotope container
Wind-out
Figure 6.6 Remote control isotope delivery system.
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Figure 6.7 Sealed source with flexible cable (pigtail) attached.
6.7 Comparison of X- and gamma rays

6.7.1 Energy and output of radiation
X-ray equipment produces a continuous range of photon energies up to a
threshold level dependent upon the tube voltage setting. The threshold photon
energy level can be adjusted from 50keV or less up to a maximum (for high
energy equipment) of perhaps 30MeV. The photon energy of gamma ray
sources is fixed.
The output of radiation per unit time is variable for X-ray equipment up to the
maximum mA rating of the tube. The output of radiation from a radioactive
isotope is fixed by the source activity. The output of radiation produced by X-
ray equipment is generally much greater than that produced by radioactive
isotopes.
The penetrating power of ionising radiation is controlled by its maximum photon

energy and the photon energy distribution. Table 6.2 gives an indication of the
maximum steel thickness that can practically be radiographed using
conventional X-ray equipment and the commonly encountered isotopes. The
penetrating power of X-rays produce by self-rectified equipment is less than
that of X-rays produced by constant potential equipment operating at the same
tube voltage. This is because the constant potential equipment produces a
larger proportion of high energy radiation than does the self-rectified.
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Table 6.2 Useful thickness range for various sources of radiation
Source of radiation Useful thickness range/mm of steel, mm

100 kV (peak) Maximum 8
X-ray
self-
rectified
100 kV Maximum 10
X-ray
150 kV Maximum 32
constant
200 kV Maximum 45
potential
300 kV Maximum 100
Thulium 170 Maximum 5
Selenium 75 10 - 40
Gamma ray Ytterbium 169 5 - 15
Iridium 192 20 - 100
Cobalt 60 40 - 200
Note: Steel sections of 500 or 600mm can be radiographed using X-rays

generated by linear accelerators or betatrons.
6.7.2 Radiographic contrast

Low energy radiation is more easily absorbed than high energy radiation.
Therefore low energy radiation will show a bigger change in radiation intensity
for the same change of penetrated section thickness than will high energy
radiation. Thus radiographs made with low energy radiation will usually show
better contrast than those made using high energy radiation.
The contrast of X-radiographs is generally better than gamma radiographs since

it is possible to optimise the X-ray energy for the thickness of the material
which is to be examined; in so doing obtaining the best possible contrast. With
a gamma ray source the radiation energy is fixed and is optimum for a narrow
range of thickness only. Contrast is better for X-rays of the same maximum
radiation energy than it is for gamma rays because X-ray tubes produce a
continuous range of energies as opposed to the line spectrum which is obtained
from a gamma ray source.
6.7.3 Focal spot size versus source size

A radiograph produced using small effective source size will usually be of higher
quality than one produced with a larger effective source size. The average focal
spot size an X-ray tube is similar to the average physical size of the gamma ray
sources which are commonly used. Most X-ray tubes have a fixed effective focal
spot of between 1 and 4mm. With some X-ray equipment the focal spot size
can be varied. Microfocus X-ray tubes may have an effective focal spot of less
than 0.1mm. The size of the focal spot in an X-ray tube tends to be larger for
the higher maximum kilovoltage tubes. This is due to the need to dissipate the
increased amount of heat generated at high kV. The practical source size for a
radioactive isotope is determined by the maximum economically achievable
specific activity. Specific activity is usually expressed in curies (or becquerels)
per gram. Table 6.3 below gives typical practical achievable maximum specific
activity for 4 common isotopes.
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Table 6.3 Specific activity for common radioisotopes
Practically Maximum practically

achievable achievable activity for 3mm
maximum diameter, 3mm long
specific activity, Density, cylindrical pellet,
Isotope curies per gram g/cm3 curies
Cobalt 50 8.9 10
60
Iridium 350 22.4 166
192
(1)
Caesium 25 3.5 2
137
(2)
Thulium 1,000 4 85
170
Note:
1 Density is for compressed caesium chloride (CsCl).
2 Density is for thulium oxide (Tm2O3).
Note: That the maximum activity of a gamma ray source is limited by its
physical size. The most useful isotopes are those which have a high value of
practically achievable specific activity. In an iridium 192 source at the maximum
achievable activity, about 2.5 atoms per 100 million are radioactive. In a cobalt
60 source the figure is only about 1 atom in every 10,000 million.
The output of radiation from a typical X-ray machine is much greater than from
a typical gamma source. This means that in X-radiography the use of long focal
to film distances is more economically feasible than in gamma radiography.
Thus, even though the focus is similar in physical size when compared with the
average gamma source, it is generally the case that geometric unsharpness is
better for X-ray techniques than for gamma.
6.7.4 Exposure time (film radiography)

An exposure time of between 0.5 and 5 minutes is usual for X-ray radiography.
An old conventional self-rectified X-ray set operating at maximum kilovoltage
and tube current will generally be capable of continuous use with an exposure
time of up to 5 minutes followed by a rest period between successive exposures
of around 1 or 2 minutes. If the exposure time is extended beyond 5 minutes
then overheating will generally occur if the rest period is not considerably
extended. Modern constant potential equipment intended for fixed installation
usage will usually be capable of continuous operation at its maximum output
rating. However, even with such equipment, exposure times exceeding 10
minutes will generally be avoided.
The exposure time for gamma radiography tends to be longer. This is because
the output of radiation (in photons per second) is generally much less. Gamma
ray exposure times are usually in the range from about 30 seconds to 1 hour,
but exposure times exceeding 24 hours are not unheard of. The required
exposure time for a gamma ray source increases as the source activity reduces
with time.
6.7.5 Power supply

X-ray sets require power from a mains supply or mobile generator. Usually a
4.5kW generator will provide sufficient power to operate a 300kV self-rectified
set. Gamma radiography can in general be carried out without the need for a
power supply.
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6.7.6 Physical size and weight
An iridium 192 isotope with a source activity of up to 100 curies can safely be
stored in a container weighing 15-20kg which has outside dimensions of
approximately 200 x 400 x 100mm. Such isotopes are useful for the
radiography of steel sections of up to 75mm thick. Gamma ray sources can be
used to make exposures in situations where access is extremely limited.
A typical self-rectified 300kV rated X-ray set (which is useful for the
radiography of steel sections of up to 60mm thickness) is on the other hand
considerably less portable and less manoeuvrable. A typical 300kV self-rectified
tube head could weigh 55kg and measure 300 x 300 x 750mm while the
associated control panel might weigh as much as 30 kg and measure 450 x 350
x 250mm. Low kilovoltage equipment offers improved portability and
manoeuvrability but this has to be offset against the reduced penetrating
power.
6.7.7 Equipment cost

The initial cost of X-ray equipment for site work is about 2-5 times that of a
portable gamma ray container. The cost of maintenance and repair is greater
for X-ray equipment, due to the nature of the electrical equipment involved and
because X-ray equipment is less rugged and therefore more prone to damage in
site conditions.
Gamma ray sources have to be replaced on a regular basis due to radioactive

decay. This can become costly if the source is not used regularly. Gamma ray
sources have, by law in most countries, to be stored in very secure conditions.
This factor also adds to costs when compared to X-ray equipment.
X-ray exposures tend to be shorter so there can be a cost saving with X-ray
equipment if the setting-up time between successive exposures is minimised.
Overall gamma radiography tends to be the most cost effective solution for
construction site work but X-radiography may provide the cheapest option
where are large number of similar radiographs are required (such as may be
the case in pipeline or mass production environments).
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Section 7
Methods of Producing a Radiographic Image
7 Methods of Producing a Radiographic Image
7.1 Radiographic film
Radiographic film is essentially the same as that used in photography in that it
consists of a suspension of silver halide grains in a gelatine binder on an
acetate or polyester base. Radiographic film, however, differs from
photographic film in that the:
Acetate or polyester base material is considerably thicker than photographic

film.
Emulsion is applied to both sides of the film. This effectively doubles the film
density (i.e. degree of darkness) for the same exposure to radiation and
thereby doubles the film speed.
Emulsion tends to be thicker (usually around 0.025mm) than or
photographic films, in order to further increase the film speed.
Two types of radiographic film are used for industrial radiography:
Direct type film: Where the principal cause of image formation is the ionising
radiation itself. This may be coupled with the effect of secondary electrons
emitted from metallic foil intensifying screens.
Screen type film: Where the principal cause of image formation is light
emitted from fluorescent image intensifying screens under the action of
ionising radiation.
Super-coat
Emulsion
Subbing
0.2mm
Base
Subbing
Emulsion
Super-coat
Figure 7.1 Cross-section through a radiographic film.
Some radiographic film will produce good results either as a direct type or as a
screen type film. The film emulsion in screen type films usually has a matt
finish so as to avoid reflecting the light produced by fluorescence.
All standardisation systems are classifying radiographic films into several

categories on basis of their gradient (respectively grain size). EN ISO 11699-1
recognised in total 6 film classes from fine grain category C1 to coarse grain
category C6.
In order to allow some standardisation of procedures in radiography, it is

common requirement that manufacturer shall classify the film in one of
categories (see Table 7.1).
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Methods of Producing a Radiographic Image 7-1 Copyright TWI Ltd
Table 7.1 Classification of radiographic films
Classification Manufacturer designation and film factor CF
EN ISO ASTM E
AGFA CF KODAK CF FUJI CF FOMA CF
11699-1 1815
C1 Special D2 9.0 DR 50 7.2 IX 25 6.5 R2 9.0

C2 D3 4.2 M 100 4.2 IX 50 3.3 R3 4.2
C3 Class 1 D4 2.6 MX 125 2.8 --- R4 2.6
C4 D5 1.6 T 200 1.7 IX 80 1.6 R5 1.6
C5 Class 2 D7 1.0 AA 400 1 IX 100 1.0 R7 1.0
C6 Class 3 D8 0.7 CX 0.7 IX 150 0.6 R8 0.7
Note: Not all film categories are suitable for given purpose. Therefore for
example standard EN ISO 17636-1 lists only 3 classes (C3 to C5).
7.2 Film speed

Film gradient is related to size of sensitive grains dispersed in emulsion. Films
with bigger grains are usually considered to be more sensitive it means that
such film turn black faster while exposed to radiation than fine grain film.
Coarse grained film is more sensitive to radiation because it requires a shorter

exposure time than fine grain film because each grain of silver halide needs
only to receive as few a single photon of radiation or single secondary electron
in order to become sensitised. When a sensitised grain contacts the developer
solution the entire grain, regardless of its size, is converted to image forming
metallic silver. Large grains of silver will block out more light than small grains
so a coarse grained film will appear darker after processing than will a fine
grained film even though the exposure conditions were exactly the same.
On the other hand fine grain film is offering better resolution of radiograph and
also better contrast.
From this we can say that fine grain film = slow film and coarse grain film
= fast film. The designation fast and slow is typical for US standards and
codes while EN ISO rather speaks about film factor CF.
7.3 Film factor CF

Film factor is another way how to express the film speed. Film factor is related
to reference level and express how many times film faster or slower is. It is
non-written agreement nowadays that AGFA D7 is reference level (CF = 1) and
other factors are related to it.
Because film AGFA D7 is classified as film class C5, all other films classified in
this class are said to has same film factor CF = 1. There may be small variation
in speed of particular forms in given film class due to fact that class represents
some band of film speed values.
Advantage of film factor (against film speed) is that film factor is represented
by numerical value which can be used for recalculation of exposure time when it
is necessary to interchange given film by another.
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7.3.1 Latent image formation
When film is exposed to X-rays, gamma rays, or light, an invisible change called
a latent image is produced in the film emulsion. The areas exposed become
dark when the film is immersed in a developing solution, the degree of
darkening depending on the amount of exposure.
Photographic emulsion consists of myriads of tiny crystals of silver halide

(usually silver bromide with a small quantity of silver iodide) dispersed in
gelatine. Each tiny crystal responds as an individual unit during exposure to
radiation and subsequent development. A latent image can be defined as that
radiation induced change in a silver halide crystal that renders the crystal
susceptible to the chemical action of the developer.
Photography utilising film emulsion similar to that in use today has been with us
since around 1839 but the mechanisms involved in latent image formation
remained a mystery until 1938 when the Gurney-Mott theory was first put
forward. Although this theory is now generally accepted there remain areas of
speculation.
Formation of a latent image involves a very subtle change in the silver halide
grain. It is known to involve the absorption of only one or a few photons of
radiation. Because of the small amount of energy involved it is obvious that
only a few atoms, out of the ten thousand million or so atoms in a typical silver
halide grain, can actually be affected. To date it has proved impossible to detect
either the physical or the chemical nature of the tiny changes involved. Against
this, however, much can be deduced about what the physical nature of these
changes must be. For one thing we know that the substance which forms the
radiographic image must be metallic silver.
We also know that the latent image is localised at certain discrete sites within
the silver halide grain. The evidence for this is shown in Figure 7.2 an electron
micrograph of a section of film emulsion that has been exposed to light followed
by brief contact with developer. Note how tiny amounts of silver (the dark
areas) have appeared (the dark areas) within each grain of silver halide.
Further it is known that prolonged exposure to light will darken the film
emulsion even without development. Therefore the mechanism of latent image
formation will by itself cause the release of silver from a silver halide grain
under extreme conditions (see Figure 7.3).
Figure 7.2 Electron micrograph of exposed, partially developed, partially fixed

grains of silver halide, showing initiation of development at localised sites in
the grains (1 = 1micron = 0.001mm).
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Figure 7.3 Electron micrograph of the release of silver in a grain of silver halide
caused by very intense exposure to light.
Based on such evidence it is fairly safe to assume the mechanism of latent

image formation releases a few atoms of silver within each exposed silver
halide grain. The chemicals contained in the developer then preferentially attack
such exposed grains.
An excellent explanation of the Gurney-Mott theory can be found in

Radiography in Modern Industry on the Kodak website.
7.3.2 Film cassettes

Radiographic film is highly sensitive to light, in particular to light at the blue end
of the spectrum. It has to be protected from exposure to light (except for the
light from darkroom safe lamps) at all times up to when the fixing process has
commenced. Prior to use the film is stored in light proof boxes. In order that
the film can be used for radiography the film has first to be inserted into a
suitable light proof container. Such containers are called cassettes. Film
cassettes are of two types: rigid and flexible. Film cassettes serve three
important functions: firstly they protect the film from unwanted exposure to
light, secondly they help to maintain good film-screen contact and thirdly they
protect the film against environmental or handling damage. Film cassettes must
be manufactured in such a way that they do not produce any unwanted image
on the radiograph. Some radiographic film is available pre-packed in a
protective light proof envelope complete with lead intensifying screens. For the
most part, flexible cassettes manufactured from opaque PVC or other plastic are
used because they are cheap, durable and versatile.
Film cassettes must be handled with care, as they are particularly easy to
rupture during loading and unloading of the film. Cassettes which leak light can
add considerably to the cost of radiography if they lead to a radiograph having
to be retaken. Therefore it is good practice to inspect cassettes prior to use.
Leaky cassettes can often be satisfactorily repaired using opaque adhesive tape.
7.3.3 Intensifying screens

In industrial radiography intensifying screens of one form or another tend to be
used for most exposures. An intensifying screen amplifies the effect that the
primary radiation beam has upon the radiographic film emulsion, thus
shortening the required exposure time.
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Metallic foil intensifying screens
At first it may seem to be a little paradoxical that metallic (nearly always lead
but occasionally copper, steel or tantalum) foil screens can produce an
intensifying effect. All metals are good absorbers of ionising radiation so one
would naturally expect that the film density would be reduced rather than
increased. In practice however, lead or copper foil screens brought into close
contact with direct type radiographic film reduce the required exposure for
radiation energies in excess of 120keV by a factor of about two. The reason for
this is that under the action of ionising radiation of energy 120keV or greater
metals produce secondary electrons which have kinetic energy sufficient to
cause the sensitisation of the grains of silver halide which they strike. Metallic
foil screens further add to the quality of the radiograph by filtering out a large
proportion of the scattered radiation which is of lower energy (and therefore
more easily absorbed) than the primary beam.
For most purposes lead foil screens of thickness 0.03 to 0.125 mm are used but
thicker screens are used for high energy radiography. Copper screens tend to
be used only for extremely high energy techniques (above 1MeV). The lead
screens found in pre-packed film are only a few microns thick, they produce a
strong intensifying effect but have a much reduced effect on the scattered
radiation as compared with standard re-useable lead screens. Pre-packed film is
available either in individual disposable cassettes or as rollpack where a long
narrow length of film is supplied complete with lead screens in a protective light
proof sheath. Rollpack film can be cut to any desired length. The cut ends have
to be light sealed with suitable adhesive tape. Rollpack is commonly used on
pipelines in conjunction with the panoramic technique.
EN ISO 17636-1 specifies metallic screens of lead, copper, steel and tantalum
and the specified thickness range and screen material change for different X-ray
tube voltages and different isotopes.
Salt screens
Salt screens consist of a layer of calcium tungstate (or other fluorescent
material), attached using a suitable binding material, to a sheet of cardboard.
While salt screens can produce a dramatic reduction in exposure time when
used with screen type film they are seldom used in industrial radiography
because they produce an image of inferior quality, are expensive and very
easily damaged.
Salt screens produce an image intensifying effect by fluorescing, usually the

blue part of the spectrum, under the action of ionising radiation. They are
capable of cutting the exposure time required by a factor of up to 500.
Fluorometallic screens
These screens, which attempt to combine the advantages of lead screens with
those of salt screens, are occasionally used in industrial radiography when there
are strong financial pressures for a reduction in exposure time. One such
application is on offshore pipe laying barges. They are even more expensive
than salt screens at around 70 for a pair of 10 x 40cm screens and they are
just as easily damaged. They do not provide quite the same reduction in
exposure time as do salt screens but the image quality is considerably improved
(although still inferior to that produced using lead screens). Fluorometallic
screens consist of a cardboard backing material with a layer of lead foil
attached, a layer of calcium tungstate or other fluorescent crystalline material
suspended in a suitable binding material.
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7.3.4 Film processing
Radiographic film forms a latent image during exposure to ionising radiation,
light or secondary electrons. By a process which is not fully understood, silver
halide grains become sensitised during exposure (see Section 7.3.1). To make
the latent image formed by the sensitised grains visible it is necessary to
chemically process the film. Films can be processed either manually or
automatically but the chemical processes involved are the same. Radiographic
film must not be exposed to light except that from darkroom safe-lamps; even
this exposure must be minimised as prolonged exposure can result in film
fogging. Extreme care must be exercised during film processing because the
wet film emulsion is extremely fragile.
Velcro fastening
Lead screen
Black PVC
Film cassette
Cardboard
backing of
screen
Velcro fastening
Figure 7.4 Combination Film / screens / cassette.
Development
The first stage in film processing is development. During this stage a reducing
agent such as hydroquinone or metol reduces the sensitised silver halide grains
in the film emulsion to metallic silver. Development, whether manual or
automatic, must be carried out within the temperature range recommended by
the developer manufacturer otherwise image quality will be severely impaired.
Developers for manual processing are usually designed for use at 20C, for
automatic processing this will usually be increased to around 27C. Films should
always be developed for the optimum processing time of about five minutes for
manual and fewer than two minutes for automatic development.
Film developed for a time not within the developer manufacturers

recommendations will have impaired image quality. It is recommended to
agitated film thoroughly in the first 20-30 seconds of development when the
reaction with the developer is rapid and at regular intervals (usually 10 seconds
per minute) throughout the remainder of allotted development time. Failure to
properly agitate the film will result in a streaky radiograph and inferior image
contrast. The developer solution undergoes chemical changes during film
processing and it must be replenished regularly to maintain its effectiveness.
Exposure to air must be minimised because developer is readily oxidised.
Contamination of the developer with foreign material, especially metal particles,
is likely to lead to unwanted images being produced on the film.
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Stop bath
The stop bath serves two purposes: (1) Curtail the action of the developer and
(2) Protects the fixer by reducing carry-over of developer solution. It is not
essential to use a stop bath but it is desirable because it will considerably
extend the life of the fixer. It will also help to avoid possible film artefacts,
dichroic fogging in particular. Two types of stop bath may be used, an acid or
running water. In either case the stop bath must be maintained at a
temperature which is comparable to that of the developer otherwise reticulation
may result. The developer operates in an alkaline buffer solution. Acid stop
baths neutralise the alkalinity of the developer and stop the development
process almost immediately. It is normal to allow the film to remain in such a
stop bath for 10-30 seconds. Running water stop baths quickly dilute the
developer solution thus rapidly slowing the development reaction and
minimising the damage to the fixer. It is normal to allow a time of 2-3 minutes
when using running water stop baths.
Fixing and hardening

The chemicals which are used to fix the image and harden the emulsion are
normally combined in a single chemical bath. Both types of chemical have to be
protected by an acid buffer solution. In acid solution the active ingredient in the
fixer will dissolve only silver halide from the film; if the solution becomes
alkaline it will, in addition, begin to dissolve any metallic silver present. The
silver halides which remain intact in the film emulsion after development must
be removed to preserve the image which has been formed and in order that it
can be viewed using transmitted light. Any silver halide which remains in the
emulsion of a fully processed film will quickly deteriorate on contact with air
under the influence of light to form brown stains which severely degrade the
quality of the image.
The process of removing excess silver halides is called fixing. The chemical used
to achieve this is sodium (or ammonium) thiosulphate (sometimes called hypo).
The gelatine binder which holds the silver and silver halides becomes soft and
spongy in the developer. Hardening the film serves to get rid of some of this
sponginess and gives the film better resistance to the formation of water marks
during drying. Hardening of the film emulsion, although desirable, is not
absolutely necessary if the films are subsequently washed at a temperature of
less than 25C and dried manually If automatic dryers are to be used, however,
the film emulsion will be badly damaged by the rollers if the film has not been
properly hardened.
For manual processing the fixer-hardener bath should be maintained at the

same temperature as the developer, although in this case the temperature is
not so critical. Films should be fixed for twice the clearing time (the time taken
for the fixer to strip out the remaining silver halide). The clearing time for a
fixer bath maintained in good condition will generally be less than 2.5 minutes
at 20C. While fixing times of 1 hour or more generally have no ill effects, over-
fixing should be avoided because in some circumstances it can lead to frilling,
(frilling is a film artefact whereby the film emulsion becomes detached from the
base). Frilling can be caused by allowing film to remain in the fixer for an
extended period at high temperature, particularly where hardener has not been
added to the fixer.
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Washing
After fixing the film must be thoroughly washed so as to remove all traces of
the fixer chemicals from the emulsion. Insufficient washing will result in the
formation of brownish yellow stains while over-washing can cause water marks
or even frilling (see above). Adequate wash times in a running water wash vary
from 10 minutes at 30C to 30 minutes at 10C. Most film manufacturers
recommend that the wash temperature should not be more than 25C. Film can
be washed successfully in a still water bath provided that the water is changed
regularly.
Drying
The application of a wetting agent to the film prior to drying will help the film to
dry quickly/evenly without watermarks. If the films are to be dried using a
warm air draught then care must be taken to ensure that dust is not blown onto
the wet films. Warm air dryers with a downward draught dry the film more
quickly.
7.4 Advanced imaging techniques

7.4.1 Computed radiography
Computed radiography (CR) uses very similar equipment to conventional
radiography except that in place of a film to create the image, an imaging plate
is used. The imaging plate contains photostimulable storage phosphors, which
store the radiation dose received at each point in local electron energies. When
the plate is put through the scanner, a scanning laser beam causes the
electrons to relax to lower energy levels, emitting light that is measured to
compute the digital image. Hence, instead of taking a film into a darkroom for
developing in chemical trays, the imaging plate is run through a computer
scanner to read and digitise the image. The image can then be viewed and
enhanced using software that has functions very similar to conventional image-
processing software, such as contrast, brightness, and zoom.
Computed radiography is commonly distinguished from digital radiography (DR

aka direct). Both systems require a short burst of radiation. The difference is
that on exposure a DR system will almost instantly display the image on the
screen in front of the radiographer, therefore removing any need for
processing. Post production can, of course, be performed on DR images in the
same way as for CR images.
7.4.2 Computed tomography

The technique of tomography involves passing a series of X-rays through an
object, and measuring the change in intensity or attenuation by placing a series
of detectors on the opposite side of the object from the X-ray source. The
measurements of X-ray attenuation are called projections and are collected at a
variety of angles. Computer tomography (CT) is a powerful NDT technique that
uses a computer to produce 2D cross-sectional and 3D images of an object
from X-radiographs. Characteristics of the internal structure of an object such
as dimensions, shape, internal defects and density are readily available from CT
images.
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7.4.3 Real-time radiography (fluoroscopy)
Real-time radiography (RTR), or real-time radioscopy, is NDT method whereby
an image is produced electronically, rather than on film, so that very little lag
time occurs between the item being exposed to radiation and the resulting
image. In most instances, the electronic image that is viewed results from the
radiation passing through the object being inspected and interacting with a
screen of material that fluoresces or gives off light when the interaction occurs.
The fluorescent elements of the screen form the image much as the grains of
silver form the image in film radiography. The image formed is a positive image
since brighter areas on the image indicate where higher levels of transmitted
radiation reached the screen. This image is the opposite of the negative image
produced in film radiography. In other words, with RTR, the lighter, brighter
areas represent thinner sections or less dense sections of the test object.
Real-time radiography is a well-established method of NDT having applications

in automotive, aerospace, pressure vessel, electronic and munition industries,
among others. The use of RTR is increasing due to a reduction in the cost of the
equipment and resolution of issues such as protecting and storing digital
images.
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Section 8
Production of a Radiograph
(Film Radiography)
8 Production of a Radiograph (Film Radiography)
A radiograph is a record of the way in which a beam of radiation has been
differentially absorbed by an object stored on photographic film. In order to
produce good quality radiographs economically numerous factors have to be
taken into account. First it is necessary to understand what is meant by
radiographic quality.
8.1 Radiographic quality

The quality or sensitivity of a radiograph is a measure of the ability of the
radiograph to detect small changes in radiation intensity caused by variations in
object thickness or composition. In order to detect small imperfections in an
object an adequate level of sensitivity must be achieved. The standard methods
of measuring or estimating sensitivity are described in the next chapter.
Achieving adequate sensitivity is the crucial factor which determines the level of
success of radiography as an NDT technique.
Figure 8.1 summarises the factors which must be considered if radiographs of

adequate quality are to be produced. Radiographic quality or sensitivity
depends on achieving good contrast and good definition.
Radiographic sensitivity
Contrast Definition
Figure 8.1 Factors affecting radiographic sensitivity.
8.1.1 Contrast
Contrast can be defined as the ease with which it is possible to distinguish
between two adjacent areas of different film density. The chief factor which
determines whether or not the two areas will be clearly defined is the degree of
difference in film density.
Radiographic contrast is formed by:
1 The object being radiographed: Subject contrast.

2 The film used to produce the radiograph: Film contrast.
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Production of a Radiograph (Film Radiography) 8-1 Copyright TWI Ltd
Subject contrast can be defined as the degree of difference in transmitted
radiation intensity produced by a given change in subject thickness. This is
primarily a function of the type of material from which the subject is made. For
instance a 1mm step in a 10mm section of lead will produce a much greater
change in transmitted radiation intensity than would the same step in a similar
section of aluminium (assuming that the energy of the incident radiation was
the same in both cases).
Film contrast can be defined as the degree of difference in film density

produced by a given change in radiation intensity or exposure time. This is
primarily controlled by the type of film used.
The factors affecting film and subject contrast are discussed below.
Film type (affects film contrast)

In considering the effect that film type has upon film contrast (the type of film
has no effect on subject contrast) it is useful to refer to a type of graph called a
film characteristic curve. Such graphs relate the logarithm of the relative
exposure time to the achieved film density; an example is given in Figure 8.2.
The gradient of a film characteristic curve represents the change in film density
produced by a small change in subject thickness. Figure 8.3 shows how the
gradient of the film characteristic curve varies with film density. Note: The
curve for Kodak MX125, an ultrafine grain film, has the steepest gradient. The
Agfa D7 curve is in turn steeper than that of Kodak CX. D7 and CX are both
class C5 fine grain film, but CX is slightly faster film than D7. Thus MX125 will
provide the best film contrast, whilst D7 should produce contrast better than
that of CX.
Film density (affects film contrast)

Film density can be defined as the degree of darkening of the film or more
properly the degree to which the film prevents light from passing through it.
Mathematically, film density is defined as the logarithm to the base 10 of the
ratio of the incident to transmitted light intensity. It can be calculated using the
following formula:
The logarithm to the base 10 of a number is just the power of 10 that will
produce the number itself.
For example:
102 = 100 and the logarithm of 100 = 2.
103 = 1000 and the logarithm of 1000 =3.
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Film density
Log10 relative exposure
Figure 8.2 Film characteristic curves Kodak CX, AGFA D7 and Kodak MX125
(direct type film/lead screens).
8.0
Gradient of film characteristic curve
increasing gradient = increasing film
MX
6.0
D7
CX
contrast
4.0
2.0
0.0
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0

Film density
Figure 8.3 Gradient of the film characteristic curve versus film density for
Kodak MX125, Agfa D7 and Kodak CX.
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Thus a film having a density of 2.0 transmits 1% of the incident light intensity
while a film with a density of 3.0 transmits only 0.1%. A film with a density of
0.3 would transmit about 50% of the incident light intensity.
Figures 8.2 and 8.3 show how film density affects film contrast. Film density
does not affect subject contrast. The gradient of the film characteristic curve is
a good measure of film contrast. The gradient for all films increases with
increasing film density. If the gradient is steep then a small change in radiation
intensity or exposure time will produce a large change in film density. The
gradient of all of the film characteristic curves becomes shallow at film densities
of less than 1.5, indicating that film contrast will be poor at low film densities.
In view of this all relevant industrial standards stipulates a minimum film
density for industrial radiography.
Base fog level (affects film contrast)

Standards generally limit the base fog level of unexposed radiographic film to
0.3. If the base fog level exceeds this value film contrast can be quite severely
affected. Fog level can be checked by processing a sample of the unexposed
film. Figure 8.4 demonstrates how the base fog level affects film contrast.
Film density
Log10 relative exposure

Figure 8.4 Effect of film fogging on the film characteristic curve.
The dotted lines show the average gradient between film densities 1.5 and 2.5
for film having a base fog level of 0.1 and 0.5 respectively. The average
gradient with a base fog level of 0.1 is about 3.6 while that for a base fog level
of 0.5 is about 2.7. This decrease in average gradient is indicative of a
reduction in film contrast.
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Film processing (affects film contrast)
Radiographic film should always be processed in accordance with the
manufacturers recommendations. Any deviation from these will result in a
lowering of film contrast and hence sensitivity.
The film attains about 80% of its final density in the first 30 seconds of
development. During the remaining 3-5 minutes of the standard
development time radiographic developers are designed to increase film
contrast. The developer works more vigorously in areas where a lot of metallic
silver has already been released. Thus film contrast gradually improves during
the final minutes of the development process. This is why radiographs which
have been pulled intentionally underdeveloped in an effort to produce
acceptable film density invariably show poor film contrast. If the film is allowed
to remain in the developer for too long, however, the developer will begin to
attack all areas of the film and contrast will begin to suffer.
All radiographic developers are designed to for use at the processing

temperature specified by the developer manufacturer. Development time can,
to some extent, be increased to compensate for a lower developer temperature
or reduced if the temperature is above the optimum, but this will invariably be
at the cost of reduced film contrast.
In order to maintain the developer in good condition it must be replenished.

Developer which has not been properly replenished quickly leads to low contrast
low quality radiographs.
Radiation quality (affects subject contrast)

As the photon energy of the incident beam of radiation increases the subject
contrast produced by the same change in component thickness decreases. This
is because higher energy radiation is less absorbed as it passes through a given
thickness of the same material than is lower energy radiation.
It is useful to talk about different radiation energy in terms of its half value
layer. The half value layer can be defined as the thickness of any particular
material which will reduce the intensity of the incident radiation by a factor of
two. The thickness of the half value layer for any material increases with
increasing radiation energy. Examples of half value layers for various materials
and radiation energies are given in Table 8.1.
Table 8.1 Half value layers.
Nature of incident radiation Half value layer, mm

Steel Aluminium, Lead
Iridium 192 -rays 13 35 4.8
Cobalt 60 -rays 22 70 12.5
100kV X-rays 2.4 15 0.1
150kV X-rays 4.5 18.5 0.3
200kV X-rays 6 21 0.65
300kV X-rays 8 25 1.6
Note: That as half value layer decreases subject contrast increases.
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Scatter (affects film and subject contrast)
As ionising radiation passes through any material it undergoes a process known
as scattering. Scattering occurs due to various mechanisms (the principal cause
varies with the radiation energy) all of which occur due to the way in which
radiation photons interact with atoms. When an X-ray photon strikes an atom it
will cause the atom to lose one or more electrons, so that the affected atom
becomes positively charged. Such electrically charged atoms are normally
referred to as ions. Ions, by their nature, are not stable, they will try to attract
electrons into their empty energy shells in order to achieve a zero electrical
charge. As electrons are captured from free space by ions they give up part of
their kinetic energy as a photon of radiation. These photons will radiate in all
directions from the affected atoms. Such radiation is known as scattered
radiation and can lead to an overall fogging of the film emulsion. This reduces
film contrast.
Scatter can severely reduce subject contrast by reducing the differences in

radiation intensity reaching the film from various parts of the component under
test.
Scattering mechanisms and methods of controlling scattered radiation are

discussed in a later section.
8.1.2 Definition
Definition is a measure of the sharpness of the images on the radiograph. It can
be defined as the width of the boundary between two areas of different density
on a film. The opposite of definition is unsharpness.
An illustration of unsharpness is given in Figure 8.5.
The total unsharpness on a radiograph is due to three factors:
Geometric unsharpness (also called penumbra or penumbral shadow).

Inherent unsharpness (also called film unsharpness).
Relative movement during exposure.
These are described and discussed below.
Increasing unsharpness
Figure 8.5 Unsharpness: The unsharpness of the boundary between light and
dark increases from left to right.
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Geometric unsharpness
A major factor affecting definition on a radiograph is geometric unsharpness.
This can be defined as the width of the penumbra. Penumbra is the word used
in physics to describe the lack of sharpness at the edge of a shadow. Umbra
means full shadow and penumbra means half shadow. So long as the source of
radiation is not a true point source (and it never is a true point source) there
will be a penumbral area at the edge of any shadow. A radiographic image is
basically just a shadow.
The focal spot of an X-ray tube and a radioactive isotope always have finite
physical dimensions so a penumbra is always produced. Once the achieved
penumbra falls below about 0.2mm the unaided human eye ceases to perceive
any further improvement in definition. For very high quality radiographic
techniques geometric unsharpness is therefore generally kept to a value of less
than 0.2mm. To achieve this, the object to film distance is kept short and the
radiation source to film distance is made as long as necessary depending upon
the radiation source dimensions.
f OFD
Ug
FOD
Figure 8.6 Geometric unsharpness.
Inherent unsharpness
Inherent unsharpness depends on three factors: the type film, the type of
intensifying screen and the quality (or photon energy) of the radiation.
Film (Effect on inherent unsharpness)

The emulsion of any radiographic film is made up of silver halide grains. As
already mentioned the size of these grains is varied in order to control the film
speed. Each grain of silver halide needs to interact with as few as a single
photon of ionising radiation in order to become sensitised. Sensitised grains of
silver halide are very rapidly reduced to silver metal on contact with the
reducing agents contained in film developer. Obviously if the grains of silver
halide are large they will tend to cause a blurring effect on the radiographic
image - a similar effect occurs on a computer screen. At a resolution of 640 x
480 the image quality is quite poor; this is like a coarse grain film. At a
resolution of 1024 x 768 the image quality is considerably better because the
pixel size is much smaller. This is like a fine grain film.
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Each silver halide grain in a fine grain film is around 1m in size. To give an
idea of just how small this is, the pixel size on a computer screen at a
resolution of 1024 x 768 is in excess of 40m.
Quality of radiation (Effect on inherent unsharpness)

When ionising radiation passes through a material (including radiographic film)
it is scattered. Scattering processes involve the emission of electrons, so called
secondary electrons. As the radiation energy of the primary beam increases the
kinetic energy of the secondary electrons released also increases. As the
velocity of the secondary electrons increases they become capable of
penetrating an ever-increasing thickness of the surrounding material. The
reason why lead screens produce no intensification effect below 120keV is that
the below this primary beam energy the secondary electrons released in the
screens have insufficient energy to penetrate the supercoat of the film.
It is now known that most silver bromide grains in a direct type radiographic
film are not sensitised directly by the penetrating radiation itself. They are for
the most part sensitised by the secondary electrons released by the intensifying
screens and by secondary electrons generated within the film emulsion itself.
The greater the distance the secondary electrons are able to travel within the
emulsion the greater the resulting unsharpness.
At very high radiation energies (exceeding 1.02MeV) a scattering process called

pair production begins to predominate (pair production is more fully described
in Section 8.2.1). Pair production releases high energy electron positron pairs.
The positron released is annihilated as it meets with a free electron. This
produces a burst of X-rays with a characteristic photon energy of 0.51MeV. This
so-called annihilation radiation greatly reduces the sharpness of the image. The
bremstrahlung released as the electron half of the pair collides with
neighbouring shell electrons further reduces image sharpness.
Intensifying screens (Effect on inherent unsharpness)

Lead or copper intensifying screens increase the film speed by producing
secondary electrons which are capable of sensitising adjacent silver halide
grains. As the radiation energy increases the energy of the electrons produced
by the screens increases and this leads to an increase in inherent unsharpness
because the electrons are capable of travelling longer distances within the film
emulsion. Unsharpness will be increased still further if the screens are not in
good contact with the film.
Fluorometallic screens produce light photons in addition to secondary electrons.

The production of light photons inevitably produces an increase in unsharpness
compared to lead or copper screens because there is no limit to how far the
photons of light can travel. This loss of image quality will be greatly
exacerbated if good film screen contact is not maintained.
Salt screens fluoresce strongly under the influence of X-rays and produce very
large increases in film speed. They are not generally used in industrial
radiography due to the large increase in inherent unsharpness associated with
their use.
Relative movement during exposure

An increase in unsharpness will also be produced if there is any relative
movement between the source, object or film during exposure. This can be a
particular problem when carrying out radiography of pipework which is in
service (and therefore vibrating) or when radiography has to be performed in
windy conditions.
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8.2 Radiation scattering and scatter control
Matter which has absorbed ionising radiation and which has therefore reached
an unstable energy state will emit energy in the form of radiation as it returns
to a stable energy state. Some of this radiation will be in the form of heat, in a
few specialised cases it will be in the form of light and in many cases X-rays will
be produced. Such X-rays are termed scattered radiation and they can very
adversely affect radiographic quality. Control of scattered radiation is therefore
essential if high quality radiographs are to be produced.
Source
Primary radiation Scatter
Figure 8.7 Scattered radiation.
8.2.1 Scattering mechanisms the causes of scatter

There are three scattering mechanisms of particular importance in radiography
- the photoelectric effect, Compton or incoherent scattering and pair production.
The predominant scattering mechanism depends on the photon energy of the
primary beam. Several other scattering mechanisms are possible, including
Rayleigh or coherent scattering, but these are of little importance in industrial
radiography.
The photoelectric effect

The predominant scattering mechanism below 0.6MeV is the photoelectric
effect. In this all of the energy of the incident X- or gamma ray photon is
transferred to an orbital electron. The absorbing electron is in most cases
ejected from the atom and ionisation occurs. In a few cases where the energy
of the incident photon is correct the absorbing electron merely jumps from an
inner to an outer energy shell. As this electron at some later stage falls back
into its original energy state a photon of X-rays is emitted. The energy of this
photon is a characteristic of the scattering atom. Characteristic radiation
emission can be used to perform chemical analysis. Atoms which have been
ionised emit X-rays as they capture an electron from free space and the ejected
electrons emit X-rays as they collide and interact with the atoms in their path.
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E0
E 0 - Eb
Figure 8.8 Photoelectric effect. An incident X-ray photon, energy E0 collides

with an outer shell electron which is ejected from the atom with energy E0 Eb
where Eb is the binding energy.
Compton scattering (incoherent scattering)

The predominant scattering mechanism above 0.6MeV and up to 6MeV is
Compton scattering. In this only part of the energy of the incident X- or
gamma ray photon is transferred to an orbital electron. The absorbing electron
is ejected from the atom and ionisation occurs. The remaining photon energy
continues as a lower energy X-ray although slightly deflected from its original
path. Atoms which have been ionised emit X-rays as they capture an electron
from free space and the ejected electrons emit x-rays as they collide with and
interact with the atoms in their path.
Ee
E0
E e E0
Figure 8.9 Compton scattering.
Pair production
The predominant scattering mechanism above 6MeV is pair production. In this
the incident X- or gamma ray photon collides either with the nucleus or an inner
shell electron. The incident photon then converts to an electron - positron pair.
A positron is a particle having the same size and mass as an electron but
opposite electrical charge. Pair production cannot occur below a threshold
photon energy of 1.02MeV. The electron-positron pair is ejected at high velocity
but the positron has a very short life. It quickly meets a free electron and
annihilation occurs - the positron and electron cease to exist and 2 photons of
0.51MeV radiation are emitted. The ejected electron emits X-rays as it collides
and interacts with the atoms in its path.
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E0
2X0.51MeV
E+
E-
Figure 8.10 Pair production.
Total scatter at different primary beam energies
Photoelectric
Compton
Pair production
Total
Figure 8.11 Total scatter versus radiation energy.
Figure 8.11 shows how scatter is a greater problem at low incident radiation
energy. Scatter as a percentage of the total radiation is at a minimum at
around 2MeV, however, as radiation energy increases through the threshold
photon energy of 1.02MeV pair production within the film emulsion begins to
increase inherent unsharpness resulting in poor image quality.
Usually a decrease in incident radiation energy would be expected to produce

improved subject contrast and reduced inherent unsharpness. There is a limit to
this, however, where the increased scatter associated with low incident
radiation energy begins to counteract the beneficial effect of reducing the
incident radiation energy and a decrease in image contrast may be the overall
result.
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8.2.2 Types of scatter
Several types of scatter cause problems in radiography side, back and
internal scatter (self-scatter). The angle formed between the direction of travel
of the primary beam and the scattered radiation (reaching the film) is called the
scattering angle or angle of scatter. Side and internal scatter have an angle
which is less than or equal to 90 while for back scatter the angle exceeds 90.
Side scatter
Radiation may be scattered by parts of the object that are not within the
diagnostic area of the radiograph or by the walls of the exposure room. This is
termed side scatter.
This type of scatter can be reduced by collimating the beam such that only the
area to be examined is subjected to the primary beam and by the use of lead
masking, diaphragms or grids. In X-radiography the use of a filter may help to
reduce side scatter.
Side scatter causes undercutting of the radiographic image around the edges of
a component where these can be seen on the radiograph or at any site where
there is a large change in section thickness (eg a bolt hole). Undercutting
causes a lack of sharpness and may mask possible defect indications.
Back scatter
Back scatter is caused by the primary beam striking an object behind the film
and scattering back.
It can easily be reduced by shielding the back of the film cassette with a sheet
of lead, approximately 2mm thick is adequate for most applications. In X-
radiography the use of a filter may help to reduce back scatter.
The presence of excessive back scatter may be detected by placing a lead letter
B on the back surface of the cassette (ie the cassette surface furthest from the
source of radiation). If there is excessive back scatter then a light image of the
letter B will be seen on the developed film. The use of a lead letter B is
mandatory when working in accordance with the ASME code and is required for
each new technique by EN ISO 17636-1 (ie not for production radiography). In
accordance with EN ISO 17636-1 the lead letter B shall be a minimum of 10mm
high and 1.5mm thickness.
Note: If a dark image of the letter B appears this is not excessive back scatter.
It merely indicates characteristic radiation caused by the letter B itself.
Should back scatter be detected then the thickness of the lead sheet shielding
the back of the film cassette must be increased.
Self-scatter
Self-scatter is scattered radiation originating from within the test component.
The detrimental effect on film quality can be reduced by the use of lead
intensifying screens placed in contact with the film and, in X-radiography, by
the use of filters.
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If the radiation source is an X-ray tube then the use of a copper filter can help
to reduce the effects of this type of scatter. A copper filter significantly reduces
the proportion of low energy radiation within the primary beam. Since it is the
low energy radiation which is chiefly responsible for scatter the use of such a
filter can reduce the overall amount of scatter occurring and in this way
improve image quality. Filters made from lead, steel or other metals may be
used in a similar way.
Metallic foil intensifying screens made from lead or other metals reduce the
effects of self-scatter for both X- and gamma ray radiography as they filter out
the low energy scattered radiation and prevent it from reaching the film.
8.2.3 Scatter control

Collimation
Probably the single most effective way of reducing scatter is to collimate the
radiation beam. Collimators shield out most of the radiation which is not
travelling in the useful direction. X-ray equipment is always to some extent self-
collimated the geometry of the hooded anode shields out much of the
unwanted radiation produced, but some X-ray heads may contain additional
shielding. In gamma radiography collimators consisting of hollowed out blocks
of lead or tungsten.
The principle of collimation is simply that if there is less radiation then there will
be proportionally less scatter.
Diaphragms
Diaphragms take collimation a step further. They consist of a sheet of lead
which has a hole cut in it the same shape as the object which is being
radiographed. Using a diaphragm the radiographer is attempting to shield out
all unwanted radiation, the set up for radiography must however, be extremely
accurate if it is to be successful. Diaphragms are therefore more likely to be
seen where a fully automated technique is in use that allows for a very high
degree of repeatability in the set-up accuracy.
Masking or blocking
Masking or blocking consists of placing sheets of lead, bags of lead shot or
barium putty or any other radiation absorbing material around the object which
is being radiographed to reduce the undercutting effect of side scatter. Figure
8.13 below shows the benefits of blocking.
Focus or
source
Diaphragm
Object
Film
Figure 8.12 Using a diaphragm.
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3mm lead Undercutting
blocking
Figure 8.13 Radiographs produced with and without blocking.
Grids
The use of a grid is generally limited to medical radiography. It consists of a
matrix of parallel metal bars set in oscillation during exposure such that the grid
itself does not produce a radiographic image. It grid is a very effective method
of reducing the effects of side scatter, but grids are very rarely a practical
option for industrial situations. In order to be effective the grid must be placed
as close as possible to the film and microfocus X-radiography it may be placed
between the film and the object.
Filters
Figure 8.11 shows how the percentage of scattered radiation is high when the
radiation energy is low. Placing a thin sheet (typically 1 to 2mm) of copper or
other metal in the primary beam, close to the source of radiation, greatly
reduces the amount of low energy radiation while permitting most of the higher
energy radiation to pass through. If there is less low energy radiation there will
be less scatter, although it is possible that film contrast will be reduced. The
use of a filter to reduce scatter is limited to X-radiography because gamma ray
sources do not produce long wavelength low energy radiation.
Closely spaced steel

slats absorb radiation
other than the
primary beam
Oscillating
Figure 8.14 Oscillating grid.
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Figure 8.15 The effect of filtration on a typical X-ray spectrum.
Metallic foil screens

Lead screens, or those made from other metals such as steel or copper are a
very effective means of reducing scatter, for both X- and gamma radiography,
particularly when the energy of the primary beam exceeds 120keV. Such
screens are placed in contact with the film and the front screen works like a
filter, greatly reducing the proportion of low energy radiation which reaches the
film. Scattered radiation is always lower energy than the primary beam, so the
scatter is more affected by the filtration effect than is the primary beam. The
back screen reduces back scattered radiation which reaches the film.
In addition to this both screens intensify the effect of radiation, the energy of
which exceeds 120keV. The screens do this by producing secondary electrons to
which the film emulsion is sensitive. Most of the radiation exceeding 120keV will
be part of the primary beam. Thus the effect of the primary beam is amplified
at the expense of the unwanted scattered radiation.
Pb screens, good contact No screens
Figure 8.16 The effect of lead screens.
Higher radiation energy

Up to a radiation energy of around 1.5MeV increasing the maximum radiation
energy of the primary beam will reduce scatter (in proportion to the primary
beam) and improve image quality. At higher radiation energy there is a
continued decrease in the proportion of scattered radiation, but pair production
within the film emulsion begins to have an increasingly detrimental effect on
film unsharpness, Figure 8.11 above.
Change from X- to gamma-ray radiography

The absence of low energy components in radiation obtained from
radioactive materials such as iridium 192 or cobalt 60 is the reason
why gamma ray radiography is much less affected by scatter than X-ray
radiography.
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Reducing focus or source to film distance
The use of a source to film distance that will produce a value of geometric
unsharpness which is less than the inherent unsharpness for the film-screen
combination in use is therefore not recommended.
8.3 Determining the correct exposure: Exposure charts

Exposure in film radiography can be defined as the amount of radiation striking
or passing through the film. The amount of radiation striking the film is equal to
the product of the radiation intensity* at the film and the exposure time.
Exposure is critical, because underexposed films will show low film density and
therefore reduced contrast, while overexposed films which exceed a film density
of about 4.0 cannot usually be satisfactorily viewed using the unaided human
eye and standard film illuminators.
* Note: In film radiography it is better to think of intensity as photons per

square metre rather than energy per square metre. This is because
radiographic film has a fairly flat response to changes in photon energy right
across the full spectrum of X- and gamma rays. In terms of film density 1
photon of 150keV radiation has much the same effect as 1 photon of 20MeV
radiation.
In X-radiography the number of photons produced per unit time is directly

proportional to the tube current. Therefore it is usual to express X-ray
exposures in milliampere-minutes (mA-min); the product of the exposure time
and the tube current.
In gamma radiography the number of photons produced per unit time is directly
proportional to the source activity. Source activity is usually measured in curies
(Ci) or, less commonly in gigabecquerels (GBq). Therefore gamma ray
exposures are usually expressed in curie-minutes (Ci-min) or curie-hours (Ci-h)
but may also be expressed in gigabecquerel-minutes (GBq-min) or
gigabecquerel-hours (GBq-h).
The factors listed in Table 8.2 will affect either the film speed or the amount of
radiation reaching the film and have to be taken into account when determining
the correct exposure for film radiography. In addition to these factors the
required film density obviously has an impact upon the required exposure time.
8.3.1 Exposure charts

Exposure charts provide a convenient means of estimating radiographic
exposures for both X-ray and gamma ray techniques. All exposure charts are
correct only for a fixed set of conditions - all of the factors mentioned in Table
8.2 are fixed for any particular chart. Exposure charts for X-ray equipment are
usually applicable only to a single type of equipment. Figures 8.17-8.19 show
an example of X-ray exposure charts. Figure 8.20 is an example of an exposure
chart for iridium 192.
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Table 8.2 Factors affecting radiographic exposure (film radiography)
Factors affecting film speed (Table 8.2 Part 1)
Factor Comments
Coarse grained films are fast and require a short exposure while fine
Film type
grained films are slow and require a long exposure.
The effect of intensifying screens varies with the incident radiation
energy. Metallic foil intensifying screens reduce the required exposure
time by a factor of about 2 or 3 at radiation energies of 120keV or more.
Intensifying screen
Fluorometallic screens reduce the exposure time by a factor of about 50
type
with films designed for use with such screens. Salt screens can reduce
the required exposure time by a factor of 500 but are seldom used for
industrial radiography.
Developer type and concentration together with the development
temperature can affect the film speed. Automatic processing usually
Film processing
gives a slight increase in film speed when compared with manual
processing.
Fairly minor compared with other factors. Can affect the efficiency of the
Radiation energy intensifying screens, and to a lesser extent the film speed.
Factors affecting the intensity of radiation reaching the film (Table 8.2 Part 2)
Factor Comments
The amount of radiation absorbed by a material increases with
Material type
increasing density and atomic number.
The amount of radiation absorbed by an object rises exponentially with
increasing material thickness.

Material thickness
Where I0 = the intensity of the incident radiation;

I = the intensity of the transmitted radiation;
= the coefficient of linear absorption; t = the penetrated thickness
The amount of radiation absorbed by a material decreases with
increasing radiation energy. For X-ray techniques the amount of
Radiation energy
radiation which will be absorbed for a given radiation energy cannot be
calculated - this has to be measured experimentally.
Exposure times for self-rectified X-ray equipment are always longer than
those for constant potential equipment operating at the same peak tube
voltage. The radiation produced by constant potential equipment is said
Radiation energy to be harder because it contains proportionally more high energy
distribution radiation. In fact radiation energy distribution can vary quite markedly
even between different types self-rectified or constant potential unit. X-
ray exposure charts therefore are applicable to only a single equipment
type.
The amount of radiation reaching the film is proportional to the
reciprocal of the square of the source to film distance. As the required
exposure time is inversely proportional to the radiation intensity:
Source or focus to
film distance
E al D2
Where E is the exposure time at distance D.

If the half value layer of the material from which the filter is made is
Filters known and its thickness is known then it is possible to compensate the
exposure for the insertion of or removal of a filter.
Source strength or Radiation intensity is proportional to the tube current for x-rays and to
tube current the source activity for gamma rays.
Film density (Table 8.2 Part 3)
Factor Comments
Film density The required exposure is strongly dependent upon the required film
density. Film characteristic curves can be used to compensate for a
change in the required film density.
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Steel thickness/mm
Exposure/mAmins
Exposure/mAmins
Andrex 140kV
Kodak CX
FFD 914mm
Lead screens 0.125mm
Density 2.0
Steel thickness/mm
Figure 8.17 Exposure chart for Andrex 140kV SR directional.
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Steel thickness/mm
Exposure/mAmins
Exposure/mAmins
Philips 300kV X4
Kodak CX
FFD 1000mm
Pb screens 0.125mm
Standard development
Density
Steel thickness/mm
Figure 8.18 Exposure chart for Philips 300kV SR directional.
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Steel thickness/mm
Exposure/mAmins
Exposure/mAmins
Pantak 200kV
Kodax CX
FFD 914mm
Lead screens
Density 2.2
Steel thickness/mm
Figure 8.19 Exposure chart for Pantak 200kV CP directional.
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Steel thickness, mm
Source - Iridium 192

Development - 4min at 20oC
Source to film distance - 900mm
Material - steel
Screens - lead
Film - Kodak CX
Exposure/curie hours
Exposure/curie hours
Steel thickness.mm
Figure 8.20 Exposure chart for Iridium 192.
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8.3.2 Using exposure charts (X-ray)
Focus to film distance
Two factors affect the choice of focus to film distance, geometric unsharpness
(Ug) requirements and the desired diagnostic film length (DFL).
EN ISO 17636-1 does not directly specify geometric unsharpness, but controls it
by specifying a minimum value of focus to film distance for a given effective
focus size and object to film distance, see Figures 8.22 and 8.23 below.
Example:
Figure 8.21 Butt weld in 15mm plate. Radiograph of a butt weld in 15mm
thickness steel plate (allows for a weld reinforcement of 3mm).
Taking the example given in Figure 8.21 above lets suppose that we wish to
achieve a geometric unsharpness of 0.25mm or better. This would be sufficient
to satisfy the requirements of most national codes or standards including EN
ISO 17636-1 class A.
f OFD
Ug
FOD
but the OFD can be taken as being equal to the material thickness, in this case
18mm, and the FFD is equal to the FOD plus the material thickness so:
f 18
0.25
FFD 18
If we choose to use the Pantak 200 CP the effective focus size on the broad
focus setting is about 4mm, so:
4 18
Minimum FFD 18 306mm
0.25
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Object to film distance, mm
Note: This diagram is
for an effective source
Source size: 3mm size of 3mm.
Minimum source to film distance, mm

Minimum source to film distance, mm The minimum SFD for
other source sizes can
be found as follows:
Find the minimum SFD

for the desired image
class from the figure,
let this distance = d
Minimum SFD for

source size = f is then
equal to:
f (d-OFD)+OFD
Figure 8.22 Minimum SFD/FFD.
Note: EN ISO 17636-1 standard (basic) techniques are Class A, while enhanced
(improved) techniques are Class B.
Geometric unsharpness at minimum
source to film distance, mm
Figure 8.23 Geometric unsharpness at minimum SFD/FFD.
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So a focus to film distance of 306mm will achieve the required value of
geometric unsharpness. However if we use this minimum FFD the diagnostic
film length (DFL) will be rather short due to fade off. EN ISO 17636-1 has a
requirement for Class B techniques that the penetrated thickness (based on the
nominal thickness) at the ends of the DFL shall not exceed 110% of the nominal
thickness. For Class A the requirement is that the penetrated thickness shall not
exceed 120% of the nominal thickness at the end of the DFL. This translates to
a DFL that is approximately 0.9 x FFD for Class B and 1.3 x FFD for Class A. In
this case lets apply the EN ISO 17636-1 Class A requirement. If we want to
achieve a DFL of 450mm the minimum FFD based on this will be 450/1.3 =
346. For convenience we can round this up to say 400mm.
Tube voltage
After deciding on an appropriate value for focus to film distance the next thing
to consider when determining an exposure time for an X-ray technique is what
tube voltage will be appropriate. Some standards specify the maximum tube
voltage which may be used for a given thickness of material. EN ISO 17636-1
requirements, the maximum tube voltage in our case would be about 245 kV.
However, common good practice, which is to choose a tube voltage which will
produce an exposure time of between 1 and 5 minutes at around 75-100% of
the maximum tube current, will, in nearly all cases, satisfy such codes and
standards.
The exposure chart for the Pantak 200 CP is drawn for a source to film distance
of 914mm. The maximum tube current is 14mA. Lets use 10mA. We would like
to achieve an exposure time of between 1 and 5 minutes, giving an exposure of
between 10 and 50mA.mins. The focus to film distance that we wish to use is
400mm. The exposure chart has been constructed using FFD = 914. Using the
inverse square law (see Figure 8.24) we can see that an exposure of 10 to
50mA-mins at 400mm FFD is equivalent to an exposure at 914mm FFD of
between 10 x 9142/4002 = 52.2mA-mins and 50 x 9142/4002 = 261mA-mins.
Looking at the exposure chart (see Figure 8.19) a density of 2.2 will be
achieved using Kodak CX with an exposure of about 150mA-mins at 120kV or
with an exposure of about 40mA-mins at 140kV. These values are for an FFD of
914mm. The equivalent exposures at an FFD of 400mm will be:
150 x 4002/9142 = 29mA-mins at 120kV or

40 x 4002/9142 = 7.66mA-mins at 140kV.
Thus for Kodak CX and a film density of 2.2 these exposures should work:
120kV, 10mA, 2 minutes 54 seconds or

140kV, 6mA, 1 minute 16 seconds.
The 120kV exposure should produce the best film contrast while the 140kV
exposure will be more economic.
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Figure 8.24 The inverse square law.
Intensity = number of photons per square metre. At 2D the same number of

photons that passed through one square at D now passes through 4 squares.
Thus the intensity at 2D is one quarter of what it was at D. Intensity is
proportional to 1/(distance)2. Radiographic exposure time is proportional to
1/(intensity), thus exposure time is proportional to (distance)2.
The inverse square law can be stated as follows:

2
Old

Old radiation int ensity dis tan ce
New radiation intensity or dose rate = 2
or dose rate New

dis tan ce
Or
2
New

dis tan ce
New exposure = (Old exposure) 2
Old

dis tan ce
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Changing the film density
If a film density of 2.2 was thought too light, then the film characteristic curve
(Figure 8.2) can be used to find the correct amount of exposure compensation.
Lets say that we wanted to achieve a film density of 2.5.
Using Figure 8.2 logarithm (relative exposure) for a film density of 2.2 on
CX = 1.3 while for a film density of 2.5 logarithm (relative exposure) = 1.38
1.38 1.3 = 0.08
Antilogarithm (0.08) = 100.08 = 1.2
So at 120kV the exposure required = 1.2 x 29 = 35mA-mins while at 140kV it

would be 1.2 x 7.66 = 9.2mA-mins
Thus if we use Kodak CX film the following exposures should achieve a film
density of 2.5:
120kV, 10mA, 3 minutes 30 seconds
or
140kV, 6mA, 1 minute 32 seconds
Changing the film type

Sometimes we may wish to change to a different type of film. For example if
the required radiographic sensitivity could not be achieved using Kodak CX film
we might consider using Kodak MX125 film which should produce better
contrast and consequently better sensitivity. This can be achieved using the film
characteristic curves, but it is more convenient to use film factors. Table 8.3
lists film factors for some common direct type X-ray films.
Table 8.3 Film factors
EN ISO ASTM E
AGFA CF KODAK CF FUJI CF FOMA CF
11699-1 1815
C1 Special D2 9.0 DR 50 7.2 IX 25 6.5 R2 9.0

C2 D3 4.2 M 100 4.2 IX 50 3.3 R3 4.2
C3 Class 1 D4 2.6 MX 125 2.8 --- R4 2.6
C4 D5 1.6 T 200 1.7 IX 80 1.6 R5 1.6
C5 Class 2 D7 1.0 AA 400 1 IX 100 1.0 R7 1.0
C6 Class 3 D8 0.7 CX 0.7 IX 150 0.6 R8 0.7
Note: The film factors given in Table 8.3 are approximately correct for radiation
energy in the range 0.1 to 1.0MeV. Film factors can vary with radiation energy.
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Suppose that we wish to change from film A to film B:

Old exp osure
Film factor A
Thus to change from CX to MX125 we divide exposure time by the film factor
for CX (CF = 0.7) and multiply the result by the film factor for MX125 (CF =
2.8).
Original radiograph (with density 2.5) was exposed for time 1 minute. If we
wish to produce radiograph with same density on film Kodak MX125, than the
exposure time shall be ca. 4 minutes (considered that other parameters are
constant.
Radiography of other materials

All of the exposure charts in the figures above have been constructed for steel.
If radiography has to be carried out on materials other than steel then the
exposure time will have to be adjusted to compensate for the difference in
radiation absorption. This can be done using half value layers. The half value
layer of a given material for a given incident radiation energy is the thickness of
the material which reduces the intensity of the incident radiation by a factor of
2. However the simplest way is to use equivalence factors, some examples of
which are listed in Table 8.4.
Table 8.4 Equivalence factors.
Radiation energy/isotope
Material 100keV 150keV 220keV 400keV Ir192
Steel 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
Copper 1.5 1.6 1.4 1.4 1.1
Aluminium 0.08 0.12 0.18 - 0.35
Al alloy 4.5% Cu 0.13 0.16 0.22 - 0.35
Titanium 0.5 0.45 0.35 - -
Going back to the example, if we needed to radiograph a weld dimensionally

similar but made in a copper-based alloy rather than steel then the first thing
would be to work out the steel equivalent thickness.
This is equal to the actual thickness of copper divided by the copper

equivalence factor and multiplied by the equivalence factor for steel. Stated
generally this is:
From the table it can be seen that at 150kV the copper equivalence factor is
probably about 1.6, while that for steel is 1.0, so 18mm copper is
radiographically equivalent to 18 1.0 x 1.6 = 28.8mm steel.
Looking at Figure 8.19 it can be seen that an exposure of about 205mA-mins

would be required using the Pantak 200 CP to achieve a film density of 2.2 at a
FFD of 914mm using CX film on 18mm thickness copper (28mm steel
equivalent).
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Compensating for the use of a filter
If problems arise with scattered radiation one possibility in X-radiography is to
use a filter. Typically filters made from 1 or 2mm thickness copper sheet are
used, filters made from other metals such as lead may also be used. The
difference which the use of a filter will make to the exposure time for the steel
weld in the example can be calculated using the equivalence factors in Table
8.4.
Suppose that we wish to radiograph our 18mm thickness steel weld using the
Pantak 200 at 140kV with a focus to film distance of 400mm. The exposure
required for a film density of 2.5 without a filter was calculated above as
9.2mA-mins if using CX film. The equivalence factor for copper at 140kV is
about 0.64. Therefore 1mm of copper will be radiographically equivalent to 1
0.64 x 1 = 1.6mm of steel. To find the correct exposure (for a copper filter
thickness of 1mm) we simply need to add this amount to the steel thickness
which is being radiographed:
18 + 1.6 = 19.6mm
Figure 8.19 gives an exposure of about 50mA-mins for 19.6mm of steel at a

focus to film distance of 914mm, which is an increase of 25% compared to the
exposure which was required under the same conditions without the filter. Thus
the exposure required with a FFD of 400mm using CX film for a film density of
2.5 increases by 25% from 9.2 to 11.5mA-mins.
Other possible changes

The exposure charts (Figures 8.17 to 8.19) were made using lead screens,
0.125mm thickness and automatic film processing. If either or both of these
two factors is changed then the only way to establish the correct exposure will
be by experimentation, although the charts will still act as a guide. The
exposure charts in Figures 48 to 50 are fixed for a particular type of X-ray
equipment. They cannot be used to predict exposures for any other type of X-
ray equipment.
Gamma-ray exposures
The method used to establish gamma-ray exposures from an exposure chart is
similar to that used for X-rays except that the possibility to change the radiation
energy has been removed. Before carrying out gamma radiography it will be
necessary to establish the source activity at the time of exposure. This is done
by reference to the decay chart supplied by the source manufacturer.
Other convenient means of establishing gamma ray exposures are to use a

specially designed slide rule or a programmable calculator. Slide rules can be
usually obtained from film manufacturers. For the mathematically-minded it is a
relatively simple task to program a calculator such that it can be used to predict
gamma ray exposures.
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Section 9
Sensitiviy
9 Sensitivity
9.1 Radiographic sensitivity
Radiographic sensitivity is the ability of radiographic system to reveal
discontinuity of certain size on the radiographic image. It can also be defined as
a measure of quality of radiographic image. True radiographic sensitivity is
difficult quantity to measure.
9.2 Controlling radiographic quality

Prior to interpretation of a radiograph it is necessary to establish adequacy of
the radiographic technique used. National codes and standards describe devices
known as image quality indicators (IQIs). Occasionally the word penetrameter
is used when referring to the IQI. It is very important to realise IQI sensitivity
is not a direct measure of radiographic sensitivity per se. Good IQI sensitivity
does not necessarily indicate good radiographic sensitivity, but it does to some
extent prove the quality of the radiographic technique in a general sense.
These days the type of IQI most commonly in use is the wire type but other
types exist, two examples being the plaque and the step hole types.
9.3 EN ISO 19232-1 wire type IQIs

EN ISO 19232-1 wire type IQIs each consist of 7 wires from a list of 19 wires.
Four standard wire groupings are available, designation 1, wires 1 to 7,
designation 6, wires 6-12, designation 10, wires 10-16 and designation 13,
wires 13-19. Each of these groupings is available in any of 4 types of material;
steel, designated FE, copper CU, aluminium, AL and titanium TI.
XX=
Designation
Of
XX=
Material group
Designation
(Fe, Cu, Al or Ti)
Of thickest wire
(1, 6, 10 or 13)
7 consequently
Designated wires
(1-7, 6-12, 10-16 or 13-19)
Figure 9.1 EN ISO 19232-1 wire type IQIs.
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Sensitivity 9-1 Copyright TWI Ltd
Table 9.1 EN ISO 19232-1 wire diameters.
Designation Diameter [mm]
W1 3.2
W2 2.5
W3 2.0
W4 1.6
W5 1.25
W6 1.0
W7 0.8
W8 0.63
W9 0.5
W10 0.4
W11 0.32
W12 0.25
W13 0.2
W14 0.16
W15 0.125
W16 0.1
W17 0.08
W18 0.063
W19 0.05
Note: It is fairly easy to remember the wire diameters: if you can remember
the diameters of the first three, 3.2, 2.5 and 2mm you can arrive at all other
wire diameters by halving as shown below in Figure 9.2.
W1=3.2 W4=1.6 W7=0.8 W10=0.4 W13=0.2 W16=0.1 W19=0.05

W2=2.5 W5-1.25 W8=0.63 W11=0.32 W14=0.16 W17=0.08
W3=2.0 W6=1.0 W9=0.5 W12=0.25 W15=0.125 W18=0.063
Figure 9.2 Remembering the EN ISO 19232-1 wire diameters.
Looking along each row the wire diameters are successively halved, eg 3.2, 1.6,
0.8.
The EN ISO 19232-1 material groupings are as follows: the Fe designated IQIs
(made from low alloy steel) cover all ferrous materials; the Cu (made from
copper) cover copper, tin, zinc and their alloys; the Al (made from aluminium)
cover aluminium and its alloys; the Ti (made from titanium) cover titanium and
its alloys. Special IQIs can be used for materials lying outside these four
groups, or the contracting parties could agree to use one of the four normal
designations.
9.4 Other wire type IQIs

In industry are commonly used IQIs acc. to ASTM E 747. (See Table 9.2)
Table 9.2 ASTM E 747 wire diameters.

IQI designation Wire diameters [mm]
A 0.08 0.1 0.13 0.16 0.2 0.25
B 0.25 0.33 0.4 0.51 0.64 0.81
C 0.81 1.02 1.27 1.6 2.03 2.5
D 2.5 3.2 4.06 5.1 6.4 8
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9.5 EN ISO 19232-2 step-hole type IQIs
BS EN 19232-2 IQIs consist of stepped blocks of material with each step having
one or a pair of through drilled holes. Step thicknesses of 0.8 mm or less have
two drilled holes, while the thicker steps have a single hole. In each case the
step thickness and the hole diameter are equal.
Figure 9.3 EN 19232-2 step-hole IQIs.
These IQIs are supplied encased in plastic complete with lead number
identification similar to that used in EN ISO 19232-1 wire type IQIs.
Table 9.3 EN ISO 19232-2 step-hole IQIs

Hole diameter/
IQI designation Hole/step number
step thickness, mm
H1 H5 H9 H13
X H1 0.125
X H2 0.16
X H3 0.2
X H4 0.25
X X H5 0.32
X X H6 0.4
X H7 0.5
X H8 0.63
X X H9 0.8
X X H10 1.0
X H11 1.25
X H12 1.6
X X H13 2.0
X X H14 2.5
X H15 3.2
X H16 4.0
X H17 5.0
X H18 6.3
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9.6 ASTM E 1025 plaque type (flat-hole type) penetrameters
ASTM E 1025 describes plaque type penetrameters (penetrameter is just
another word meaning IQI).
XX= IQI thickness

thousandths of an
inch
Figure 9.4 ASTM E 1025 IQIs.
Selection of appropriate flat-hole IQI is based on its thickness usually it is

required that plaque thickness shall be equall to 2 % of thickness under test. In
order to allow testing of various thicknesses whole set of flat hole type IQIs is
availeable. Thickness of particular IQI is expressed in thousands of inch and is
indicated by lead ID number (XX).
This type of IQI has usually three holes The 1T hole has a diameter equal to
the plaque thickness, 2T two times and 4T four times. Penetrameters up to 160
thousandths of an inch thick are rectangular and contain 1T, 2T and 4T holes.
Thicker penetrameters are circular and contain 1T and 2T holes, and hole 4T is
substituted by rounded outline of IQI.
When using this type of IQI the image quality level is typically specified as
2-2T ocationally also as 1-2T or perhaps 2-4T. If image quality 2-2T is required,
than IQI plaque 2 % is required (first digit 2) and on image of IQI shall be
visible hole 2T.
A total of eight material groups are identified by adding notches to the edges of
the penetrameter. Where the component is a weld the reinforcement should be
taken into consideration when choosing the IQI.
9.7 IQI sensitivity

IQI sensitivity is usually defined as the thickness of the thinnest wire, plaque or
step which is visible on the radiograph expressed as a percentage of the
specimen thickness. Exactly what is meant by specimen thickness varies from
standard to standard and from technique to technique. EN ISO 17636-1
contains tables of essential wires for Class A and B techniques for IQI placed
source or film side. ASME V article 2 also permits the use of wire type IQIs and
takes a similar essential wire approach.
It used to be common good practice to place the IQI in the least favourable
position within the diagnostic area of the radiograph. This would usually have
meant placing the IQI on the source side of the specimen and towards the
extremities of the diagnostic area because this is where the contrast and
definition would tend to be at their least favourable (highest value of geometric
unsharpness and lowest film density).
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Nowadays, when performing radiography of a weld in accordance with
EN ISO 17636-1 the IQI shall be placed preferably source side, possibly film
side, in an area of uniform optical density. This usually means on the parent
material and at the centre of the area of interest. The wires may or may not be
visible in the image of the weld for double wall single image (DWSI) or single
wall single image (SWSI) radiography but they shall be placed at 90 to the
weld axis and at least a 10mm length of wire shall appear on the parent
material in an area of uniform film density. The IQI shall be placed with its
wires parallel to the weld axis on the parent material adjacent to the weld. The
requirement for visible wire length remains unchanged.
In the past it was not uncommon for national codes or standards to specify an
overall requirement for a radiographic sensitivity of 2 % or better. This was
easy to achieve on thicker sections but often impossible to achieve on thinner
sections of material. Modern radiographic standards take account of the fact
that the best achievable sensitivity for a given situation and technique is not a
fixed quantity but a variable which depends upon such factors as the type of
radiation source, the technique and the thickness of the specimen. Such
standards specify a minimum sensitivity which should be achievable using a
good quality radiographic technique. One such standard is EN ISO 17636-1.
Table 9.4 below gives some EN ISO 17636-1 requirements for SWSI
radiography with source side IQI placement, DWSI radiography with film side
IQI placement and DWDI radiography with source side IQI placement.
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Table 9.4 EN ISO 17636-1 sensitivity requirements for wire type IQIs.
Single wall, single image - IQI on source side

Image quality class A Image quality class B
Nominal thickness/mm IQI Value Nominal thickness/mm IQI Value
to 1.2 W18 to 1.5 W19
above 1.2 to 2.0 W17 above 1.5 to 2.5 W18
above 7.0 to 10 W13 above 8.0 to 12 W14
above 10 to 15 W12 above 12 to 20 W13
above 250 W4 above 350 W5
Double wall, double image - IQI on source side
Penetrated thickness/mm IQI Value Penetrated thickness/mm IQI Value
to 1.2 W18 to 1.5 W19
above 220 to 380 W4 above 250 W5
above 380 W3
Double wall, single or double image - IQI on film side
Penetrated thickness/mm IQI Value Penetrated thickness/mm IQI Value
to 1.2 W18 to 1.5 W19
above 225 to 375 W5 above 300 W6
above 375 W4
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9.8 Duplex wire IQI
Duplex wire type IQI as specified by EN ISO 19232-5 consists of set of 13
element (duplexes) placed in rigid plastic holder. It is used to assess total
image unsharpness of radiographic image.
Each element consist of pair of wires with equall circular cross-section. Its
separation equals to wire diameter. Duplexes D1, D2 and D3 are made of
tungsten, the rest of duplexes is made of platinum.
The largest element in which the image of wire has just merged without an
identifiable soace between the images of two wires defines the limit of
perceptibility The total imabe usnharpness is twice the diameter of wire in the
element and diameter is considered to be a spatial resoluteion of image.
Table 9.5 Duplex wire type IQI - Unsharpness and basic spatial resolution read-
out:
Wire diameter Achieved basic spatial resolution Achieved geometrical
Duplex identification unsharpness [mm]
[mm] [mm]
D1 0,80 0,80 1,60
D2 0,63 0,63 1,26
D3 0,50 0,50 1,00
D4 0,40 0,40 0,80
D5 0,32 0,32 0,64
D6 0,25 0,25 0,50
D7 0,20 0,20 0,40
D8 0,16 0,16 0,32
D9 0,13 0,13 0,26
D10 0,10 0,10 0,20
D11 0,08 0,08 0,16
D12 0,063 0,063 0,13
D13 0,05 0,05 0,10
NDT20-71015
Section 10
Radiographic Techniques
(For Welds in Plate and Pipe)
10 Radiographic Techniques (for Welds in Plate and Pipe)
Three basic techniques are used for the radiography of butt welds in pipe, these
being the single wall single image (SWSI), double wall single image (DWSI) and
double wall double image DWDI techniques. All radiographs of butt welds in
plate will, in general, be SWSI.
Each technique is discussed below, paying particular attention to the extent of

the diagnostic area, the minimum source to film distance, the placement of
location markers and IQIs.
10.1 IQI type and placement

It is important that IQIs are placed source or film side and at a position within
the diagnostic film length (DFL) in accordance with the requirements of the
contract specification.
As a general rule, wherever possible, the IQI should be placed source side. As
then they are affected both by radiographic contrast and geometric
unsharpness. Film side IQIs indicate radiographic contrast only, thus source
side IQIs give a more accurate measure of the overall radiographic quality.
It used to be standard good practice to place wire type IQIs towards the end of
the diagnostic area, with the thinner wires toward the outside of the DFL; the
wires were invariably placed across the weld and sensitivity was assessed on
the weld allowing for any weld reinforcement present. This way of working
would still meet ASME V article 2 requirements, although this document does
not specify where within the DFL the IQI should be placed. In Europe matters
are different; when working in accordance with EN ISO 17636-1 sensitivity
should generally be assessed at the centre of the DFL on the parent material.
Plaque and step hole type IQIs should, preferably, always be placed at the
centre of the diagnostic area on the parent material. Should the image of these
IQI types encroach on the weld area the radiograph should be re-taken.
If working with a wire type IQI in accordance with ASME V/2 sensitivity would
probably be measured on the weld. ASME V article 2 then has a requirement
that the film density through the diagnostic length shall not vary by more than
+30 or -15% from that measured at the IQI. The same allowable density
variation applies to plaque type IQIs, but these, of course, must be placed
alongside, not on the weld. Plaque type IQIs may be shimmed to compensate
for any weld reinforcement. If a technique produces a wide range of film density
the placement of several IQIs may be necessary in order to meet the allowable
density variation requirement.
EN ISO 17636-1 limits the diagnostic film length (DFL) by specifying that the
penetrated thickness at the ends of the DFL shall not exceed 110% (Class B
techniques) or 120% (Class A techniques) of the thickness penetrated at the
centre of the DFL.
NDT20-71015
(For Weld in Plate and Pipe) 10-1 Copyright TWI Ltd
10.2 Location markers
All national codes and standards require the use of location markers, usually in
the form of lead letters or numbers that appear in the radiograph as a
radiographic image. It is very important that the markers are placed in such a
way as to prove coverage of the weld where a multiple exposure technique is
used. Three general rules apply:
1 When performing radiography of welds in flat plate location markers must

be placed source side. Film side markers will not prove coverage because of
parallax.
2 When performing radiography of welds in curved surfaces location markers
should be placed on the convex surface for all techniques where the source
or focus to film distance is equal to or exceeds the radius of curvature.
3 When performing radiography of welds in curved surfaces location markers
should be placed source side for all techniques where the source or focus to
film distance is less than the radius of curvature.
Figure 10.1 Location marker placement parallax effect on flat plate.
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10.3 Identification of radiographs
All national codes and standards require unique and permanent identification of
radiographs. In general this can be applied by any suitable means although in
some cases identification using lead numbers that appear as radiographic
images is required. Where not prohibited by the contract specification-flashing
the radiographic identification is a good method. The required identification is
written on a scrap of white paper, the radiograph is suitably masked and the
scrap of paper is placed on the unmasked area. The radiograph is then flashed
with a suitable light source and the identification becomes visible during
subsequent film processing. Exactly what constitutes an acceptable unique
identification varies widely from specification to specification, but the minimum
is a unique number. ASME V article 2 requires a unique weld number, the date
and the manufacturers name or symbol. Most codes require radiographs of
repair welds to be marked with R1, R2 and R3 etcetera depending on the
number of repair attempts. RW is commonly used to identify a complete re-
weld. Items such as heat treatment condition, welder number and welding
procedure reference may also be required.
10.4 Radiation energy

EN ISO 17636-1 specifies the maximum X-ray tube voltage which may be used
based on the component thickness. EN ISO 17636-1 also specifies the minimum
and maximum thickness on which each type of gamma ray isotope may be used
(see Table 10.1 below).
Table 10.1 EN ISO 17636-1 applicable thickness ranges for gamma ray sources
and high energy X-rays.
Penetrated thickness, w, mm
Radiation source Class A Class B
Thulium 170 w5 w5
Ytterbium 169 (1) 1 w 15 2 w 12
Selenium 75 (2) 10 w 40 14 w 40
Iridium 192 20 w 100 20 w 90
Cobalt 60 40 w 200 60 w 150
X-ray equipment, 1-4MeV 30 w 200 50 w 180
X-ray equipment, 4-12MeV w 50 w 80
X-ray equipment, 12MeV and above w 80 w 100
(1) For aluminium and titanium, the penetrated material thickness is 10 w 70 for
Class A and 25 w 55 for Class B.
(2) For aluminium and titanium, the penetrated material thickness is 35 w 120
for Class A.
ASME V/2 requires that the radiation energy employed for any radiographic
technique shall achieve the density and IQI image requirements Standard
ASTM E 94 may provide some additional guidance.
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10.5 Source to film distance
The minimum source to film distance for EN ISO 17636-1 is calculated using the
formula: where is the minimal required source to object
distance, is the effective source or focus size, is the object to film distance
and is a constant equal to 7.5 for Class A techniques and 15 for Class B.
EN ISO 17636-1 also includes a nomogram for the less mathematically minded.
ASME V/2 limits the minimum source or focus to film distance by specifying
maximum geometric unsharpness, 0.51mm for component thickness up to 50.8
mm, 0.76 mm for greater than 50.8 and up to 76.2 mm, 1.0 mm for greater
than 76.2 and up to 101.6 mm and 1.78 mm for component thickness
exceeding 101.6 mm
10.6 SWSI techniques

10.6.1 SWSI technique for plate
Figure 10.2 EN ISO 17636-1 SWSI technique for flat plate.
Figure 10.2 shows a typical set-up for exposure of a butt weld in flat plate. The
annotations refer to EN ISO 17636-1 requirements.
The source should be positioned on the centre line of the weld, directly above
the centre of the diagnostic area.
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10.6.2 SWSI technique: source internal, placed centrally
(panoramic technique)
Figure 10.3 SWSI panoramic technique (EN ISO 17636-1).
Required number of exposures = 1 (see Figure 10.6 for EN ISO 17637-1

requirements).
This technique is commonly used for pipeline welds where specially designed,
remotely operated, devices known as crawlers are often used. These machines
can travel up to several kilometres along the inside of the pipeline in order to
reach the desired position to radiograph a particular weld. The typical battery
life for an X-ray crawler will usually allow about 100 exposures to be made
between successive battery charges. Gamma ray crawlers are also used.
This technique may also be used for examining girth welds in cylindrical
pressure vessels. Using thulium 170 isotopes boiler tube welds, which may have
an outside diameter of only 40mm, are occasionally examined by this
technique.
The major advantage of this technique is that it can radiograph an entire girth
weld in a single exposure. With this technique location marker placement is not
critical, but it is usually more convenient to place the markers film side. In most
cases it will be impractical to place the IQI source side for this technique,
although source side IQIs would be preferred if access is not a problem, film
side IQIs are therefore generally used. Comparator radiographs having IQIs
placed source and film side can be used to establish sensitivity requirements for
film side IQIs. In most cases three IQIs are placed at 120 intervals around the
circumference, although some specifications require more or fewer than this.
The radiograph may consist of a number of overlapping films or it may be a
single length of rollpack film. Identification of the film may be included as a
radiographic image but it may also be added later. Where several overlapping
films are used each film must be uniquely and permanently identified.
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10.6.3 SWSI technique: source internal, offset
Figure 10.4 SWSI source internal and offset technique (EN ISO 17636-1).
Required number of exposures: see Figure 10.6 for EN ISO 17636-1

requirements.
In some cases it may not be possible to satisfy the requirements of the

applicable specification for geometric unsharpness if the panoramic technique is
used. Where this is the case it may be possible to achieve a satisfactory
geometric unsharpness by offsetting the source towards the inner wall of the
pipe. Location markers should be placed film side if the SFD or FFD is longer
than the radius of curvature of the test item. If the converse of this is true (as
may be the case for a large diameter pressure vessel) then the location
markers should be placed source side.
10.6.4 SWSI technique: film inside, source outside
Figure 10.5 SWSI film inside, source outside (EN ISO 17636-1).
Required number of exposures: see Figure 10.6.
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t/De
De/f
t/De
De/f
De = external diameter of pipe, f = source to object distance,
t = nominal wall thickness
Figure 10.6 EN ISO 17636-1: Exposures required for film inside source outside
(FISO) techniques.
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This is a rather unpopular technique because a large number of exposures
(usually 8 or more) are required to cover the entire circumference of the weld.
In general it will only be used when an acceptable radiograph cannot be
achieved using either of the two single wall techniques described in 10.6.2 and
10.6.3 and can also not be achieved using the double wall techniques
described. Location markers must be placed source side. The IQI should always
be placed source side, there is no excuse for using a film side IQI when using
this technique. Identification of the films may be included as radiographic
images (although it will probably be impractical to use long identifications due
to the limited amount of area available on the film) but may also be added
later.
10.7 Double wall single image

Where there is no access to the inside of a pipe double wall techniques have to
be employed.
In the DWSI technique the source of radiation is usually placed at the minimum
possible distance from the film. The reason is that as the source to film distance
increases so does the number of exposures needed to cover the entire
circumference of the weld. In addition, any improvement in image quality due
to the reduced geometric unsharpness associated with an increase in SFD or
FFD has to be offset against a reduction in image quality due to increased
scatter.
Geometric unsharpness limitations permitting gamma sources can be placed

almost in contact with the outside surface of the pipe. In many cases this
reduces the required number of exposures to just three (see Figure 10.6 for
EN ISO 17636-1 requirements).
X-ray tubes are bulky and the minimum achievable FFD will usually be about
125 mm plus the outside diameter of the pipe. A minimum of four exposures
per weld is therefore required when using an X-ray source for this technique.
Being able to place the source of radiation in close contact with the pipe gives
gamma ray another significant advantage over X-ray techniques particularly on
smaller pipe diameters. Less offset is needed with gamma ray sources in order
to ensure that the image of the source side portion of the weld is not
superimposed upon the film side part of the weld. This can increase the chance
of finding vertical defects such as lack of root fusion in the weld being
radiographed.
As the wall thickness to diameter ratio increases the DWSI technique becomes
increasingly difficult to apply, the number of exposures required increases and
the quality of the radiographs produced diminishes. For these reasons DWSI
(superimposed) techniques tend to be preferred for heavy wall small diameter
pipes.
Because there will in general be no access to the inside of the pipe when this
technique is employed the location markers and IQI are always placed film side.
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Figure 10.7 Double wall single image technique.
Required number of exposures: see Figure 10.8.
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De = external diameter, t = nominal thickness, SFD = source to film distance
Figure 10.8 EN ISO 17636-1: Exposures required for DWSI and SWSI source
inside film outside techniques.
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10.7.1 Double wall double image (elliptical)
Figure 10.9 DWDI technique (elliptical).
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In accordance with EN ISO 17636-1 this technique is limited to girth welds in
pipe having an OD of less than 100mm. In accordance with ASME V article 2
welds in pipe of up to 3 inch nominal diameter (OD about 88.9mm), may be
radiographed using DWDI.
For pipes with a wall thickness to OD ratio in excess of about 0.12 the DWDI
(superimposed) technique is preferred.
The minimum number of exposures required by both EN ISO 17636-1 and

American standards is two at 90 to each other.
Long source to film distances are needed because the minimum value of object
to film distance is equal to the OD of the pipe. Exposure times for this
technique, therefore, tend to be rather long especially in the case of gamma ray
techniques.
A single location marker on each exposure is generally sufficient, although

some specifications require pitch markers (A to B, B to C, C to D and D to A,
etcetera). Location markers may be placed source side or film side. IQIs should
always be placed source side.
EN ISO 17636-1 requires wire type IQIs to be placed on the parent material
with their wires parallel to the weld axis, see Figure 10.9. Working in
accordance with ASME V article 2 standard wire type IQIs should be placed with
their wires across the weld at 90 to the weld axis.
In the DWSI technique the film is wrapped around the pipe to remain as close
as possible to the weld. Conversely, in the DWDI technique the film should be
kept as flat as possible, see Figure 10.9.
10.7.2 DWDI (superimposed)

This has the same range of application as the elliptical technique, but is
preferred when the thickness to OD ratio exceeds 0.12. Welds having difficult
geometry that may prevent them from being radiographed using the elliptical
technique can generally be radiographed successfully using this technique.
As the image of the source side part of the weld is superimposed on the image
of the film side part of the weld it is often not possible to accurately locate a
weld defect when using this technique. This is not usually much of a handicap
because small diameter welds tend to be cut out and re-welded rather than
being repaired locally.
A single location marker per exposure is usually sufficient when using this
technique and it may be placed either source or film side. IQIs should always be
placed source side.
EN ISO 17636-1 and ASME V article 2 both require a minimum of three

exposures at 120 to spacing (or three at 60 spacing for difficult access
situations) for this technique.
The DWDI superimposed technique may be more likely than the elliptical
technique to successfully detect lack of root fusion due to the more favourable
angle of incidence of the primary beam.
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Figure 10.10 DWDI technique (superimposed).
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Section 11
Interpretation of Radiographs
11 Interpretation of Radiographs
11.1 Introduction
Interpretation of radiographs is a skill only gained through long experience. This
section gives the reader a guide to radiographic interpretation and should be
regarded as a base upon which to build.
The interpretation of a radiograph should not be confused with the acceptance

or rejection of a component. The radiograph must first be interpreted and any
defects observed assessed against the applicable standard. A weld or casting
must be accepted on its merits or rejected for its faults and should neither be
accepted nor rejected due to difficulties encountered in the interpretation of
radiographs. Any radiograph not meeting code requirements with regard to
radiographic quality must be rejected.
In circumstances where there is doubt as to the nature of a radiographic image

it is often necessary to visually inspect the component or to cross check the
radiographic results using another NDT method.
11.2 Viewing conditions

The success or failure of radiographic interpretation is highly dependent upon
the film viewing conditions. The eye is very sensitive to small variations in film
density once it has developed night vision. Anyone carrying out radiographic
interpretation should therefore not begin to view radiographs until night vision
has developed. Since this cannot be achieved in a brightly lit room it is
important that the films are viewed in low ambient light. Night vision takes
several minutes to develop and so the films should not be viewed immediately
upon entering the viewing room. Five minutes is the recommended period that
should elapse before critical interpretations are made. It is also important that
film is properly masked on the viewer so that the light falling on the eye comes
from the radiograph only. If the film is not adequately masked the eye will be
blinded by the bright light coming from around the film.
Radiographs are easily damaged, therefore the viewing room must be clean and
dry and the radiographs must be handled with care. The viewer should be
mounted on a table or bench large enough to allow the films to be spread out
without the danger of them falling to the floor. A well shielded reading lamp will
allow reports to be read or notes to be made, without unduly increasing the
overall ambient lighting.
The radiographs should be viewed at a normal reading distance (normally less

than 400mm). A low power magnifier (2 or 3X) may occasionally be helpful, but
it should not be necessary for routine examination. In accordance with
governing standards requirements the visual acuity of the radiographic
interpreter must be J1 (corrected or uncorrected) in at least one eye.
Additionally a perception of grey shades should be verified.
The viewing of radiographs is often undertaken in the dark room where the film
was processed. This is satisfactory provided that the viewing bench or table is
clean and well away from the processing tanks. Under normal circumstances
films should NEVER be viewed whilst wet. There are two reasons for this:
1 The film emulsion is swollen with water and the images are not as clear as
when the film is dry.
2 Emulsion is very delicate and any attempt to mask the film will result in
scratches or marks on the film, effectively ruining it.
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Interpretation of Radiographs 11-1 Copyright TWI Ltd
National standards generally require that the illuminance of a radiographic film
viewer be sufficient to produce a transmitted light intensity of at least 30 and
preferably 300 candela per square metre (cd/m2). This means that a viewer
suitable for viewing radiographic film with a density of 3.0 must have an
illuminance of at least 30,000 cd/m2 with as much as 300,000 cd/m2 being
desirable. BS EN 25580 requirements for radiographic film viewers are given by
Table 11.1 below. Note: These are minimum requirements.
Table 11.1 BS EN 25580 requirements for radiographic film viewers.
Minimum screen Transmitted light

Film density luminance, cd/m2 luminance, cd/m2
1.0 300 30.0
1.5 1,000 31.6
2.0 3,000 30.0
2.5 10,000 31.6
3.0 10,000 10.0
3.5 30,000 9.5
4.0 100,000 10.0
4.5 300,000 9.5
11.3 Reporting
The initial interpretation of a radiograph should always be undertaken by the
manufacturer or designated representative. Other interested parties should be
presented with a report which includes an interpretation of each film. They
check this and agree or disagree with it. The radiographic report should contain
the following as a minimum:
Identification of the item radiographed.

Date of manufacture.
Date of radiography.
Exposure details including the type of equipment used and the tube voltage
for X-ray and the type of isotope for gamma ray techniques.
Type of film used.
Type and thickness of the intensifying screens used.
Geometric details, particularly the FFD or SFD and the effective focus or
source dimension.
Details of the component being radiographed, including the type of material
and method of manufacture, the thickness, the heat treatment condition
and the repair status.
Method of film processing.
Film density achieved.
Radiographic sensitivity achieved.
Technicians name, signature and date.
Interpreters name, signature and date.
An interpretation of each film and a statement of the components
acceptability or not.
Code or standard applicable to the radiographic technique.
Acceptance code or standard.
Reference to a written procedure or technique sheet.
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11.4 Film quality
The success of radiographic interpretation is dependent upon the quality of the
film presented. If the film does not meet the minimum applicable standards for
quality then it should be rejected and reshot. The manufacturers interpreter
may, for economic reasons, not be inclined to reject radiographs which do not
meet the minimum quality standards. Therefore any third party viewing the
radiographs should be extremely careful to correctly assess the quality of the
radiographs prior to endorsing the relevant report, otherwise they will be open
to criticism should the film become the subject of any subsequent legal inquiry.
When assessing a film for quality a number of items must be considered. These
are discussed below.
11.4.1 Component identification

All radiographs must be permanently and uniquely marked with sufficient
information so as to permit their identification with the component radiographed
at a later stage. It is often useful to include such items as the date of test and
heat treatment or repair status of the component in the identification.
Radiographic identification could appear on the radiograph as a radiographic
image but there is usually no reason why it should not be added by any other
suitable means. A written procedure should be in force describing the standard
method to be used for identifying radiographs.
11.4.2 Location markers

Location markers on a radiograph serve two functions: they permit the
radiograph to be identified with the area of the component radiographed and
they serve to prove that the component has been fully covered by the
technique used. Refer to the sections above on radiographic techniques for
details. Wherever possible location markers should permanently identify the
radiograph with the area radiographed. Items such as pressure vessels are
usually hard stamped with a permanent radiographic datum. A written
procedure should be in force which describes the standard method used for the
placement of location markers.
11.4.3 Film density

It is important that the film density is within the specified range since a film
having low film density will also have inferior film contrast. EN ISO 17636-1
requires a minimum film density of 2.0 for Class A radiography and a minimum
of 2.3 for Class B. ASME V article 2 requires a minimum of 1.8 for X-ray and 2
for gamma ray techniques. In most cases (including EN ISO 17636-1 and ASME
V article 2) the minimum figures for film density apply to the area of interest
(the diagnostic area) on the radiograph. In weld radiography, for example, film
density should generally be measured on the weld area between the location
markers (which identify the ends of the diagnostic film length).
Density is usually assessed by using a measuring device known as a

densitometer. Anyone accepting radiographs which do not meet the applicable
density requirements is open to criticism at a later stage should litigation follow
a component failure.
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ASME V article 2 requires that the film density within the area of interest must
not vary by more than minus 15 or plus 30% from the value measured through
the body of the IQI. If necessary additional IQIs can be used in order to satisfy
this requirement for exceptional areas.
Occasionally an upper limit is specified for film density. ASME V article 2, for
example, specifies an upper limit of 4.
11.4.4 Radiographic sensitivity

Radiographic sensitivity is not directly related to the minimum detectable defect
size. However, a radiograph that meets the applicable code requirement for
radiographic sensitivity is much more likely to provide good defect sensitivity
than a radiograph which fails to meet the code requirements.
The sensitivity of a radiograph depends upon the parameters chosen to produce

that radiograph (see the section on the production of a radiograph). If any of
the relevant parameters are altered the sensitivity will be affected. It is
therefore essential to use IQIs to prove that adequate radiographic quality has
been attained. Except in the case of the panoramic technique, which has been
described above, at least one IQI should generally appear on each radiograph.
Anyone viewing radiographs should be careful to check the radiographic

sensitivity meets the requirements of the applicable code. Anyone who fails to
do is open to criticism should litigation follow a component failure.
11.4.5 Artefacts and other unwanted images

In film radiography an artefact can be defined as any image resulting from a
cause that is not directly associated with the object that has been radiographed.
Artefacts can be produced by mechanical or chemical damage to the film and by

damaged or dirty intensifying screens. Sometimes radiographic images may be
formed by things such as debris on the inside of a pipe. These images, while
they are strictly speaking not artefacts, can also interfere with the proper
interpretation of the radiograph.
When radiographs are produced on a commercial basis it is not possible for

every film to be free from artefacts. An artefact only becomes significant when
it cannot be identified as such or when it hinders the interpretation of the film.
These two factors are rather subjective but if any doubt exists then the
interpreter should call for a repeat radiograph. A list of possible artefacts is
given in the next section.
11.5 Interpretation of radiographic images

Three types of image may appear on a radiograph, due to:
1 Artefacts.
2 Surface irregularities in the component.
3 Internal discontinuities in the component.
Every image within the diagnostic area of a radiograph must be identified as

one of these three. It is not permissible to reject a component simply because
an image appearing within the diagnostic area cannot be interpreted or because
artefacts which are not within the diagnostic area. The following sections
attempt to give a description of various types of image which may be seen. The
ability to successfully identify all flaws and artefacts on a radiographic images is
a skill which can only be perfected with time and experience.
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11.6 Artefacts
Pressure marks (crimp marks)
Produced by careless film handling - if the film is crimped or buckled either
before or after exposure crescent-shaped images in the processed radiograph
will result. Light marks indicate crimping before exposure, dark marks crimping
after exposure but before film processing.
It is usually possible to identify crimp marks by viewing the film in reflected

light. They should appear as indentations in the surface of the film. Lead
screens which have been crimped should be discarded.
Scratches: On the film

Radiographic film emulsion is delicate; it is easily damaged if handled carelessly
at any stage. Areas used for film handling must be free from dust and films
must be handled carefully at all times. Depending upon how severe and when
or how formed film scratches may produce either light or dark images, and can
usually be identified using reflected light.
Scratches: On lead intensifying screens

May appear as either light or dark images which cannot be seen in reflected
light. If the intensifying screens used to make the radiograph can be positively
identified then it may be possible to trace the shape and position of such an
image to a scratch on the screens. Even so it will probably be necessary to
reshoot the radiograph. Scratched lead screens should be discarded.
Dirt: On the film or screens

Dirt which finds its way between the film and the screens will generally produce
a light image on the resultant radiograph not visible in reflected light. Greasy
fingers will produce dark marks on a finished radiograph which can easily be
seen in reflected light, but light marks before development.
Streakiness or mottling: Poor development

Usually caused by insufficient agitation in the early stages of development and
is due to a process known as bromide streaming. Reaction products from the
chemical interaction of the developer with the silver halides in the film emulsion
tend to build up around high film density zones. These reaction products slow
down the action of the developer, and since they are relatively heavy they tend
to flow down the surface of the film leading to a light coloured streak in the
finished radiograph. Under- or over-development usually leads to a mottled
effect on the finished radiograph. A similar effect will be produced by developer
which has passed its service life. In less severe cases such artefacts may not be
a cause for rejection of the radiograph but darkroom procedures should be
reviewed to prevent a recurrence or a further deterioration in radiographic
quality.
Developer splashes
Appear as dark spots on the film and indicate poor dark room practice and are
usually visible in reflected light.
Fixer splashes
Appear as light spots on the film and again indicate poor dark room practice.
Such marks are usually visible in reflected light.
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Water splashes
Appear as either light or dark images on a radiograph. Water splashes before
exposure tend to cause light marks, after exposure tend to cause dark marks.
Such marks are usually visible in reflected light.
Water marks
Easily seen on the radiograph in both transmitted and reflected light and are
due to uneven drying. They commonly occur where a dry or partially dry film is
wetted locally either by splashing or by excess water running down from a film
clip. The appearance of water marks can be reduced or eliminated by using a
squeegee to remove excess water or a final wash that contains a small amount
of detergent (ie a wetting agent).
Air bells
Light marks caused by air bubbles adhering to the film in the early stages of
development and will not occur if the film is properly agitated.
Diffraction mottling
Can be a problem when X-rays are used to radiograph large grained material,
for example being austenitic steels. Diffraction is an apparent bending of a
beam of radiation due to interference. It occurs when radiation passes through
a grating that has spacing approximately equal to one wavelength. The spacing
of atoms in a metallic crystal is about 0.1nanometres. This corresponds to X-ray
radiation with photon energy in the region of 10keV. If low energy components
are removed from the X-ray beam by filtration the problem with diffraction
mottling will disappear. Diffraction mottling does not occur in gamma
radiography because of the absence of low energy beam components.
Diffraction can be used to advantage and it is the basis for the study of metal
crystals by X-ray crystallography.
Static marks
Penetrating radiation is by definition ionising. It always causes the build-up of
an electric charge on the film during exposure but under normal circumstances
this is not a problem because the charge quickly flows to earth. In dry climates,
however, a static charge may remain on the film until it is unloaded in the
darkroom, whereupon it flows to earth suddenly in a manner which could be
painful for the radiographer. Such a sudden dissipation of electrical energy
leads to the emission of a sudden burst of light which produces dark tree-like
marks on the finished radiograph. Static marks can be avoided by careful film
handling.
Dichroic fogging
Radiographs affected by dichroic fog will appear reddish when viewed using
transmitted light and greenish in reflected light. Dichroic means two-coloured.
It is caused when the development process continues during the fixing process,
when the fixer solution has become insufficiently acidic to stop the development
process. The use of an acidic stop bath between the development and fixing
processes will generally prevent the occurrence of this seldom seen artefact.
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Reticulation
Appears on the radiograph as an orange peel-like mottling effect. It is caused
when the film emulsion is subjected to a temperature shock at any stage during
the film processing as the sudden change in temperature causes the film
emulsion to wrinkle. It will not generally occur as long as the sudden change in
temperature is less than 10C.
Film fogging by X- or gamma rays

If radiographic film is not stored well away from sources of ionising radiation
then it is likely to become fogged. Films which have been fogged in this way will
produce reduced radiographic contrast (fogging has much the same effect as
scattered radiation which is explained in a section above). If it is suspected that
the film is fogged then the level can be checked by processing a piece of
unexposed film. Film which has a density due to fogging of 0.3 or more is not
suitable for use in high quality industrial radiography.
Light fogging
Exposure to light other than from darkroom safe lamps (and even prolonged
exposure to safe lamps) will cause fogging at any stage prior to fixing the film.
Such fogging may be localised or general - localised is not a problem unless it
encroaches onto the diagnostic film area but general light has the same effect
as fogging due to exposure to ionising radiation.
Film fogging due to inadequate storage conditions

Film stored at too high a temperature or exposed to chemical fumes may
become fogged. The fog level of all film increases with age, even under ideal
storage conditions, therefore all film boxes are marked with an expiry date.
High speed films deteriorate more quickly than slower ones.
Solarisation
Image reversal due to extreme over exposure to X or gamma rays or caused by
exposure to light during film development.
A final word on artefacts

It should be stressed again that artefacts are cause for rejecting the film only if
they interfere with interpretation. A large number of artefacts present on
radiographs indicate poor practice and the interpreter should take time to
inspect the radiographic facilities and review darkroom procedures.
11.7 Interpretation of weld radiographs

Radiographic indications due to surface geometry
It is usually possible to successfully interpret weld radiographs in the as-welded
condition. Experience will help the interpreter identify surface marks which are
normal for a particular welding process and technique. Where there is doubt if a
visual examination of the weld will often help. It is felt that an indication
resulting from surface geometry could mask a significant defect indication, or
where visual examination proves inconclusive, it may be necessary to dress the
weld to a smooth contour and reshoot the radiograph.
The severity of weld defects such as excessive penetration or undercutting is

difficult to judge using radiographic evidence alone, wherever possible defects
of this type should be judged by visual means.
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Listed below are some of the common surface conditions that can produce
radiographic images.
Excessive root penetration

Excess weld material protruding through the root of a single sided fusion weld.
It appears in the radiograph as a continuous or intermittent light irregular band
within the image of the weld. Common causes of excessive penetration are, no
root face, root gap too wide, excessive amperage, travel speed too slow and
incorrect polarity.
Figure 11.1 Excessive root penetration.
Root concavity
A shallow groove which may occur in the root of a single sided weld, it appears
in the radiograph as a series of dark areas along the centre of the weld varying
in density according to the depth of imperfection and it is often seen in welds
made with the use of a backing gas. The pressure of the backing gas can cause
the weld root to collapse during welding of the first subsequent weld run (hot-
pass). Other possible causes are no root face; travel speed too slow, amperage
too high, incorrect polarity on the hot pass; excessive pre-heat and root gap too
narrow.
Figure 11.2 Root concavity.
Incompletely filled groove (lack of fill)

A continuous or intermittent channel along the edge of the weld due to
insufficient weld material. It is a fusion defect and should not be confused with
lack of reinforcement or undercutting. It produces an image in the radiograph of
a straight edged (on one side at least) dark band and is caused by poor welding
practice.
Figure 11.3 Incompletely filled groove or lack of fill.
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Lack of reinforcement
This is a concave area of the weld cap where the weld is locally thinner,
sometimes thinner than the parent material. In the radiograph it appears as a
dark area towards the centre of the weld which has diffuse edges and is caused
by poor welding practice.
Figure 11.4 Lack of reinforcement.
Undercut
An irregular groove at the toe the weld in the parent material due to burning
away during welding. It appears in the radiograph as a dark/irregular/
intermittent band in a position adjacent to either the cap or root weld toe or
between adjacent capping runs. It may therefore appear inside or outside the
weld image on the radiograph. The major causes are excessive amperage and
poor welding technique. Welds in the vertical or horizontal vertical position
tend to be prone to undercutting.
Figure 11.5 Undercut.
Spatter
Spatter consists of globules of molten filler metal expelled during arc welding on
to the surface of the parent material or weld. It appears in the radiograph as
small light spots and the major causes of spatter are incorrect polarity and
welding current too high. Spatter particularly affects MIG, MAG, MMA and
FCAW, and is highly unlikely to be seen in association with welds made by TIG
or SAW. In pipe welding spatter is possible on both external and internal
surfaces.
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Figure 11.6 Weld spatter.
Excessive dressing/grinding marks

A reduction in material thickness caused by the removal of the surface of a weld
and adjacent areas to below the surface of the parent material. Excessive
dressing appears as a dark area with diffuse edges, whilst a grinding mark
appears as a dark area that will usually have clearly defined edges, caused by
poor practice or access for welding.
Figure 11.7 Excessive dressing.
Hammer marks (tool marks)

Indentations in the surface of the parent material or the weld resulting from the
application of a tool, for example a chipping hammer. They mostly appear in a
radiograph as dark half-moon shaped areas usually having clearly defined
edges. They are caused by poor fabrication practice and often result from
attempts to correct welding distortion.
Torn surface
A surface irregularity due to breaking off of temporary attachments. The
radiographic indication produced has a shape corresponding to that of the
affected area which may be either light or dark depending on whether part of
the attachment has remained or parent material has been torn away, caused by
poor fabrication practice, often seen in association with storage tank or ship hull
welds.
Surface pitting
Surface imperfection, usually of the parent material but also the weld metal
where a component has been in service. It usually takes the form of small
depressions resulting from localised corrosion. Pitting appears in a radiograph
as small dark rounded images and it is possible to mistake this for a welding
defect, as its appearance can be identical to that of porosity.
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Internal defects:Cracks
In weld radiography four basic types of crack are sometimes detected by
radiography.
1 Centreline (shrinkage).
2 Transverse (including chevron).
3 Heat affected zone or toe.
4 Crater.
A crack is a linear discontinuity produced by a fracture. In welding, cracks can

occur after the completion of welding, during the deposition of subsequent
welding runs or at the point of solidification and can affect both the weld
deposit and the parent material.
Cracks are often invisible on radiographs but if detected appear as dark, fine
often branching lines, usually diffuse or discontinuous. The ability of the
radiographic technique to detect a crack is dependent on the cracks orientation
relative to the direction of the radiation. Figure 11.8 shows how even a slight
deviation from the optimum orientation will greatly reduce the change in section
thickness which the radiation experiences due to a planar defect such as a
crack. In the case shown a variation from optimum incidence of just 1 will
reduce the change in penetrated thickness from 10 to 1mm for a planar defect
measuring 10mm by 17m.
Figure 11.8 Detectability of planar defects.
Centreline cracks (also called shrinkage or solidification cracks)

Centreline cracks are caused by excessive restraint or the deposition of too
much weld metal in a single pass, from excessive amperage or travel speed too
slow and are possible for all arc welding methods. They occur at the point of
solidification when the weld metal has a very low tensile strength and are the
welding equivalent of a hot tear. Centreline cracks are probably the easiest to
detect by radiography, as they tend to be much wider than other types as their
detectability is less strongly affected by changes in the direction of the primary
beam.
Transverse and chevron cracks

Any crack that lies across the weld axis is called a transverse crack. There are
two distinct types and usually occur when the compressive strength of the
parent material is significantly greater than the tensile strength of the weld
metal.
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A shrinkage or solidification crack which usually occur at 90 to the weld axis,
often affecting the root pass of single sided welds. In nature they are very
similar to centreline cracks, but the source of restraint is different and are
relatively easy to detect by radiography.
The second type is a chevron crack, which occurs at about 45 to the weld axis,
usually after the completion of welding. Chevron cracks are a special type of
hydrogen induced crack; the stress that causes the crack being due to an
excessive amount of dissolved hydrogen in the weld metal. They are sometimes
detected by radiography, but where there is a known problem, other NDT
methods with a higher probability of detection should be used.
Heat affected zone cracks and toe cracks

Various mechanisms can lead to cracking in the heat affected zone (HAZ) of a
weld. HAZ cracks often start at or run to the toe of the weld since there is
always a high stress concentration at this point. In ferrous welds the hardest,
most martensitic, brittlest microstructure is usually found in the HAZ. It is this
susceptible grain structure that makes the HAZ a prime site for cracking. HAZ
cracks are usually caused by one of two mechanisms.
The first involves dissolved hydrogen. Molten iron has a very high solubility for
hydrogen while solid iron has a very low solubility. Thus as the metal freezes
hydrogen will attempt to leave solution and escape from the weld pool but this
process is slow compared with freezing, therefore most of the hydrogen
becomes trapped in the solidified metal. The trapped hydrogen then diffuses
through the metal crystals and begins to build up an internal pressure at points
of weakness, usually the grain boundaries. In some cases the internal pressure
exceeds the strength of the material and hydrogen cracking occurs. Hydrogen
induced cracking may occur up to 48 hours after welding. Where ferrous
materials operate in a hydrogen rich environment, for example in sour gas
service, hydrogen cracking can occur as an in-service defect. High strength,
high carbon equivalent steels are most prone to hydrogen cracking. The
presence of trace elements, especially sulphur and phosphorus can make
hydrogen cracking much more likely to occur. Hydrogen induced cracks are not
likely to be detected by radiography and other methods such as ultrasonic
testing should be used in any situation where there is a high probability of
occurrence.
A second type of cracking that can occur in the HAZ of a weld is sometimes
called weld decay. This can affect stainless steels and is caused by the
precipitation of brittle material (chromium carbide) at the grain boundaries. All
stainless steels contain a small proportion of carbon which is generally held in
solution within the austenitic grains, but the heat from welding can cause it to
combine with the chromium which is present forming chromium carbide which
is an extremely brittle material. Weld decay can be avoided by reducing the
carbon content of the parent material and filler wire. Cracking caused by weld
decay is unlikely to be detected by radiography.
Crater cracks
Occurs when the heat source is removed too suddenly at the end of a weld run.
The cracking mechanism is the same as that for centreline cracking. The major
dimension of a crater crack is usually less than 5mm, are often star shaped in a
radiograph and relatively easy to detect. Some standards will permit this type
of cracking provided that it does not exceed a specified maximum dimension.
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Figure 11.9 Typical radiographic appearance of a crack.
Lack of fusion
Can occur either between the weld deposit and the parent material or between
successive layers of weld material, also due to lack of fill or penetration.
Lack of fusion is where the solid material immediately adjacent to the molten
weld pool failed to become molten during the welding process leading to a lack
of union between the molten weld material and the adjacent solid material. The
ability of radiographic techniques to successfully detect lack of fusion is strongly
dependent on the orientation of the defect with respect to the incident beam of
radiation, (see Figure 11.8). Given favourable orientation lack of fusion with the
parent material will appear in the radiograph as a fine dark straight line which
may be continuous or intermittent. Unfavourably orientated lack of fusion with
the parent material may sometimes still be detected due to the presence of
associated slag inclusions or porosity. A slag inclusion with a straight edge
normally indicates lack of fusion and gas escaping from an area lack of fusion
during the deposition of a subsequent welding run may lead to a line of linear
porosity.
Lack of fusion between subsequent layers of weld material will generally not be
detected by radiography unless it is associated with another type of defect such
as slag.
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Figure 11.10 Types of lack of fusion.
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Figure 11.11 Lack of fusion in the radiograph.
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Incomplete root penetration
The failure of the weld material to extend into the root of a joint and is a fusion
defect, not to be confused with root concavity.
Incomplete root penetration appears in a radiograph as a dark continuous or

intermittent linear shadow, the edges of which will usually be straight.
Where welds are deposited without a root gap, lack of penetration may appear
as a single continuous or intermittent dark line. It should be noted that root
gaps frequently close during welding so even where there should have been a
root gap lack of penetration may appear in the radiograph as a single dark line.
Figure 11.12 Lack of root penetration.
Non-metallic inclusions
Usually formed by slag, but occasionally other foreign matter such as
windblown sand may become entrapped within the molten weld material. Slag
inclusions are irregularly shaped and may be either rounded/isolated or
linear/elongated. Linear slag inclusions with a straight edge often indicate lack
of fusion. Sometimes linear slag will appear on the radiograph as two parallel
lines, often referred to as tram lines or wagon tracks.
Most welding slag and other sources of non-metallic inclusions are

radiographically much less absorbing than the surrounding metallic material;
therefore they appear in the radiograph as dark images.
Although very rarely used, some types of covered welding electrode have a high
barium content in the flux coating and produce a slag radiographically denser
than steel so slag inclusion may appear as a light image.
Metallic inclusions
Dependent upon the nature of the welding process it is possible for foreign
metallic material to become entrapped within the molten weld material.
Associated with the gas tungsten arc welding process, tungsten inclusions are
probably the most commonly encountered form of metallic inclusion. They are
caused by the break-up of the non-consumable tungsten electrode during
welding and since tungsten has a melting point well in excess of 3000C
particles of tungsten falling into the weld pool do not become molten. Tungsten
is radiographically extremely dense; therefore tungsten inclusions always
appear as bright - light images which tend to be angular. They are usually quite
small - typically around 0.5mm.
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Copper inclusions can occur particularly with submerged arc or other welding
process where the consumable electrode is fed through a copper contact. If the
copper contact gets too near to touches the weld pool molten copper (melting
point about 900C) will become included in the weld pool. Copper is
radiographically more absorbing than most other materials including steel so
copper inclusions may produce light rounded images with extremely diffuse
edges. Copper inclusions in ferritic steel welds usually cause severe transverse
cracking.
Metallic inclusions are quite common in aluminium welds, where such welds are
not properly segregated from their steel counterparts. Aluminium melts at
around 660C, steel above 1400oC so particles of steel or iron oxide falling into
the weld pool will not become molten. Contamination can easily occur if tools
such as grinding disks which have been used for steel are used on aluminium.
Steel inclusions in aluminium appear as very bright angular shapes with sharp
edges.
Figure 11.13 Slag inclusions.
Figure 11.14 Tungsten inclusion.
Gas pores: Porosity

The solubility for gas of the molten weld material is many times that of the solid
weld material, thus as the material freezes there is a tendency for any dissolved
gases to precipitate from solution causing gas pores or porosity in the finished
weld. Gas pores are extremely easy to detect by radiography since they are not
sensitive to the direction of radiation and the gas which fills them is many times
less radiographically dense than the surrounding material. Gas pores appear on
a radiograph as sharply defined dark circular spots, and may be isolated,
grouped or evenly distributed. Aligned porosity is usually an indication of lack of
fusion. Evenly distributed porosity generally indicates that the electrode was
faulty and group porosity usually occurs at restarts and is due to poor welding
technique.
Elongated cavities (hollow bead)

These will generally only occur in the root run of welds deposited by manual
metal arc welding. Welds deposited using cellulosic coated electrodes (AWS
E6010, 7010, etc.) are more likely to suffer from this defect than welds
deposited with other types of electrode.
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Hollow bead can be caused by holding the arc at too shallow an angle with
respect to the work piece or by a strong draught of air along the inside of the
pipe during welding. On the radiograph it looks very similar to slag - the
radiographic indication usually has rounded ends and it is always situated along
the centre of the root bead.
Wormholes
These are gas pores which have become frozen in the weld pool while
attempting to migrate to the surface of the weld pool. In addition to occurring
due to an excess of dissolved gas in the weld pool, they sometimes occur due to
laminations in the parent material which extend to the weld face. Lack of fusion
contains a small amount of entrapped air and this can cause wormholes in a
similar way.
Wormholes appear on the radiograph as a dark shadow, the shape of which

depends on the orientation of the defect. If the wormhole is end on to the
radiation a very dark rounded shadow is formed. It is side on then the
appearance is somewhat like a tadpole. Where a lamination in the parent
material or a lack of fusion is the source of wormholes they are often apparent
in the radiograph in a herringbone-like array.
Figure 11.15 Wormholes due to a lamination in the parent material.
Crater pipes and cracks

Occur due to shrinkage at the end of a weld run where the source of heat was
removed too suddenly causing the weld pool to freeze too rapidly. It is quite
common when the welding process is gas tungsten arc but it may also occur
with shielded metal arc and other welding processes.
A crater pipe will appear in the radiograph with an image very similar to that of
a wormhole. It can only be distinguished from a wormhole by its position in the
weld. Crater cracks are shrinkage cracks so have a relatively greater volume
than most other cracks. They often have a star like appearance in a radiograph
and their radiographic image rarely measures more than 3 or 4mm.
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11.8 Interpretation of casting radiographs
Five groups of defect images may be seen in radiographs of metal castings:
Voids.
Cracks.
Cold shuts.
Segregation.
Inclusions.
Voids
Voids in castings are formed by gases dissolved in the molten material
precipitating from solution during the solidification process or by shrinkage
caused by inadequate feeding.
Macroshrinkage (piping)
Large cavity formed during the solidification process which occurs due to lack of
sufficient feed material. With good mould design macro-shrinkage should be
confined to the feeder heads.
It appears on the radiograph as a dark continuous or semi-continuous area of

varying film density with diffuse edges.
Filamentary shrinkage (also called sponginess)

Coarse form of shrinkage which has smaller physical dimensions than a
macroshrinkage cavity. These cavities may be extensive and branching in
nature and occur at the point in a casting which freezes last. Theoretically this
should always be the centre of a section but this is not always the case,
sometimes the defect may extend to the surface of the casting.
Filamentary shrinkage has a diffuse branched appearance on the radiograph of

variable film density.
Microporosity/microshrinkage
Very fine form of filamentary shrinkage due to lack of sufficient feed metal, gas
or both, in which a number of cavities occur either round the grain boundaries
or between the dendrite arms (a dendrite is a material crystal which in the
initial stages of growth is tree-like). These cavities tend to link up in a three
dimensional network throughout the material.
In the radiograph the images of these cavities are superimposed and generally
produce a mottled or cloudy effect. In non-ferrous alloys, particularly
magnesium-based alloys, microshrinkage may occur in layers and produce dark
streaks in the radiograph.
Pinhole porosity
Cavities less than 1.5mm diameter formed due to the evolution of gas from the
molten material. The defect may be evenly distributed throughout the casting
or localised in a particular area. When it is local to the surface of the casting,
due to gas evolved at the mould face, it is known as subcutaneous pinhole
porosity.
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The defect appears in the radiograph as an assemblage of small, rounded,
widely distributed dark images, distinguishable from microporosity by the size
and rounded nature of the images which do not show the same tendency to
interconnect. This defect can arise from the accidental injection of air during
pressure die casting.
Gas holes
Discrete cavity greater than about 1.5mm diameter caused by gas evolved from
the material as it freezes. It may also arise from gas evolved from the core or
mould, in which case it is called blowhole.
The radiographic image appears as a dark area of smooth outline which may be
circular or elongated and can be associated with pinhole porosity. Gas holes
occasionally become elongated as they try to rise to the surface of the molten
material during cooling, in this form they are known as wormholes. The
radiographic image of a wormhole may vary from a circular to an extremely
elongated image depending upon the angle of view.
Airlocks (entrapped air)

Cavities formed by air trapped in the mould by the material during pouring. The
defect appears in the radiograph as dark area with an outline which is generally
smooth but which may have irregularities. An airlock cannot always be
distinguished radiographically from a gas hole but a helpful guide to
identification is the shape, size and position in the casting.
In pressure die casting where air may be injected with the material the defect is
usually more severe in the runners and may assume an angular form. In
pressure and gravity die castings this defect may occur in clusters or as strings
of small voids, whereas, in investment casting it may appear as small rounded
voids.
Cracks
Cracks are discontinuities caused by fracture of the material at the point of
solidification or some time thereafter. They appear on the radiograph as one or
more dark lines. The width and form of the indication depends on the type of
crack and radiographic technique used.
Hot tears
Discontinuities of a decidedly ragged form resulting from stress developed near
the solidification temperature when a material has low mechanical strength.
They usually arise when the natural contraction of the casting is restrained by
the mould or core and occur mainly at or near a change of section.
The defects are not necessarily continuous, they may exist in groups and will
often terminate at the surface and are sometimes referred to as pulls.
Radiographically hot tears are wavy, ragged dark lines, often discontinuous,
with areas appearing as approximately parallel dark lines which may possibly be
overlapping. Generally, the ends of the indication taper to become fine.
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Stress cracks
Well defined and approximately straight cracks formed after the material has
become completely solid, quite large stresses being required to cause fracture.
Distinctions are sometimes drawn between types depending on the time at
which fracture occurred.
In the radiograph stress cracks are often revealed as clearly defined smooth
dark lines - thus differing from the ragged appearance of hot tears.
Cold shuts
Discontinuities caused by the failure of a stream of molten material to unite
with either a confluent stream, or solid material, such as a chaplet, internal chill
or pouring splash.
In the radiograph these defects usually appear as dark lines and may be
difficult to distinguish from hot tears except by the typical involute appearance
of the end of the defects. The shape of an unfused chaplet or chill in a
radiograph is dependent upon orientation of the beam. A cold shut resulting
from a splash may appear as a dark crescent or circle.
Inclusions
Foreign matter (sand, slag, flux, dross, etc) entrapped in the casting. As an
inclusion may be of greater or lesser opacity then the surrounding material it
may appear radiographically as a light or dark area (eg a sand inclusion will
appear dark in steel and light in aluminium). Slag usually gives a rounded
image whereas material included in the casting as a solid (eg dross and sand),
will give an irregular shape. If dross is trapped as an oxide film it will often
produce a characteristic folded appearance in the radiograph inclusions may in
many respects resemble voids in radiographic appearance but they will
generally exhibit a greater variation in density.
Segregations
Result from local concentrations of any of the constituents of an alloy and may
be classified as general, localised or banded.
Detection of such defects by radiography depends upon the segregating

constituents producing a local variation in the absorption of the radiation.
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Section 12
Localisation
12 Localisation
A radiograph is a two dimensional image of a three dimensional object. When a
flaw is detected using a standard technique there is no certain way of telling
how far below the surface the flaw is. In some cases it might be desirable to
have three dimensional information about the position of a flaw. A technique
called localisation can be used to estimate the through wall position of a
volumetric flaw such as a slag inclusion. It is important to note that localisation
of planar flaws such as cracks or lack of fusion is generally not possible by
radiographic methods.
12.1 90 method
The simplest method of localisation, but rather limited in its field of application.
A typical test object, where this method might be useful would be a small to
medium sized casting that has a fairly simple cross section. Figure 11.9 shows
how this method would work on a small cylindrical object. Two radiographs are
taken with primary beam mutually at 90 to each other. In an ideal situation the
component would be placed on some kind of turntable so that it could be
moved accurately keeping the two exposures in the same plane relative to the
axis of the component. The apparent defect position in each radiograph can be
measured relative to convenient datum point, the results plotted on a sketch
and the defect position then deduced by triangulation.
12.2 Tube (source) shift method

Figure 12.1 shows how this method could locate a slag inclusion in a butt weld.
To work well a high degree of dimensional accuracy is needed. The source to
object, the object to film distance and the distance that the source is moved
between the successive exposures must all be accurately measured and
controlled. Two half exposures are made from different source positions using
the same radiographic film to produce two flaw images. The distance between
the two images, is then measured and the flaw depth calculated as shown.
The source shift, which is usually about one sixth of the source to film distance,
has been exaggerated in the figure.
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Localisation 12-1 Copyright TWI Ltd
Figure 12.1 The 90 method for a small cylindrical casting.
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Figure 12.2 Tube shift method.
Note: Source shift distance exaggerated for clarity.
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Using similar triangles:
A d x s
B m
But
so:
A d t d s
B m
multiply both sides of the equation by Bm:
Am + dm = tB - dB + sB
add dB and subtract Am both sides:
dB + dm = tB + sB - Am
which can be written as:
d(B + m) = B(t + s) - Am
divide both sides by (B + m):
B t s Am
d
B m
12.3 Tube (source) shift method with lead markers
Placing lead markers on the component source and film side as shown in Figure
12.3 removes the need for accurate measurement of the source to object,
object to film distances and the distance that the source is moved between the
successive exposures.
Refer to Figure 12.3 below. The three triangles in the enlarged view will be very
similar as long as the source or focus to film distance is long in relation to with
the thickness.
If the triangles are similar then:
a b c

x y z
CX cy
So it follows that: a and : b
Z z
We also know that: c - a = t and: c - b = d
CX cy
Therefore we can write: c t and : c d
Z z
(Argument continued below Figure 12.3).
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Figure 12.3 Tube shift method with lead markers.
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CX cy
We have already established that: c t and c d
Z Z
cy
From this we can see that: d C
Z
CX
And: t c
Z
y
So: d c1 (1)
Z
X
And: t c 1 (2)
Z
Now divide Equation (1) by Equation (2) to get:
y
1
d Z

t X
1
Z
t, the thickness of the plate is known and x, y and z can be measured on the
radiograph. Therefore d can be calculated.
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Section 13
Units Used in Radiography
13 Units Used in Radiography
13.1 Ionisation (exposure)
The quantity of ionising radiation can be measured in terms of its ionising effect
or exposure on air at standard temperature and pressure (STP).
The SI unit of exposure is the coulomb per kilogram in air, the quantity of
ionising radiation that produces a total electric charge of 1 coulomb per
kilogram (Ckg-1) of air at STP.
The centimetre-gram-second (CGS) unit of ionising effect is the roentgen (R),

the quantity of ionising radiation that produces an electric charge of 1
electrostatic unit (ESU), equivalent to 2.08 x 109 ion pairs, per cubic centimetre
of air at STP. One cubic centimetre of air at STP weighs 0.001293g.
One ESU is equal to 3.336 x 10-10 coulomb so:
1R = 2.58 x 10-4 Ckg-1 (in air)
or
1 Ckg-1 = 3876 R
Note: Unit of exposure is defined for air, hence cannot be used directly to
describe the dose to tissue.
13.2 Absorbed dose

Is defined as mean energy imparted to matter by ionising radiation per unit
mass of irradiated material. The SI unit of absorbed dose is the gray (Gy).
One gray represents absorption of 1 joule of energy per kg of irradiated
material.
The CGS unit of absorbed dose is the roentgen absorbed dose (rad). One rad
represents absorption of 100 ergs of energy per gram of irradiated material.
1 Gy = 100 rad
The units of radiation absorbed dose can be approximately related to the units
of ionising effect. One Roentgen corresponds to 1.61 x 1015 ion per one kg of air
which has than absorbed 8.8 mJ.
1R = 0.88 rad
1 Ckg-1 = 3411 rad = 34.11Gy
The conversions above are approximate since the relationship between the
roentgen and the rad or the coulomb per kilogram and the gray varies to some
extent with radiation energy.
Note: Absorbed dose doesnt describe the biological effect to different

radiations
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Units Used in Radiography 13-1 Copyright TWI Ltd
13.3 Man mammal equivalent or radiobiological equivalent
The effect which ionising radiation has on our bodies varies with the type of
radiation and also, to some extent, with radiation energy. Also the chemical and
biological effectiveness of a particular radiation depends on the distribution of
the absorbed energy within the medium. In order to compensate for this a
quality factor (QF) is introduced. Quality factors for several types of ionising
radiation are listed in Table 12.1 below.
Table 12.1 Quality factors.
Type of radiation Quality factor, QF

X-rays 1.0
Gamma rays 1.0
Beta particles 1.0*
Alpha particles 20
Thermal neutrons** 2
Fast neutrons*** 10
Protons 10
Heavy ions 20
* may in some cases exceed 1.0
** energy < 10keV
*** energy > 10keV
In order to compare the biological effectiveness and also for radiation protection
measure the quantity dose equivalent is used. The SI unit of dose equivalent
is Sievert (Sv) and is given by:
Dose equivalent (Sv) = Absorbed dose (Gy) x quality factor (QF).
In CGS system dose equivalent is given in terms of rem, defined by
Dose equivalent (rem) = Absorbed dose (rad) x quality factor (QF).
Also 1Sv = 100 rem
In the CGS system multiplying the dose in rad by the appropriate quality factor
gives the dose in roentgen equivalent man (Rem) where 1Rem is the amount of
ionising radiation which has the same biological effect as 1rad of X-rays.
In the SI system multiplying the dose in gray by the appropriate quality factor
gives the dose in sievert (Sv) where 1Sv is the amount of ionising radiation
which has the same biological effect as 1Gy of X-rays.
Thus:
1Sv = 100Rem
or
1Rem = 0.01Sv
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13.4 Dose rate
Dose rate in the SI system is generally measured in microsieverts per hour
(Sv/h), but may also be measured in millisieverts (mSv) or sieverts (Sv) per
hour. Alternatively dose rate can be expressed in micrograys (mGy), milligrays
(mGy) or grays per hour.
In the cgs system dose rate is generally measured in millirem per hour
(mRem/h) but may be measured in Rem per hour (Rem/h).
1 mRem/h = 10 Sv/h
or
1 mSv/h = 0.1 mRem
13.5 Source strength or activity

For radioactive sources the source strength or activity is the number of
disintegrations occurring each second and is proportional to the number of
active atoms present in the source.
The cgs unit of source strength or activity is the curie (Ci). One curie is equal to
3.7 x 1010 disintegrations per second.
The SI unit of source strength or activity is the becquerel (Bq) or the

gigabecquerel (GBq). One becquerel is equal to one disintegration per second;
one gigabecquerel is equal to 109 disintegrations per second.
1Ci = 37GBq
or
1GBq = 0.027Ci
13.6 Specific activity

The specific activity of a radioactive source is equal to the source activity
divided by the weight of the source. In the cgs system it is expressed in curies
per gram (Ci/g) while in the SI system it is expressed in becquerels per gram
(Bq/g) or gigabecquerels per gram (GBq/g).
13.7 Output
The output of a source of ionising radiation is the dose rate per hour at some
fixed distance, usually 1m from the source. For radioactive isotopes it is useful
to state output in grays, sieverts, rads or Rems per hour per curie at 1m. Table
12.2 gives some examples.
Table 12.2 Output of various radioactive isotopes.
Output,
Isotope name mSv per hour per Ci
Thulium 170 0.026
Ytterbium 169 1.25
Selenium 75 1.8
Iridium 192 4.8
Cobalt 60 13.0
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The output of radiation from a typical 200kV industrial constant potential X-ray
machine is as much as 1,000mSv per milliampere of tube current at a distance
of 1m from the focal spot.
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Section 14
Radiation Monitoring Devices
14 Radiation Monitoring Devices
Ionising radiation cannot be detected by humans and is extremely harmful to
health therefore it is imperative we have reliable equipment that can measure
the radiation dose. Two basic types of radiation monitoring device exist: (1)
Those which give a read out of the current dose rate and (2) devices which
measure the accumulated dose over a given period of time.
14.1 Survey meters

Survey meters give a real time measurement of dose rate. There are five basic
types, ionisation chambers, proportional counters, Geiger counters, scintillation
counters and solid state devices. Each of these is discussed and described in the
sections below.
14.1.1 Ionisation chambers

An ionisation chamber is part of the family of radiation detectors known as
gaseous detectors. The ionisation chamber can take many forms, but basically
consists of two electrodes separated by a layer of gas. As ionising radiation
interacts with the gas, causing ionisation, it becomes electrically conductive and
pulses of current flow as each photon of ionising radiation is received.
Compared with other types of gaseous detector the ionisation chamber operates
at low electrical voltage, see Figure 14.1. The actual voltage needed depends on
the geometry and size of the ionisation chamber. Ionisation chambers can
detect alpha, beta and gamma or x-ray radiation but give no information as to
the photon energy of the radiation detected. They are occasionally used in
conjunction with an electronic circuit that counts the current pulses but usually
the output is a reading of the average current flowing across the chamber. The
measurement range of ionisation chamber instruments is comparatively narrow
and they tend to be bulky and fragile compared with the Geiger counter so are
seldom seen in industrial applications.
Figure 14.1 Gaseous detectors, pulse size versus applied voltage.
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Radiation Monitoring Devices 14-1 Copyright TWI Ltd
Figure 14.2 Simplified layout of an ionisation chamber.
14.1.2 Proportional counters

Neither the Geiger counter, nor the ionisation chamber can give any information
as to the photon energy of the ionising radiation received. The best that can be
achieved with them is to shield the chamber such that alpha and beta radiation
are excluded from the measurement. The gas chamber used in a proportional
counter often contains multiple electrodes. Proportional counters operate in a
voltage range between the ionisation chamber and the Geiger counter. In
addition to gauging radiation dose rate or intensity they are able to give
information as to the type and photon energy of the radiation received and are
also able to determine the direction from which the radiation is coming. They
are often used as fixed monitoring instruments within and around nuclear
installations, but are rarely seen in other workaday industrial applications.
14.1.3 Geiger counters

Geiger counters operate at higher voltages than the proportional counter;
typical operating voltages vary from 400-1000V or more dependent on the size
and geometry of the gas chamber. At such voltages the pulse size is very large
and no amplification is needed. The original 1928 version of the Geiger tube
contained a special self-quenching gas mixture consisting of an inert gas doped
with a small amount of hydrocarbon (eg butane). This was greatly improved in
1947 when Liebson designed a tube containing inert gas with a small proportion
of halogen (eg bromine). All modern instruments follow the Liebson design.
Geiger tubes can be made very small; a cylinder of less than 6mm diameter
and length 25mm is not untypical and are extremely durable and reliable. A
Geiger tube constructed of a light metal such as aluminium will detect only x- or
gamma rays. Tubes provided with a window made from thin glass will also
detect beta radiation while those having a window made from mica can detect
alpha in addition to beta and gamma. The measurement range of the
instrument can be extended by shielding the tube. Geiger tube instruments are
otherwise insensitive to changes in photon energy. In general Geiger counters
give little information as to the direction from which the detected radiation is
coming. They may give a reading in counts per second, but usually the average
current flowing across the tube is measured with the ammeter scale being
calibrated to read microsieverts or millisieverts per hour. As radiation intensity
increases to high levels a Geiger counter will become increasingly inaccurate,
because it suffers from a short dead time after a pulsing event has occurred if
another photon of radiation arrives during the dead time it will not be detected.
Some instruments will cease to function if exposed to a very high dose rate.
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14.1.4 Solid state radiation detectors
Solid state radiation detectors have been available since the 1950s. Various
types of semiconductor are available which begin to conduct electricity under
the influence of ionising radiation. Instruments based on this type of
semiconductor are able to differentiate between different photon energies. Thus
in addition to measuring dose rate they can provide information as to the
spectrum of radiation that is present.
14.1.5 Scintillation counters

Various materials known as phosphors emit flashes of light when placed in a
beam of ionising radiation. Phosphors can be manufactured to respond to one
or more types of ionising radiation. Table 14.1 lists some common
phosphorescent materials, many others exist, including a number of organic
liquids and solids.
Phosphors have been used as radiation detectors since the very early days of
the discovery of ionising radiation; both Roentgen and Becquerel used them.
The amount of light produced can be quite small so phosphors are always used
in conjunction with a light amplification system such as the photomultiplier
tube. Modern instruments use charge coupled devices (CCDs) in conjunction
with a radiation sensitive phosphor. A CCD is at the heart of any modern digital
camera. Those used for radiation detection measure the intensity of light
emitted from the phosphorescent layer under the influence of ionising radiation.
Whichever system is used, scintillation counters relate the intensity of light
produced by the phosphor to the intensity of the ionising radiation received.
Generally they give a reading in counts per second but occasionally they will be
calibrated to read directly in microsieverts or millisieverts per hour.
Scintillation counters are extremely sensitive, and can detect very low levels of
ionising radiation. They are direction sensitive and very useful when searching
for radioactive contamination. They are used in industrial radiography to check
for leakage of fissile material from a sealed source.
Table 14.1 Common phosphorescent materials.
Phosphor (activator) Sensitive to:

Sodium iodide (thallium) Gamma
Lithium iodide (europium) Gamma and neutrons
Zinc sulphide (silver) Alpha
Bismuth germanate (N/A) Gamma
14.2 Personal monitors

Survey meters, with a few exceptions, give a real time reading of dose rate but
do not integrate this to give a total dose received over a given period of time.
Several types of device exist which integrate the dose received over a period of
time. One convenient use of such a device is for monitoring the total dose that
a person receives during the course of his working day. When used in this way
such devices are referred to as personal monitors. Four types of personal
monitor are commonly used in industrial radiography.
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14.2.1 Film badges
Monitoring film
Plastic filter
Copper filters
Open window
Aluminium filters
Plastic filter
Figure 14.3 Film badge.
The principle of a film badge is that when exposed to ionising radiation followed
by developing under tightly controlled conditions the film density produced can
be related to the radiation dose received. Film badges, as shown in Figure 14.3,
can be used to detect x-, gamma and beta radiation. Coupled with the right
type of intensification screen radiographic film can be used to detect and
measure other types of ionising radiation.
The film badge of the type shown in Figure 14.3 contains a section of carefully
manufactured radiographic film having two emulsions, one fast and one slow.
The use of two emulsions extends the measurement range of the badge. The
badge holder is equipped with various filters which extend the range of
measurement and additionally enable the badge to give some information as to
the type and photon energy of the ionising radiation received.
The film badge has, in large part, been replaced by the thermoluminescent
dosimeter (TLD) (see below). Table 14.2 gives a comparison of typical film
badge and TLD specifications.
Table 14.2 Film badge and thermoluminescent dosimeter specifications.
Film badges
Radiation type Gamma X-ray Beta
Measuring range 10keV to 7MeV 10keV to 7MeV 700keV to 3.5MeV
(photon energy)
Measuring range 0.1mSv to 10Sv 0.1mSv to 400mSv 0.1mSv to 10Sv
(dose)
Typical period of 2 to 4 weeks
use
Thermoluminescent dosimeters
Radiation type Gamma X-ray Beta
Measuring range 10keV to 10MeV 10keV to 10MeV 700keV to 3.5MeV
(photon energy)
Measuring range 0.05mSv to 10Sv 0.05mSv to 10Sv 0.05mSv to 10Sv
(dose)
Typical period of 4 weeks
use
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14.2.2 Thermoluminescent dosimeters (TLD)
Thermoluminescent dosimeters offer several significant advantages over the
film badge:
Much less easily damaged.

Slightly wider measurement range.
Much less subject to possible errors or failures in processing the
measurements obtained have a better degree of accuracy.
Can be reused many times.
Absorption characteristics of the TLD more closely resemble those of the
human body, thus dose calculations are simplified.
Most TLD badges contain two or more discs of a thermoluminescent material,

usually lithium fluoride but occasionally other materials are used. During
exposure to ionising radiation lithium fluoride stores energy, when subsequently
heated to a temperature of around 250C the stored energy is released as
flashes of light. The number of flashes can be counted and this is directly
related to the radiation dose received.
TLD badges are worn in specially designed plastic holders similar to those used
for film badges. The addition of plastic or aluminium filters extends the
measurement range and facilitates the obtaining of information concerning the
photon energy and type of radiation.
14.2.3 The quartz fibre electrometer (personal dosimeter)

These devices are still widely used in the USA where in many states they are
mandatory wear for all personnel involved in working with ionising radiation. In
the UK they used to be popular for use inside nuclear power plants but they
have now largely been replaced by more reliable and accurate solid state
devices.
Figure 14.4 Quartz fibre electrometer.
The quartz fibre electrometer (QFE) is a gaseous detector like the ionisation
chamber, proportional counter and Geiger counter described above. When
raised to the light a scale like on the right of Figure 14.4 can be seen through
the lens of the instrument. The vertical line is the quartz fibre. When a static
electrical charge is applied to the instrument the quartz fibre moves to the zero
point of the scale. As the gas inside the QFE becomes ionised the static charge
is gradually dissipated and the fibre begins to move to the right. The
corresponding total dose received can be read on the upper scale.
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The QFE has quite a narrow measuring range, typically 0-50mSv or less. The
example shown above has a measurement range of 0-200mRem, equivalent to
0-2mSv. The QFE is sensitive to x- and gamma radiation in the photon energy
range 45keV to 3.5MeV and is a very convenient means for checking how
radiation doses are accumulating during a working day but it suffers from
fragility and is very easily damaged.
14.2.4 Solid state integrating dosimeters

The QFE has largely been replaced by solid state integrating dosimeters which
are extremely shock-proof and have a wider measuring range. They are
typically combined with an audible warning device which bleeps if the wearer
enters a high radiation area.
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Section 15
Radiation Safety
15 Radiation Safety
All personnel working with ionising radiation should be aware that it is injurious
to the human body, or any other biological tissue. Anyone working where
radiography is carried out should make themselves fully aware of the safety
procedures and regulations in force and take care to observe all warning
barriers. Ionising radiation cannot be detected by the five human senses and
has cumulative effects upon the human metabolism and causes genetic damage
to the human body, the full effects of which may not be apparent until 15-35
years after the initial exposure. Regardless of any nominal safe limits it is
always prudent to avoid exposure to radiation whenever possible.
NB Where industrial radiography is concerned there is little or no danger from

contamination because all gamma sources in use are of the sealed variety. x- or
gamma-rays are not capable of producing any residual radioactivity in the items
subjected to exposure.
15.1 Precautions
15.1.1 Exposure booths
At locations where a large volume of industrial radiography is carried out
exposure booths of various shapes and sizes will generally be available, which
usually consist of enclosures having lead lined walls. Some exposure booths
have walls filled with spent casting sand or other radiation absorbing material.
Such exposure booths should be regularly monitored to ensure that the

radiation dose rate is within safe limits in the areas outside the booth where
personnel can move freely.
Safety switches are usually fitted to doors of exposure booths to prevent the
operation of x-ray sets or gamma ray equipment whilst the door is open. Where
overhead cranes might have to pass over an open topped exposure booth
similar safety switches are normally installed o trip out the x-ray set, or wind
back the gamma ray source, should the crane encroach upon the irradiated
area during exposure.
In many countries, including Britain, it is a legal requirement that an audible

warning is given before any exposure takes place.
Exposure booths should be equipped with switches inside the x-ray compound
which can be operated to prevent the operation of the x- or gamma ray
equipment should any personnel be accidentally trapped inside.
Radiation detectors should be installed inside the exposure booth to indicate

when gamma ray sources are being used.
15.1.2 Site work

A demarcation barrier is required showing the zone where radiation is in excess
of the legally permitted limit (in Britain this is 7.5Sv/h). The barrier usually
consists of brightly coloured rope or tape suspended at about 1m above the
ground, with warning signs at 5m intervals.
Areas which will be irradiated at greater than the legal limit must be cleared of
all non-classified personnel prior to any exposure. Audible and visible warnings
must be given before any exposure takes place.
The barrier should be monitored with an efficient radiation detector and should
be guarded by classified personnel during exposure.
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Radiation Safety 15-1 Copyright TWI Ltd
15.1.3 Scatter
Personnel should be aware that radiation can be scattered by structures,
apparently safe locations may be subject to stray scattered radiation.
15.2 Exposure limits for radiation workers

In Britain classified workers are allowed to receive an accumulated dose of 20
millisieverts (20mSv) per year from the age of 18 to 65 years. A formal
investigation is required if a classified worker receives a dose of 15mSv or more
within any single calendar year. The investigation has to establish the source of
the dose and may include a thorough medical check for the person receiving the
dose. These requirements are typical for all countries within the European
Union, but requirements in other countries may differ widely.
15.2.1 Dosimeters
For work in radioactive environments (ie nuclear reactors) personnel must be
equipped with direct reading dosimeters which will display immediately the
accumulated dose received. Personnel working in these locations must take
particular care to avoid ingesting radioactive particles. Tightly fitting breathing
masks are required and protective clothing should be worn.
15.3 Permitted levels

The figures given below relate to Statutory Instrument 1999 Number 3232,
Ionising Radiation Regulations 1999. These regulations exclude radiation doses
received due to medical reasons.
15.3.1 Classified workers

The maximum permitted dose rate for personnel equipped with film badges (or
TLDs) is 20mSv per year, approximately equivalent to a constant dose rate of
10Sv/hr for a 40 hour working week if a 48 working week year is assumed.
15.3.2 Unclassified personnel, controlled and supervised areas

Controlled area
Unclassified personnel must be excluded from any area where radiation dose is
deemed likely to exceed three tenths of the annual allowable dose for a
classified worker (6mSv). The maximum permissible dose rate at the boundary
of a controlled area is 7.5Sv/hr.
Supervised area
Defined as an area where the annual dose is expected to equal or exceed
1mSv. Such areas should be clearly signed; unclassified persons are permitted
to pass through such areas but must not remain in them for extended periods.
Verbal warnings should be given by the radiographer where possible.
15.4 Safe working distances

The dose rate from a source of ionising radiation reduces in proportion to the
reciprocal of the square of the distance from the source.
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For any source of ionising radiation:

Dose rate =

If the source of ionising radiation is x-ray then it will not be possible to calculate
the dose rate at 1m although the dose rate will be proportional to the tube
current. Halving the tube current at a given tube voltage will halve the radiation
dose rate. If the source is gamma ray then the dose rate at 1m can be
calculated if the source strength (curies or gigabecquerels) and output of the
source are known. Output for any given isotope is the dose rate per curie or
gigabecquerel at 1m from the source.
Thus:
Dose rate at one metre - (source strength) x (output)
Output for the various radioactive isotopes used in industrial radiography is

tabulated below:
If we take 7.5Sv/hr to be the safe dose rate then we can calculate the safe
distance using the formula below:
(Output ) Source strength 1,000

Safe distance in metres =
7 .5
The previous formula can be simplified to:
Safe distance in metres x C x Source strength in curies
C is a constant for each isotope, for thulium 170 C = 1.86, ytterbium 169 C =
12.91, selenium 75 C = 15.49, iridium 192 C = 25.30 and for cobalt 60 C =
41.63.
15.4.1 Shielding
If shielding is introduced then the reduction in the minimum safe working
distance can be calculated if the magnitude of the half or tenth value layer of
the shielding material is known. The half value layer for any material is the
thickness of material that will reduce the radiation dose rate, for a given
radiation energy, by a factor of two. The tenth value layer is similarly the
thickness of material that will reduce the dose rate by a factor of ten. For
example the half value layer of lead for cobalt 60 is about 12.5mm while for
iridium 192 it is about 4.8mm. The tenth value layer of lead for cobalt 60 is
about 41.5mm while for iridium 192 it is about 16mm. If the shielding thickness
is an exact multiple of the half or tenth value layer then the dose rate after
shielding can be found simply by dividing the unshielded rate by two for each
half value layer or by ten for each tenth value layer. Where this is not the case
the formulae given below can be used.
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RU RU
RS t / hvl or RS
2 10 t / tvl
Where:
Ru = Unshielded dose rate.
Rs = Shielded dose rate.
t = Thickness of shielding material.
hvl = Half value layer.
tvl =Tenth value layer.
NDT20-71015
Glossary
Glossary
The following is a compilation of the more common terms used in connection with
radiographic testing. Other lists can be found in BS EN 1330-3 and ASME V, Appendix A.
Absorbed dose (of ionising radiation) Energy per unit mass imparted
to the irradiated material. Absorbed dose is
measured in Grays (Gy) (1 Gy = J kg-1).
Absorption Reduction in intensity of a beam of radiation during

its passage through matter.
Absorption coefficient Usually abbreviated . Where I = I0 x e-t and I is

the shielded radiation intensity, I0 is the unshielded
radiation intensity while t is the thickness of the
absorber.
Alpha radiation Type of ionising radiation consisting of high velocity

charged particles emitted from the nucleus of heavy
radioactive isotopes. The alpha particle consists of
two protons and two electrons a helium nucleus,
and has a positive charge of 2. Alpha radiation has
very low penetrating power, but is very strongly
ionising.
Anode Positive electrode of a discharge tube. In an x-ray

tube the anode carries the target (see target).
Atom Smallest indivisible part of a chemical element

consists of a nucleus formed from positively charged
protons and neutrons surrounded by orbiting
negatively charged electrons.
Atomic mass number Total number of protons plus neutrons in the nucleus
of an atom, standard abbreviation A.
Atomic mass unit (AMU) Measure of atomic weight, roughly speaking the
proton has a weight of 1amu while that of the
neutron is marginally greater than 1amu. The
weight of the electron is roughly 0.00054amu.
Atomic number Number of protons in an atomic nucleus, standard

abbreviation Z.
Atomic weight Weight of an atom expressed in atomic mass units,

approximately equal to the atomic mass number.
Backscatter Scattered radiation caused by the presence of

objects behind the film or radiation detector (see
scatter).
Background count Ionising radiation dose rate due to natural causes

(see background radiation).
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Glossary 1 Copyright TWI Ltd
Background radiation Ionising radiation present at any given site due to
natural causes: sunlight contains a proportion of
ionising radiation; some natural rocks such as
granite are weakly radioactive.
Base fog level Film density of a radiographic film prior to exposure

to ionising radiation (measured by processing a
sample of unexposed film). Base fog level increases
with the age of the film. Poor storage conditions,
temperature or humidity too high, are common
causes of excessive base fog level. Other possible
causes of high base fog level are exposure to
chemical or solvent fumes, ionising radiation or to
light. Most international standards specify a
maximum base fog level of 0.3.
Becquerel SI unit of radioactivity which is defined as 1

disintegration per second (1 curie = 37GBq
(gigabecquerels)) (see curie).
Beta radiation Ionising radiation consisting of very high velocity

electrons emitted from the nucleus of a radioactive
isotope. In beta emission a neutron converts to a
proton while emitting a very high speed electron.
Beta radiation has low penetrating power but must
not be ignored when assessing radiation safety as it
causes severe skin burns and can lead to fatality.
Betatron Apparatus in which electrons are accelerated along a

spiral path by means of the electric force associated
with a varying magnetic field.
Bunsen-Roscoe law Reciprocity law which basically states that the film
density produced by a dose of ionising radiation is
independent of the radiation dose rate (ie a low
dose rate for a long exposure time will produce the
same film density as a high dose rate for a short
exposure time so long as (dose rate) x (time)
remains constant).
Build-up As ionising radiation is scattered the majority of the

scattered radiation continues in approximately the
same direction as the primary beam. When working
with radiation shielding thicknesses amounting to
several half value layers this causes the transmitted
radiation intensity to be higher than would be
expected based on the number of half value layers.
The problem of build-up increases as radiation
energy increases.
Calcium tungstate Complex salt of calcium which fluoresces in the blue

part of the visible light spectrum during exposure to
ionising radiation. Calcium tungstate is the common
base material for salt or fluorometallic intensifying
screens.
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Cassette Lightproof container for holding x-ray film during
exposure may be rigid or flexible. They must be
designed to maintain good contact between the x-
ray film and intensifying screens.
Casting Formation, by pouring molten base material into a

mould, of a useful product shape, or any component
produced by such a process. The great majority of
metallic components begin life as a casting.
Cathode Negative electrode of a discharge tube which usually

consists of a heated tungsten filament.
Characteristic curve The curve for a given photographic (or x-ray) film
which relates the logarithm to the base of 10 of the
relative amount of radiation exposure (ie radiation
intensity x exposure time) to the achieved
photographic density under specified processing
conditions. Also known as Hunter & Driffield curve
(H&D curve) or sensiometric curve. The process by
which a characteristic curve is produced is called
sensiometry.
Compton scattering Important scattering mechanism in industrial

radiography which is predominant for x-ray photon
energies between 0.6-6MeV.
Constant potential Uni-directional voltage of constant (or nearly

constant) magnitude.
Contrast Difference in brightness to the human eye of two

adjacent areas in a radiographic image.
Curie Unit of radioactivity for any radioactive isotope. A

radioactive isotope with source strength of 1 Curie is
decaying at the rate of 3.7 x 1010 disintegrations per
second. (Abbreviation: Ci). The SI unit of
radioactivity is the Becquerel (see Becquerel).
Curie-hours or Gamma ray exposures are usually expressed in

curie-minutes curie hours or curie minutes because the intensity of
radiation is proportional to the source strength and
the total amount of radiation received is
proportional to the source strength multiplied by the
exposure time.
Definition Degree of sharpness of delineation of image detail in

a radiograph (see geometric unsharpness, inherent
unsharpness and penumbra).
Densitometer Instrument used for measuring radiographic density

(see density).
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Density Degree of darkness of a radiograph expressed as
the logarithm to the base 10 of the ratio of the
intensity of incident light to intensity of the light
transmitted through the film.
Density strip Strip of film exposed to form gradations of film

density, once calibrated using a suitable
densitometer they form a convenient means of
comparing film densities. Alternatively density strips
of known density can be used to check the
calibration of densitometers.
Developer Chemical solution used in the development of a

radiographic film. All developers are reducing agents
which reduce the sensitised silver halide grains in
the film emulsion to metallic silver thereby
producing an image on the film.
Development Chemical process by which a latent image is

converted to form a visible image (see developer).
Die casting Casting process for producing small to medium sized

components, mainly applicable to low melting point
alloys, involving the use of a reusable mould
generally constructed from steel. In pressure die
casting the molten charge is forced into the mould
under pressure. Die castings have a better surface
finish and mechanical properties than equivalent
sand castings.
Dose rate Total quantity of radiation energy per unit time. It

usually is expressed in Sieverts or Rems per unit
time (see sievert and Rem).
Electromagnetic Light waves, radio waves and ionising radiation (x-

radiation or gamma rays) are all forms of electromagnetic
radiation. All electromagnetic radiation travels at the
same velocity (299,274,000m/sec in a vacuum), the
different types of electromagnetic radiation differ
only in their wavelengths.
Electron Very tiny negatively charged fundamental particle.

The mass of the electron is roughly 0.00054 times
that of a proton.
Electron volt Unit of energy equal to the amount kinetic energy

acquired by an electron when it is accelerated
through a potential difference of one volt.
(Abbreviated as eV 1keV = 1,000eV, 1MeV =
1,000,000eV). Electron volts are a convenient unit
of expressing ionising radiation energies.
Emulsion Photographic emulsion; a suspension of

photosensitive material (silver halide grains) in a
matrix such as gelatine.
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Exposure chart Chart which relates the required radiographic
exposure for a given radiographic film and film
density to the penetrated thickness of a specified
material.
Filament In an x-ray tube the heated cathode usually consists

of a thin tungsten wire through which a heating
current is passed in order to stimulate the
thermionic emission of electrons.
Film badge Piece of photographic film used as a radiation

monitor. Film badges are usually partially shielded
to increase the effective measuring range.
Film contrast The degree to which a particular radiographic film

when viewed by the human eye can differentiate
between two adjacent areas of different radiation
exposure. Film contrast is related to the change in
film density per unit increase in radiation exposure
and increases with the achieved film density.
Filter Material, usually thin copper sheet, interposed in the

path of radiation in order to reduce selectively the
intensity of radiation of a certain range of
wavelengths or energies (usually the lower range of
energies). Filters are useful for reducing the effect of
scattered radiation in x-radiography.
Fixer Chemical solution containing principally sodium or

ammonium thiosulphate which takes into solution
the excess silver halides in a film emulsion which
remain after the development process has been
completed.
Fixing Chemical removal of unused silver halides from an

emulsion after development (see fixer).
Flaw sensitivity Ability of a radiographic technique to detect flaws.

Not easy to quantify but is expressed as the
minimum detectable thickness of a specific flaw
measured in the direction of the radiation beam,
expressed as a percentage of the total thickness of a
specimen of specified homogeneous material.
Fluorescence Ability of certain chemical compounds to convert

invisible incident radiation to a visible radiation
emission. Calcium tungstate is useful in radiography
because it fluoresces in the blue part of the light
spectrum under the action of ionising radiation.
Fluorescent screen Suitably mounted layer of material (eg calcium

tungstate, barium platino-cyanide or zinc sulphide)
which fluoresces in the visible region of the
spectrum under the action of ionising radiation:
Fluorescent screens can be used to produce a
radiographic image directly or to produce an
intensifying effect when used in conjunction with
radiographic film.
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Fluorometallic screen Intensifying screen used in radiography which
combines the scatter reducing properties of a lead
screen with the image intensification properties of a
salt screen.
Focal spot Area of the target on which the electron stream

impinges and from which x-rays are emitted. The
effective focal spot size in an x-ray tube is usually
less than the actual focal spot size.
Focus-to-film distance Distance from the focus of an x-ray tube to a film

set up for radiographic exposure, abbreviation: FFD.
Gamma radiation Electromagnetic radiation emitted during the decay

of some radioactive isotopes. Gamma photons are
the by-product of some alpha or beta decay events.
All gamma emitters used in industrial radiography
emit gamma as a by-product of beta decay.
Gamma radiography Radiography by means of gamma rays.
Gray SI unit of absorbed dose.
Half life Fixed property of any radioactive isotope. Half life is

the time taken for the number of radioactive atoms
in a given sample to reduce by half. It can be
anything from a few seconds to millions of years
dependent on the isotope. The decay process itself
is random but the half life is fixed because each
radioactive atom has the same probability of decay
averaged over a very large number of radioactive
atoms this gives rise to a fixed half life.
Half-value thickness Thickness of a specified substance which when

(half-value layer) introduced into the path of a given beam of
radiation reduces the radiation intensity by half. It
may be used as an indication of the quality of the
beam or the opacity of the substance, abbreviation:
HVL.
Identification marker Marker, usually of heavy material (lead), used to

provide a reference point or identification mark in a
radiograph.
Image intensifier Device used in fluoroscopy (form of real time

radiography), incorporating a vacuum tube in which
electrons released by x-rays from a special type of
screen, are accelerated and focused on to a
fluorescent screen thus producing a brighter image
than that produced directly using a fluorescent
screen.
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Image quality Indicator Any device which gives an indication of radiographic
quality. The commonest are wire, step hole and
plaque IQIs. The quality (or sensitivity) of the image
is defined as the smallest discernible wire diameter
or step thickness expressed as a percentage of the
total thickness.
Inherent fog Unwanted blackening of an emulsion caused by the

development of grains which are inherently
developable without exposure. This type of fog
varies with the age of the emulsion and conditions
of storage (see base fog level).
Intensifying factors Ratio of exposure time without intensifying screens

to that when screens are used, all other conditions
being the same.
Intensifying screen Layer of suitable material, eg lead foil, which when

placed in close contact with photographic emulsion,
adds to the photographic effect of the incident
radiation.
Injection moulding Die casting process whereby molten raw material is

forced into a mould under pressure. The process is
common for plastics and low melting point metal
alloys, especially those of zinc, magnesium and
aluminium.
Investment casting Also called the lost wax process. A wax model of the
required item is made and a mould is formed around
this using some type of refractory material. After
firing to harden the mould and burn out the wax,
molten metal is poured in to produce the desired
component. Investment casting is an expensive
method but it produces the best surface finish and
material properties of all of the casting processes.
Isotopes Nuclides having the same atomic number but

different mass number (ie the nucleus contains the
same number of protons but a different number of
neutrons). Some isotopes are stable while others
undergo nuclear fission thus producing emissions of
radiation.
Latitude Ability of a radiographic technique to display a wide

range of material thickness at an acceptable film
density. In general latitude will be reduced if a high
contrast ultrafine grain film is used.
Macroradiography Radiography of thin sections of material in such a

way that the resulting image may be enlarged to
reveal microstructure.
NDT20-71015
MAG Metal active gas welding, often referred to as CO2
welding, mainly applicable to carbon steel. MAG is
an automatic or semi-automatic arc welding process
involving a reel fed consumable electrode; the arc is
shielded by an active gas, usually CO2. Porosity and
lack of sidewall fusion are common defects.
MIG Metal inert gas welding. MIG is an automatic or

semi-automatic arc welding process involving a reel
fed consumable electrode; the arc is shielded by an
inert gas, usually argon. MIG welding is applicable
to most metals and alloys. Porosity and lack of
sidewall fusion are common defects.
Milliampere hours, Measure of x-ray exposure expressed as the product

minutes or seconds of the milliammeter reading (ie tube current) and
the of exposure time in hours, minutes or seconds.
MMA Manual metallic arc welding. An arc is struck

between a flux coated consumable electrode and the
work piece, the flux coating decomposes to form a
shielding gas, usually carbon dioxide and a molten
slag which protects the hot metal.
Neutron Fundamental particle having a mass slightly greater

than 1amu and zero electrical charge.
Neutron radiography Neutrons emitted by nuclear reactors and some

radioactive isotopes are a form of penetrating
radiation and can be used to perform radiography.
Neutrons are heavily absorbed by substances such
as water or plastic which contain significant amounts
of hydrogen and pass easily through metals such as
steel or aluminium. Neutron radiography is useful
for the detection of water ingress into aeroplane
wing structures and other similar applications.
Pair production The scattering mechanism which predominates at x-

ray photon energies exceeding 6MeV. Pair
production does not occur until the threshold photon
energy of 1.02MeV is exceeded.
Penumbra Partial shadow extending beyond the edges of the

main shadow (umbra) of an object due to the finite
size of the radiation source: the width of this partial
shadow.
Photoelectric effect Important scattering mechanism in industrial

radiography which is predominantly a radiation
using photon energies of below 0.6MeV.
Positron Basically an electron but with opposite electrical

charge, they are emitted during pair production
which is an important scattering mechanism in high
energy x-radiography.
NDT20-71015
Pressure mark Variation in photographic density caused by the
application of local pressure to the emulsion; the
mark may be light or dark according to
circumstances.
Primary radiation Radiation which is incident on the absorber and

which continues unaltered in photon energy and in
direction after passing through the absorber.
Processing Series of operations, such as developing, fixing and

washing, associated with the conversion of a latent
image into a stable, visible image.
Quality factor To account for the fact that, for instance 1Gy or
100R of alpha radiation is biologically much more
damaging than 1Gy or 100R of x- or gamma
radiation a quality factor is used. The dose in
Sieverts or Rem is then equal to the dose in Grays
or Rads multiplied by the quality factor, 1 Sievert or
100 Rem of any type of ionising radiation has the
same biological effect.
Rad Old unit of radiation absorbed dose. SI equivalent is

the Gray.
Radiograph Photographic image produced by a beam of

penetrating ionising radiation which has passed
through an object.
Radiographic contrast Contrast in radiograph; usually expressed in terms

of density difference. The ability of a combination of
radiograph and human eye to differentiate between
two areas of different subject thickness.
Radiographic contrast is the combined effect of
subject contrast and film contrast.
Radiographic exposure Subjection of an emulsion to radiation to produce a

latent image; commonly expressed in milliampere-
minutes or curie-hours.
Radiographic range Maximum range of thickness of a specified

(latitude) homogeneous material which can be recorded
satisfactorily in a single radiograph with a specified
technique.
Reciprocity law Law which states that, all other conditions remaining
constant, the time of exposure required to produce
a given density is inversely proportional to the
intensity of the radiation (see Bunsen-Roscoe Law).
NDT20-71015
Rem Roentgen equivalent mammal, old unit of man
mammal equivalent absorbed radiation dose. 1
Roentgen of alpha radiation has a much greater
biological affect than 1 Roentgen of x- or gamma
rays whereas 1Rem has the same biological affect
whatever the type of ionising radiation. Despite the
name the Rem is arrived at by multiplying the dose
in rad (radiation absorbed dose) by a quality factor.
SI equivalent is the Sievert.
Resolution Smallest distance between recognisable images on a

film or screen. It may be expressed as the number
of lines per millimetre which can be seen as discrete
images.
Reticulation Effect due to rupture of an emulsion coating, usually

caused by a rapid change of temperature. It gives
an appearance similar to the grain of leather.
Rod-anode tube Type of uni-polar (grounded anode) x-ray tube in

which the target is near the end of a long tubular
anode.
Roentgen Old unit of exposure or ionising effect. SI equivalent

is the coulomb per kilogram.
Salt screen Intensifying screen consisting of a material such as

calcium tungstate, which fluoresces in the visible or
ultraviolet region of the spectrum under the action
of ionising radiation. Seldom used in industrial
radiography.
Sand casting Casting process where a molten charge is poured

into a mould formed from compressed sand, is the
most versatile of all the casting processes, but
suffers from coarse grain structure and poor surface
finish.
SAW Submerged arc welding. Automatic or semi-

automatic arc welding process that offers deep
penetration and a high deposition rate. A
consumable wire is reel fed and the arc is struck
under a layer of powdered flux.
Scattering Redirection of radiation, with or without a change in

photon energy (but usually with a reduction in
photon energy), during its passage through matter.
Screen-type film X-ray film designed for use with salt screens. It is
sensitive to the fluorescent light emitted by such
screens under the action of x-rays.
Secondary radiation Radiation, other than primary radiation, emerging

from the absorber.
Sievert SI unit of man/mammal equivalent dose,

abbreviation: Sv.
NDT20-71015
Source-to-film distance Distance from a source of radiation to a film set up
for a radiographic exposure, abbreviation: SFD.
Specific activity Amount of radioactive material per unit mass of a

sample, usually expressed in Curies/gram.
Speed Relative rate at which a photographic emulsion

reacts to exposure to radiation.
Standard temperature The conditions most often used in chemistry to

and pressure (STP) study or test a chemical. STP is 0 C ( 273.15
Kelvin) and 100 kPa (1 bar or 0.986 atm) of
pressure.
TIG Tungsten inert gas welding. Manual or fully

automatic arc welding process, extremely versatile
but requires a high degree of operator skill. The
heat source is an arc struck under a shield of argon
or helium gas between a non-consumable tungsten
electrode and the work piece. Filler wire may be fed
into the arc, or in some circumstances a weld may
be produced without filler wire.
NDT20-71015
Appendix
Appendix: Ionising radiation regulations
Ionising Radiation Regulations 1999 (SI 1999 N. 3232) - Summary

Details Requirements
Controlled area
A controlled area is one to which access is All areas where the annual radiation
restricted due to the possibility of high dose is expected to exceed 6mSv
radiation dose rates. Controlled areas must shall be designated as controlled
have well signed physical boundaries. areas.
Flashing lights shall be used to warn of an The radiation dose rate at the
exposed source or energised x-ray tube. boundary of a controlled area shall
Flashing lights and a clear audible warning not exceed 7.5Sv/h.
shall be used to warn of imminent exposure of
a source or energising of an x-ray tube.
Access to a controlled area is generally limited
to classified personnel, but other persons may
enter under strict supervision.
Supervised area
A supervised area is one in which the ionising All areas where the annual radiation
radiation dose is likely to significantly exceed dose is likely to exceed 1mSv shall
natural background radiation levels. be designated as supervised areas.
There are no specific requirements for The radiation dose rate within a
signposting supervised areas. Physical barriers supervised area shall not exceed
are not required. 7.5Sv/h.
Persons should not be allowed to linger in, but
they are not restricted from passing through a
supervised area.
Classification of personnel
Personnel who are likely to receive a All personnel age 18 or over who
significantly higher than normal ionising are likely to exceed an ionising
radiation dose in the course of their work radiation dose of 6mSv per year
duties should be classified. shall be classified.
Classified personnel have their exposure to All radiographers shall be classified.
radiation monitored by an approved dosimetry A person under the age of 18 cannot
service (eg the NRPB); in addition some be classified and cannot work as a
employers operate their own internal dose radiographer.
monitoring schemes. Classified personnel shall be
Employers are required to investigate where declared fit by the appointed doctor
the recorded dose of any classified worker on an annual basis.
exceeds 15mSv in one year; employers are The recorded whole body dose of a
encouraged to set their own investigation level classified worker shall not exceed
some way below 15mSv per year. 20mSv.
All classified personnel shall annually be A formal investigation is required if
declared fit by the appointed doctor. The the recorded whole body dose for a
appointed doctor may carry out a full medical classified person exceeds 15mSv in
or he may consider it sufficient to base this any period of one year.
declaration on dose records alone. There is no
specific requirement for blood tests; such
things are at the discretion of the appointed
doctor.
NDT20-71015
Appendix: Ionising radiation regulations 1 Copyright TWI Ltd
Trainees
The annual dose of a trainee under the age of The annual ionising radiation whole
18 must not exceed the stated limit of 6mSv, body dose for a trainee under the
but it is likely to be higher than that of a age of 18 shall not exceed 6mSv.
general member of the public. Typically a A person under the age of 18 cannot
trainee would be spending a higher than be classified
average amount of time within a supervised
area.
General public
In setting the dose limit for members of the The annual ionising radiation whole
public (and other mammals) it is taken into body dose for a member of the
consideration that such members of the public general public shall not exceed
(or other mammals) could be pregnant. A 1mSv.
developing foetus is particularly sensitive to
ionising radiation.
Annual dose limitations summary (SI 1999 n0. 3232 schedule 4)
Description Classified worker Trainee General public
Whole body 20mSv (1.) (2.) (3.) 6mSv 1mSv(4.)
Lens of the eye 150mSv 50mSv 15mSv
Skin 500mSv 150mSv 50mSv
Hands, forearms, 500mSv 150mSv 50mSv
feet, ankles
Notes
Where special circumstances apply an employer is able to show that the
annual limit of 20mSv is impractical, up to 50mSv can be received in a single
calendar year but not more than 100mSv over any five year period. Any
employee exceeding these limits is likely to be suspended from work pending
an investigation by the HSE.
Where the person in question note 1 above, is a pregnant female the dose
shall not exceed 13mSv in any period of 3 months.
Where the recorded dose exceeds 20mSv in one year the employer is required
to make a formal investigation to determine whether the dose limitations of
note 1 are likely to be complied with. The employer must report the matter to
the HSE and must put in place a programme to ensure that the dose
limitations of note 1 are not exceeded.
For persons who act as carers to others who receiving exposure to ionising
radiation for medical purposes the dose limit is 5mSv in any five year period.
Annual dose limitations general.
The dose limitations, items 1 to 6 above are additional to exposure to radiation for
medical purposes.
Radiation monitors
Radiation monitors must be checked before use Radiation monitoring equipment
to ensure correct functioning; typically this shall be properly maintained.
would involve a battery check and a check to Radiation monitoring equipment
see that a reading is produced when the shall be fit for the designated
instrument is exposed to a source of ionising purpose.
radiation. Radiation monitoring equipment
Radiation monitors must have a scale shall be calibrated at appropriate
appropriate to the magnitude of the doses intervals.
being measured. General good practice is to
have portable monitors calibrated on an annual
basis.
Appropriate calibration periods can vary
dependent on the type and usage of the
radiation monitor in question.
NDT20-71015
Radiation protection adviser
Usually a person, but may be an organisation, All organisations working with
meeting the HSEs criteria of competence. In ionising radiation shall appoint a
general the RPA must be fully aware of the radiation protection adviser.
companys activities involving ionising
radiation.
The local rules should be approved by, if not
written by the RPA. The RPA is often called
upon to undertake training of the radiation
protection supervisors.
Radiation protection supervisor
A person appointed by the employer and named All companies working with ionising
in the local rules to act as such. The RPS has in radiation must appoint at least one
depth knowledge of the local rules. RPS.
The RPS would generally take control where an The names and contact details of
emergency situation occurs and carry out initial all RPS shall be listed in the local
investigation of any recorded or suspected rules
overdose.
General good practice requires the presence of
at least one RPS where radiography is
performed at an on-site location.
Appointed doctor
A registered medical practitioner appointed in Once a year all classified personnel
writing by the HSE. shall be certified fit by an
appointed doctor.
Approved dosimetry service
An organisation, approved in writing by the All companies employing classified
HSE, which monitors and records the ionising personnel must contract out their
radiation doses of classified personnel. dose monitoring to an approved
dosimetry service company.
Minimum notification period
Under most circumstances all work involving The minimum notification period is
the use of ionising radiation must be notified to 28 days prior to the planned
the HSE. commencement of work.
Local rules
The local rules are employer specific and A copy of the local rules must be
describe in detail how the employer will control present at all work sites.
ionising radiation work such that the ionising The local rules must be regularly
radiation regulations are fully complied with. updated to reflect regulatory
changes, changes in working
conditions and changes in
personnel.
NDT20-71015
Course Tips
Read your notes carefully.
Make notes during the lecture on the

paper provided in your folder.
Welds Complete all homework given these are
NDT20 questions that may arise in your exam.
Ask questions if you are not sure the

lecturer will do his/her best to explain
further.
Copyright TWI Ltd Copyright TWI Ltd
1
Course Objectives
To explain the basic theory of X- and gamma radiography.

To select film type and energy levels, select and prepare
techniques for a given specimen.
Radiographic testing (RT) To state the theory of film processing and carry out practical
Welds dark-room work.
To have a working knowledge of basic radiation safety.
NDT20
To plot and evaluate film characteristics (sensitometry).
To recognise film faults.
To meet the syllabus requirements for CSWIP/PCN Level 2.
History of Radiography
W C Roentgen
1895
Discovered X-rays during

Part 1: Theory
another experiments with
Covering pages 1-15 of your notes tube containing an anode
and cathode.
The material around tube
fluoresced and nearby
photographic plates
fogged.
History of Radiography History of Radiography
Henri Becquerel Marie Curie

1896 1898
Discovered gamma-rays Discovered the radioactive

whilst working with sources Polonium and
fluorescent minerals. After Radium. Radium was the
storing a uranium first gamma source used
compound in his drawer for industrial radiography.
with some photographic In 1946 man-made sources
plates he discovered were were produced including
fogged. Cobalt and Iridium.
1
History of Radiography History of Radiography
William Coolidge
1920s
First radiograph 22 December 1895.
Sent to Physicist Franz Exner in
Invented the X-ray tube Vienna. (Mrs. Roentgen's hand.)
as we know it today
which revolutionised
industrial radiography.
He was awarded 83 First x-ray tube belonging

patents due to his to Roentgen in 1896.
invention.
Radiographic Inspection Radiographic Inspection
X-rays are capable of passing straight through

a solid object.
The amount of X-radiation that passes through
a given object depends on the density and
thickness of the object.
Transmitted X-radiation can be detected by
photographic film or fluorescent screens.
This forms the basis of radiographic
inspection, a powerful technique which is
applicable to virtually all materials.
Advantages of Radiography Disadvantages of Radiography
Directly produces a permanent record. Radiation hazard.

Capable of detecting internal flaws. Sensitivity is affected by defect orientation.
Useful for the non-destructive testing of Limited ability to detect fine cracks and other
virtually all materials and product forms. planar defects.
Real-time imaging is possible in some Access to two sides is required.
applications. Limited by material thickness.
Skilled interpretation is required.
Relatively slow.
High capital outlay and running costs.
2
What is radiation?
Electromagnetic Spectrum
Radiation
Radio waves, light, X-rays, g-rays and other
forms of radiation take the form of waves of
energy associated with electrical and magnetic
fields which are at right angles to each other
and the direction of propagation.
Electromagnetic radiation
Electromagnetic radiation has no mass and is
not affected by magnetic or electrical fields
nor to any great extent by gravity.
Wavelength v Photon Energy

Shorter Wavelength = Increased Energy
V

f
V 2 . 997 x 10 8
m / sec
E = hf
Where h is planks constant
(= 6.626196 x 10-34Js)
Properties of Electromagnetic
Inverse Square Law
Radiation
Travels at the speed of light.
Travels through a vacuum.
Travels in a straight line.
No electrical charge or mass.
D1
Intensity proportional to 1/D where D is the
distance from the source.
D2
3
Properties of Electromagnetic
Atomic Structure
Radiation
X and gamma rays Atoms are thought to consist of a positively
Absorbed and scattered by matter. charged nucleus surrounded by one or more
Not refracted by matter. negatively charged electrons that orbit the
nucleus.
Cause ionisation referred to as ionising
radiation. The nucleus consists of positively charged
particles called protons and electrically neutral
Will darken photographic film emulsion and particles called neutrons.
will cause some materials to fluoresce in the
visible or ultraviolet spectrum. A neutron can be thought of as a proton
closely combined with an electron.
Cannot be detected by human senses.
Extremely hazardous to health.
Atomic Structure Atomic Structure
Protons have positive charge and by definition The nucleus of the atom is made up of protons and
an atomic mass of 1. neutrons. The electrons orbits the nucleus.
Neutrons have no electrical charge, atomic
mass very slightly greater than 1. Proton: Positive charge.
Electrons have negative charge equal in Neutron: No charge.

magnitude to that of a proton but are very
Electron: Negative charge.
much smaller at a mass of 1/1836 of a proton.
Number protons equal number electrons, A neutron can be
thought of as a
usually! proton(+) with an
electron(-) tightly
attached.
HYDROGEN Helium Atom
2 PROTONS
1 PROTON
2 ELECTRON
1 ELECTRON
2 NEUTRONS
No charge Positive charge: Ionisation has occurred
4
LITHIUM
BERYLIUM
3 PROTONS
4 PROTONS
3 ELECTRONS
4 NEUTRONS
4 ELECTRONS
5 NEUTRONS
Atomic Structure Atomic Structure: Hydrogen
Atomic Structure: Helium Atomic Structure
5
Atomic Structure Isotopes
Atoms of an element having the same atomic

number but different atomic mass.
The difference in atomic mass is due to a
difference in the number of neutrons in the
nucleus.
Some isotopes are stable while others are
unstable.
Isotopes of Hydrogen
Deuterium
DEUTERIUM
1 PROTON
1 NEUTRON
1 ELECTRON
Tritium
TRITIUM
1 PROTON
2 NEUTRONS
1 ELECTRON
6
Radioactive Isotopes Radioactive Emissions
Alpha particles: +
Emitted by large nuclei such as uranium or
Some isotopes are stable, others are not. plutonium.
Unstable isotopes transform into another Composed of two protons and two neutrons
element and in so doing emit radiation. with a helium nucleus.
Three forms of radiation:
1. Alpha .
2. Beta .
3. Gamma .
Neutrons may also be emitted.
226
88 Ra 222
86 Rn 2 He
4
Radioactive Emissions Radioactive Emissions
Beta particles: - Gamma particles or photons:

Emitted by neutron rich nuclei such as
Emitted following the emission of an alpha
uranium or plutonium.
or beta particle.
Composed of high speed electrons.
Composed of photons of energy not
particles.
14
6 C 147 N e
Radioactive Decay Rate of Decay
Curie: 3.7 x 1010 disintegrations/second.

Becquerel: 1 disintegration/second.
210
82 Pb 210
83 Bi 210
84 Po 206
82 Pb
Half Life: Time taken for the activity of an
isotope to reduce by a half.
Cobalt 60: 5.3 years.

Iridium 192: 74 days.
Ytterbium 169: 32 days.
Uranium 238: 4.47 x 1010 years.
Selenium 75: 118 days
7
Rate of Decay
Rate of Decay
At the level of individual atoms radioactive

decay is random but for each isotope each
individual atom has the same probability of
decay.
A 2 x 1mm cylinder of Iridium contains around

1020 atoms; when so many atoms all have the
same probability of decay the result is a
constant half life even though each individual
decay event is random.
Industrial Radiography
Gamma Rays
X - Rays
Generated by the
Electrically
decay of unstable
generated.
isotopes.
Copyright TWI Ltd
8
Radiographic Testing (RT) Welds Part 2: Equipment
NDT20 Covering pages 16-40 of your notes
X-Ray and Gamma Equipment

X-Ray Production
X-rays are produced by the deceleration of

high velocity electrons.
Part or all of the kinetic energy of the electron
is converted into electromagnetic radiation
(X-rays).
X-Ray Production
Kinetic energy is controlled by velocity:
Ek = mv2 and is usually stated in keV or
MeV.
Electron velocity in an X-ray tube is controlled
by tube voltage.
X-Ray Production X-Ray Production
Requirements 1. Electron source: Tungsten filament

Electron source.
Means of accelerating electrons to a high velocity.
Means of halting electrons.
1
1. Electron source: Tungsten filament 1. Electron source: Tungsten filament
Current Current
Free electrons
Thermionic emission of electrons
2. Accelerating electron: Potential difference 2. Accelerating electron: Potential difference
-ve
-ve +ve -ve +ve
2. Accelerating electron: Potential difference 3. Means of halting electrons: High density

material
-ve +ve -ve +ve
Tungsten
Focusing cup concentrates electrons into a beam
target
2
3. Means of halting electrons: High density material Kinetic energy converted to heat and x-rays
-ve +ve -ve +ve
X-rays / Bremsstrahlung
Problems X-Ray Production
Electrons travel for only short distances

through gasses.
Kinetic Energy converted into 95 % heat
and 5 %
X-rays.
X-Ray Production: HEAT X-Ray Production: HEAT
In any x-ray tube around 95 % of the energy A rotating anode may be used in order to help
generated is in the form of heat. dissipate heat. This type of arrangement is
For typical 200 kV portable equipment around generally limited to X-ray units intended for
1 kW of heat has to be dissipated. medical use.
For a 300 kV constant potential laboratory unit Modern X-ray units have so-called metal-ceramic
heat generation is typically 7.5 kW. envelopes. The use of such envelopes makes it
X-ray tubes of all types therefore require a cooling practical to have a much higher potential
system in order to prevent overheating and difference between the electrodes and the
increase duty cycle. envelope than was the case with glass.
Older type sets having glass envelope tubes are This in turn permits the use of grounded anodes.
generally oil or gas cooled. Such anodes are at zero volts and can therefore
be cooled directly by water.
3
X-Ray Production: Anodes X-Ray Production: Anodes
Directional Type Panoramic Type

Tungsten target Beryllium window
Hood
Tungsten target
Beryllium window Heavy high conductivity Hood

Copper heat sink Heavy high conductivity
Copper heat sink
X-Ray Production: Anodes X-Ray Production: Anodes
Rod-anode Rotating-anode
Tungsten target Used mainly for low

kV, very high tube
current, equipment
in medical
applications.
Beryllium window
Aluminium tube
Tube current Tube voltage

controls the amount controls the quality
LT transformer
X-ray
or intensity of or penetrating ability tube
radiation. of the radiation. AC
Power
HT transformer Rheostat
Autotransformer
mA
AC
Power
kV
4
Current can flow across an X-ray tube only Output of C-rays can be more than doubled if
when the cathode (i.e. the filament) is the AC supply is rectified.
negative and the anode (i.e. the target) is X-ray equipment fitted with a rectifying circuit
positive. is referred to as constant potential.
Therefore if an X-ray tube is energised using a Most CP units use a Greinacher circuit to
simple AC supply X-rays will be produced only rectify the AC supply.
when the supply polarity is such that the CP units produce harder radiation than SR
cathode is negative and the anode is positive. even when operating at the same tube
Simple AC X-ray machines are therefore voltage.
referred to as self-rectified.
Decreasing energy Decreasing energy

Radiation intensity
Radiation intensity
X-Ray Production
Increasing wavelength Increasing wavelength
X-Ray Production
X-Ray Production
Decreasing energy
Radiation intensity
Increasing wavelength
5
X-Ray Production High Energy X-Ray Sources
X-Ray energies of up to 30 MeV are produced using

linear accelerators or betatrons. Electrostatic (Van
der Graaf) generators are also used occasionally.
Linear accelerators (Linacs) accelerate electrons to
high velocity using an electric wave (RF). Electrons
surf the electrical waves and attain high velocity.
Betatrons accelerate electrons along a spiral path by
means of magnetic fields.
Van der Graaf generators can develop high electrical
potentials by mechanical means such electrical
potentials can be used to accelerate electrons.
X-Ray and Gamma Equipment Sealed Sources
Gamma rays
Gamma-Ray Equipment Gamma-Ray Equipment
Isotope container
Projection
tube
Wind-out
6
Isotopes Used in Industrial Isotopes Used in Industrial
Radiography Radiography
Relative intensity/% of total

Isotope Half life mm of steel
Iridium 192 74.4 days 20 - 100
Cobalt 60 5.3 years 40 - 200
Ytterbium 169 32 days 1 - 15
Selenium 75 119 days 10 - 40
Thulium 170 128 days up to 5
Caesium 137 30 years 20 - 80
Radiation energy/MeV

Relative Intensity/% of total
Radiation energy/MeV Radiation energy/MeV

Radiation energy/MeV Radiation energy/MeV
7
Gamma rays compared with X- rays Gamma rays compared with X- rays
No water or electrical supplies needed. Reduced radiographic contrast.
Equipment smaller and lighter therefore more Exposure times generally longer.
portable. Sources need replacing potentially greater in-
Easier to perform radiography in confined or service costs.
difficult to access areas. Radiation cannot be switched off.
Equipment simpler and more robust. Generally inferior geometric unsharpness, SFD
Less scatter no low energy radiation. is usually minimised to obtain economic
Less initial cost. exposure time.
Greater penetrating power. Remote handling necessary.
Penetrating power cannot be adjusted.
8
Radiographic testing (RT) Welds Part 3: Image processing
Radiographic Film Radiographic Film
Subbing
Base Base
Subbing
Radiographic Film Radiographic Film
Supercoat
Emulsion mainly AgBr in gelatine base Emulsion mainly AgBr in gelatine base
Subbing Subbing
Base Base
Subbing Subbing
Emulsion mainly AgBr in gelatine base Emulsion mainly AgBr in gelatine base
Supercoat
1
Radiographic Film Latent Image Formation
Pre-exposure After exposure

Bromine ion Br-
Silver Ion Ag+
Interstitial Silver Ion Ag+
Free electron
Silver atom Ag
Un-sensitised: Sensitised: Unstable

Stable
During exposure a latent image is formed by
sensitised Silver Halide crystals.
Latent Image Formation Latent Image Formation
Silver bromide crystals are not perfect they The interstitial silver atoms nucleate silver
contain interstitial silver ions. crystals.
When an interstitial silver ion accepts a free A single interstitial silver atom is sufficient to
electron it becomes a silver atom. cause an entire silver bromide crystal to
The silver atom is larger than the ion and convert to metallic silver.
exerts a stress on the crystal lattice. The typical size of a silver bromide crystal in a
In the presence of developer this stress causes typical photographic film emulsion is about
instability and the crystal breaks down 1 m.
resulting in the whole of the crystal changing Sensitisation of a silver bromide crystal can be
to black metallic silver. caused by just a single photon of X-ray
energy.
Film Types Intensifying Screens
Film is usually placed between front and back

intensifying screens.
Generally lead of 0.03 - 0.15 mm occasionally
Grain Size Speed Quality salt screens may be used.
Coarse Fast Poor Lead screens shorten exposure time and
Medium Medium Medium improve image quality by helping to reduce
Fine Slow Good the effects of scattered radiation.
Ultra Fine Very Slow Very Good Salt screens shorten exposure time, often
dramatically but produce inferior image
quality.
2
Intensifying Screens Intensifying Screens: Metallic
Metallic: Usually lead but other metals such as For radiation energy of 120 keV or greater front and
copper may be used. back lead intensifying screens are commonly used.
The optimum thickness of such screens varies with
Salt: Usually calcium tungstate. radiation energy but 0.03 - 0.15 mm is typical.
Fluorometallic: These are salt screens with a The front screen reduces the effect of radiation
metal foil backing. They combine the scattered by objects situated in front of the film
advantages of metallic and salt screens, including the object which is being radiographed and
helps to shorten exposure time.
however, they are extremely expensive and
The back screen reduces the effect of radiation
they are easily damaged.
scattered by objects situated behind the film and to a
lesser extent when compared with the front screen
helps to shorten exposure time.
Intensifying Screens Intensifying Screens
Front screen
Primary radiation
Front emulsion
Secondary electrons No screens Pb screens: Poor contact
Base Grain sensitised by

primary radiation
Back emulsion Grain sensitised by

secondary electrons
Back screen
Pb screens: Good contact
Intensifying Screens Film Processing
Metal usually Pb: Intensification factor about Developer: Reducing agent: Alkaline.
2x for radiation energies in excess of 120 keV. Stop bath: Acetic acid.
Salt: Intensification factor may be as high as Fixer: Dissolves silver halide: Acidic.
500x. Washing.
Fluorometallic: Intensification factor about Drying.
50x.
3
Film Processing Developer
Development In order to increase the working life of the

Latent image converted into metallic silver in developer replenisher should be added in
3-5 minutes at 20C. accordance with manufacturers recommendations.
The four main constituents of developer: Replenisher replaces used reducing agent and
maintains alkalinity. It also maintains the depth of
Reducing agent: Metol/hydroquinone.
developer in the processing tank, during
Accelerator: Keeps solution alkaline. processing there are losses due to carry-over and
Restrainer: Ensures only sensitised silver evaporation.
halides converted. Keeping a record of how much film has been
Preservative: Prevents oxidation by air. processed helps in deciding how much replenisher
to add.
Film Processing Film Processing
Stop bath Fixer

3% acetic acid neutralises the developer, stops the development A solution of sodium thiosulphate or ammonium thiosulphate.
process and increases fixer life.
Fixer is mildly acidic, acetic acid stabilises the solution.
It is common to add an indicator to the stop bath to confirm its
acidity. Unexposed undeveloped silver halides are leached out of the
film emulsion.
The stop bath should always be held at approximately the same
temperature as the developer and fixer as sudden temperature Fixer commonly contains a hardener. This helps to promote
changes can damage the film emulsion. rapid even drying it also makes the wet film easier to handle.
A soaking time in the stop bath of just a few seconds is Fixing time is generally taken to be twice the clearing time.
sufficient to arrest development and neutralise alkalinity. Leaving film in fixer for an extended period may cause the film
emulsion to peel away from the base.
Fixer Fixer
Like developer fixer may be replenished.
When unexposed film is placed in the fixer bath it will be

observed to clear as the silver halides are dissolved by the
fixer. Clearing time is an important measure of fixer condition. During the fixing process large amounts of silver
Clearing time for new fixer will usually be less than 30 accumulate in the fixer solution.
seconds.
Therefore it is common practice to recover silver
Radiographs are usually fixed for a time equal to twice the from spent fixer.
clearing time.
Fixer contains a hardener which helps to prevent swelling of

the film emulsion and accelerate drying.
4
Film Processing
Advanced Imaging Techniques
Washing Computed
20-30 minutes in clean running water. radiography Optical
Photo-multiplier
scanner
Usually followed by dipping in a clean water bath containing a tube
wetting agent which helps to promote even drying.
Laser
Note: Over washing must be avoided. beam
A/D
Over washing will cause swelling and excessive softening of converter
the film emulsion a major cause of drying marks.
Insufficiently washed radiographs will discolour and their shelf

life will be limited. Imaging 110010010010110
plate
Motor
Image Software Real Time Radiography
Image (1) Edge detection (2)
Subtraction of (2) from (1)
Real Time Radiography Computed Tomography
Image type
The image formed is a positive image since
brighter areas on the image indicates where
higher levels of transmitted radiation reached
the screen.
Positive image Negative image
5
Computed Tomography CT Images
As the component is rotated

a series of 2D slices are As shown below the 3-D image can then be
collected when these are
manipulated and sliced in various ways to
superimposed and merged
using computer software provide a thorough understanding of the
according to the radial structure and nature of defects.
1 2 position a 3D image is then
produced.
The cross section of the test
piece becomes more
defined as it is rotated the
stretched density
information is added to the
3 4 image.
6
Radiographic testing (RT) Welds Part 4: Image quality
Radiographic Sensitivity Factors Influencing Sensitivity
The ability of a radiograph to detect a small

change in section thickness
Sensitivity
Affected by:
Definition: The degree of sharpness of a
radiographic image. Contrast Definition
Contrast: The degree to which two adjacent
areas of different film density can be
distinguished one from the other.
Factors Influencing Sensitivity Factors Influencing Sensitivity
Sensitivity Sensitivity
Contrast Definition Contrast Definition
Film Film Quality of Subject Film Film Film Quality of Subject Film
density type radiation contrast processing density type radiation contrast processing
Agitation Development Developer Developer Type of

time temperature concentration developer
1
Factors Influencing Sensitivity Factors Influencing Sensitivity
Sensitivity Sensitivity
Contrast Definition Contrast Definition
Type of Intensifying Radiation Relative Geometry Film Type Intensifying Radiation Relative Geometry Film
film screens quality movement processing of screens quality movement processing
film
Agitation Development Developer Developer Type of

time temperature concentration developer
Image Quality Radiographic Contrast

Contrast
Insufficient Contrast Excessive Contrast
The ability to differentiate areas of different kV too high. kV too low.
film density Over exposure Incorrect developer.
compensated for by Incorrect film: Screen
shortened development. combination.
Incorrect film: Screen
combination.
Scatter.
Fogged film.
Poor film processing.
Radiographic Quality
Geometric Unsharpness
Definition
The sharpness of the dividing line between
different density fields.
There are two types of unsharpness in

radiography:
1. Film or inherent unsharpness.
2. Geometric unsharpness or penumbra.
2
Geometric Unsharpness Geometric Unsharpness
Long Film to Object

Distance

=
Low Ug
Short Film to Object Small focus

Distance
High Ug Low Ug
Large Focus Short Object to Film

Distance
High Ug Low Ug
3
Reducing Geometric Unsharpness
Source size as small as possible.

Long Object to Film
Source to object distance as long as practical.
Distance
Object to film distance as short as possible.
In a good quality technique geometric
unsharpness should be not more than the
inherent unsharpness of the film screen
combination in use.
High Ug
Measuring Geometric Unsharpness Duplex IQIs
The drilled holes in step: Hole and plaque type EN ISO 19232-5 defined duplex wire IQI
IQIs are intended as an indicator of geometric containing 13 pairs of circular cross-section
unsharpness. wires made of platinum and tungsten.
Standard wire type IQIs (EN ISO 19232-1) are
poor indicators of geometric unsharpness.
A special type of IQI called a duplex wire IQI
is designed with a view to measuring
geometric unsharpness (EN ISO 19232-5).
Note: EN 462-5 was former standard which is technically identical with EN ISO
19232-5
BS 3971 Duplex IQI BS 3971 Duplex IQI
Achieved
Wire Achieved basic
Duplex geometrical
diameter spatial resolution
identification unsharpness [mm]
[mm] [mm]
D1 0,80 0,80 1,60

D2 0,63 0,63 1,26
D3 0,50 0,50 1,00
D4 0,40 0,40 0,80
D5 0,32 0,32 0,64 First unresolved duplex is ...
D6 0,25 0,25 0,50
Achieved
D7 0,20 0,20 0,40 Wire Achieved basic
Duplex geometrical
D8 0,16 0,16 0,32 diameter spatial resolution
identification unsharpness [mm]
D9 0,13 0,13 0,26 [mm] [mm]
D10 0,10 0,10 0,20
D7 0,20 0,20 0,40
D11 0,08 0,08 0,16
D8 0,16 0,16 0,32
D12 0,063 0,063 0,13
D9 0,13 0,13 0,26
D13 0,05 0,05 0,10
D10 0,10 0,10 0,20
4
Inherent Unsharpness Inherent Unsharpness
Inherent or film unsharpness is due to:

The graininess of the film, fast films have Actual
larger grain size than slow films. object
The type of intensifying screens, metallic foil
screens are much better than fluorescent Ultrafine grain
screens. film
The radiation energy, film unsharpness is Fine grain
increased at high radiation energy.
film
Film processing, development time and
temperature affect grain size. Coarse grain
film
Scattered Radiation Scatter
Radiation originating from any source other than

the primary source.
Scattered radiation can seriously effect the Primary radiation is absorbed then re-emitted in
quality of a radiographic image and needs to all directions.
be considered with a view to reducing its Scatter is a major contributor to poor radiographic
effect on the final image quality. contrast and definition.
Scatter may also cause a radiation hazard, dose
rates maybe locally increased by scattering
effects.
Scatter Photoelectric Effect
Three major causes of scatter are: In the photoelectric effect an electron absorbs
Photoelectric effect. all of the energy of the incident X-ray photon.
Compton scattering (incoherent scatter). If the photon energy is sufficient the electron
Pair production. will be completely ejected from the atom and
ionisation will occur.
Other scattering mechanisms exist for Where the incident photon has exactly the
example: Rayleigh scattering (coherent right amount of energy the electron may
scattering). simply jump from one energy level to another.
As the affected atom returns to its base state
low energy X-rays are emitted in all directions.
5
Photoelectric Effect Compton Scattering
In Compton scattering an electron absorbs

part of the energy of the incident X-ray
photon.
In Compton scattering the affected electron is
ejected from the atom and ionisation results.
The photon energy not absorbed by the
electron is deflected from the original path of
the incident photon as an X-ray of lower
energy.
As the affected atom returns to its base state
low energy X-rays are emitted in all directions.
Compton Scattering Pair Production
In pair production a high energy X-ray photon

converts to an electron, positron pair following
interaction with either an orbital electron or an
atomic nucleus.
Pair production occurs only above a threshold
energy of 1.02 MeV.
A positron has a very short life expectancy, it
quickly interacts with an electron causing
annihilation of both particles.
Pair Production Pair Production
Annihilation of an electron, positron pair

produces scattered radiation at a characteristic
photon energy of 0.51 MeV.
The electron produced in the pair production
event has high velocity and causes ionisation
and further production of scattered radiation.
6
Coherent (Rayleigh) Scattering Coherent (Rayleigh) Scattering
In coherent scattering there is no loss of

photon energy.
The incident photon is effectively deflected
from its original path as it interacts with an
atom.
The incident photon is momentarily absorbed
by the atom setting its orbital electrons in
oscillation, then re-emitted without energy
loss but in a new direction.
Coherent scattering affects only very low
energy X-ray photons and is of little
importance in industrial radiography.
Mode of Scatter vs Radiation Energy Scatter
At radiation energies up to approximately Internal scatter: Originating within the

600 eV the photoelectric effect is the dominant specimen.
scattering mechanism. Side scatter: Walls and nearby objects in the
From 600 eV to approximately 6 MeV Compton path of the primary beam.
scattering predominates. Back scatter: Materials located behind the
Above 6 MeV pair production takes over as the film.
dominant effect.
The total amount of scattering as a proportion
of the incident radiation is much greater at
energies below 1 MeV than it is at higher
energies.
Scatter Scatter
Internal scatter originating within the Side scatter from walls and nearby objects in
specimen the path of the primary beam
7
Scatter Checking For Back Scatter
Back scatter materials located behind the film British, European and American codes and
standards describe a method of checking for
back scatter.
A lead letter B is attached to the back of the
film cassette during exposure.
If a light image of the letter B appears in the
radiographic image then excessive back
scatter is present and the radiograph must be
retaken.
A dark image of B does not indicate
backscatter!!!
Checking For Back Scatter Scattering Angle
The angle formed between the direction of the

Light image primary radiation beam and the direction of
of B: travel of the scattered radiation is referred to
Reshoot as scattering angle or angle of scatter.
Angle
Dark image
of
of B:
scatter
Accept
Primary radiation
Scattering Angle Scatter
Scattered radiation with a scattering angle of

less than or equal to 90 is side scatter or
internal scatter.
Scattered radiation with a scattering angle of
greater than 90 is back scatter.
Low scatter High scatter
8
Control of Scatter Inherent Unsharpness
Collimation.
Typical inherent unsharpness for
Lead screens. Pb screens/fine grain film
Protection from back scatter. Radiation source Inherent unsharpness
Beam filtration (X-ray only). (mm)
Blocking. 100 kV X-rays 0.05
Diaphragms. 200 kV X-rays 0.09

300 kV X-rays 0.12
Grids (oscillating).
400 kV X-rays 0.15
Increased beam energy. 1000 kV X-rays 0.18
Iridium 192 0.17
Cobalt 60 0.35
9
Radiographic testing (RT) Part 5: Exposure calculation
welds Covering pages 65-83 of your notes
NDT20
Determining The Correct Exposure

Image Quality Film density
The degree of darkening of a processed film is

Knowing how to determine the correct exposure called optical density.
to achieve the required radiographic film density
is essential for those involved in radiographic Optical density is a logarithmic unit:
testing.

Incorrect calculation can lead to lost time
Where I1 is the incident light intensity and I2 is the
caused by countless reshoots and the transmitted light intensity.
subsequent increase in film costs.
Thus if film density = 2, the incident light intensity is 100 x
greater than the transmitted intensity.
Radiographic Film Density Radiographic Film Density
National codes and standards for radiography of Radiographic films provide good contrast at
welds and castings invariably define a minimum film densities exceeding about 1.5.
level of film density: Radiographs with a density exceeding 3.5 or
ASME V requires a minimum film density of perhaps 4.0 cannot be properly viewed and
1.8 for X-radiography of welds and a minimum assessed on standard radiographic film
of 2.0 for gamma techniques. illuminators.
EN ISO 17636-1 requires a minimum film Film density is easily measured using a
density of 2.0 for class A (basic techniques of densitometer or by comparison with a
X- or gamma radiography of welds) and a calibrated density strip.
minimum of 2.3 for class B (improved
techniques).
1
Radiographic Film Density
Radiographic Film Density
Lack of density Excessive density

Under exposure. Over exposure.
Developer Developer
temperature too temperature too
low. high.
Film density
Exhausted Excessive
developer. development.
Developer too weak. Too strong a
solution.
Factors Affecting Exposure Exposure Charts
Exposure/ mAmin
45
45
Specimen Radiographic
Steel Thickness / mm
40 35
Steel Thickness / mm
40
Material type. Film speed.

35
Thickness. Quality of radiation.
30
30
FFD or SFD.
25 20
20 25
Screens.
Filters.
15
15
Development.
10
10
Density required.
5
5
Intensity of radiation.
Exposure / mAmin
Exposure Calculations Equivalence Factors
Radiographic equivalence chart Equivalence factors vary with radiation quality.

Radiation energy/isotope Equivalence factors are used to convert a
thickness of a given material to a
100keV 150keV 220keV 400keV Ir192 radiographically equivalent thickness of
Material
Steel 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 another material for which exposure times are
known.
Copper 1.5 1.6 1.4 1.4 1.1
Aluminium 0.08 0.12 0.18 - 0.35 For example: Convert 10mm of steel to an
Al alloy 4.5% Cu 0.13 0.16 0.22 - 0.35 equivalent thickness of copper using 100 kV
X-rays:
Titanium 0.5 0.45 0.35 - -
Te = 10 x 1.6 = 16 mm
2
Film Factors Exposure Calculation
Film speed chart

D7 D5 D4
EN ISO
11699-1
ASTM E
1815
AGFA CF KODAK CF FUJI CF FOMA CF Agfa
9.0 6.5 9.0
C1 Special D2 DR 50 7.2 IX 25 R2
CX AA 400 MX12
Kodak
4.2 3.3 4.2
C2 D3 M 100 4.2 IX 50 R3
5
2.6 2.6
C3 Class 1 D4 MX 125 2.8 --- R4
1.6 1.6 1.6
C4 D5 T 200 1.7 IX 80 R5 IX IX IX 80
C5 Class 2 D7
1.0
AA 400 1 IX 100
1.0
R7
1.0 Fuji 150 100
0.7 0.6 0.7
2 2.5 3 3.5 4 5 6 7 8
C6 Class 3 D8 CX 0.7 IX 150 R8
10 12 14
Relative exposure
Exposure Calculation Exposure Calculation
Change of FFD
Change of film: From CX to MX125.
Original exposure: 4 minutes.
Original exposure: 4 minutes. Original FFD: 1000 mm.
Film factor for CX: 0.7 New FFD: 750 mm.
Film factor for MX: 2.8
2.8 750
New Exposure = 4 16 minutes New time = 4 2.25 minutes
0.7 1000
Characteristic Curves
Characteristic Curves
Increasing exposures are applied to successive areas of

a film.
After development the film density is measured.
The density is then plotted against the log of the
relative exposure. Shoulder
The resultant graph is called the Straight line

characteristic curve section
or
sensitometric curve
or
Hurter-Driffield curve (H&D curve) Toe
3
Characteristic Curves Characteristic Curves
Film A is coarse grain and is

faster than Film B and C.
The relationship between
exposure time and Film B is fine grain and its
resultant film density is speed is intermediate
between Film A and C.
non-linear.
Film C is ultra-fine grain and
is the slowest of the three.
The gradient of the film
A fast film requires a shorter
characteristic curve is a exposure time than a slow
measure of film film.
contrast.
Characteristic Curves Characteristic Curves
1.63 - 1.31 = 0.32 Antilog 0.32 = 2.1 2.07 - 1.63 = 0.44 Antilog 0.44 = 2.75 Using D7 film a
Original exposure = 10 mAmin Original exposure = 10 mAmin
New exposure = 2.1 X 10 = 21 mAmin New exposure = 2.75 X 10 = 27.5 density of 2.5
Using D7 film a
mAmin was achieved
density of 1.5 was
achieved using an using an
exposure of exposure of
10 mAmin. 10 mAmin.
What exposure is
required to achieve What exposure is
a density of 2.5? required to
achieve a
density of 2.5
using MX film?
Image Quality Indicators Image Quality Indicators
Image quality indicators (IQIs) Definitions

Radiographic sensitivity is the ability of
or radiographic system to reveal discontinuity of
certain size on the radiographic image.
Penetrameters
It can also be defined as a measure of quality
are used to measure radiographic sensitivity and of radiographic image. True radiographic
the quality of the radiographic technique used. sensitivity is difficult quantity to measure.
4
Definitions EN ISO 19232-1 Wire type IQIs

IQI sensitivity: Is not an exact measure of the
true sensitivity of a radiographic technique.
IQIs are used in radiography to ensure that

the general overall quality of a radiographic
technique is adequate.
EN ISO 19232-2 Step-hole type IQIs ASTM E 1025 Plaque type IQIs
Sensitivity is
measured in terms
2-2T where 2 equals
a plaque thickness of
2T 2T
2 % of the test
specimen thickness
1T
4T 1T and 2T is the hole
XX: IQI thickness thousandths of that is visible on the
an Plaque
T: inch. radiographic image.
thickness.
Image Quality Indicators Determining The Correct Sensitivity
IQI sensitivity is usually expressed as a

percentage of subject thickness.
For single wall single image and double wall
single image techniques the single wall 100 t
Sensitivity =
thickness is generally taken as subject T
thickness.
T: Subject thickness.
For double wall double image techniques the t: Thickness of thinnest discernible wire or step.
double wall thickness is used.
5
Image Quality Indicators
IQIs should wherever possible be placed on

source side.
For the double wall single image technique
this is not possible and IQIs are therefore
placed film side.
Different requirements apply dependent on
whether the IQI is source or film side.
Copyright TWI Ltd
6
Part 6: Techniques
Welds Covering pages 84-96 of your notes
NDT20
Single wall single image (SWSI).

Double wall single image (DWSI). Technique: SWSI
Double wall double image (DWDI). (panoramic)
Required number of
exposures: 1
Location marker
placement: External
IQI placement: External

(followed by comparative exposure)
Radiographic Techniques Radiographic Techniques
Technique: SWSI Technique: SWSI (source

(source internal and offset) external)
Required number of exposures: Required number of exposures:

See EN ISO 17636-1 figures. See EN ISO 17636-1 figures.
Location marker placement: Location marker placement:

External External
IQI placement: External IQI placement: External
1
Radiographic Techniques Radiographic Techniques
Technique: DWDI (elliptical)

Technique: DWSI
Required number of exposures:
See EN ISO 17636-1 figures.
Location marker placement:
Source side preferred
External
IQI placement: Must be source
side
IQI placement: External
Technique: DWDI
(superimposed)


Source side preferred
IQI placement: Must be source

side
Identification Identification
Unique identification. Unique identification.
Pitch markers: Location markers.
2
Radiographic Techniques Localisation
Identification The through thickness position of a defect

Unique identification. cannot be determined by single exposure
Pitch markers. radiography.
IQIs.
A technique called tube shift or source shift
can be used to determine through thickness
position.
Localisation
Using similar
triangles:
Therefore:

=t-
Copyright TWI Ltd
3
Radiographic Testing (RT) Welds Part 7: Interpretation
Radiographic Interpretation Welding Terminology
Butt joints
In order to correctly interpret radiographs it is Square Edged
essential that the interpreter has a good Closed Open
knowledge of the product under examination and
the possible defects that may arise due to various
processes carried out on the test piece. Single Sided Butt
Vee Bevel
Double Sided Butt

Vee Bevel
Welding Terminology Welding Definitions
Fillet joints BS 499-1 NASA

Lap A union between A continuous defect
pieces of metal at surrounded by
Tee faces rendered parent material.
plastic or liquid by
heat pressure or
both.
Corner
1
Welds Welding
An ideal weld must give a strong bond between

materials with the interfaces disappearing A union between pieces of metal at faces rendered plastic or
liquid by heat, pressure or both.
To achieve this: BS 499-1

Possible energy sources
Smooth, flat or matching surfaces. Ultrasonics.
Surfaces shall be free from contaminants. Electron beam.
Metals shall be free from impurities. Friction.
Electric resistance.
Metals shall have identical crystalline structures. Electric arc.
Electric Arc Welding Electric Arc Welding
Electrode Electric discharge produced between cathode

and anode by a potential difference (40-60
volts).
Power Discharge ionises air and produces -ve
supply electrons and +ve ions.
Electrons impact upon anode, ions upon
cathode.
Work piece
Impact of particles converts kinetic energy to
heat (7000oC) and light.
Clamp Amperage controls number of ions and
(earth) electrons, voltage controls their velocity.
Electric Arc Welding Zones in Fusion Welds
Arc welding processes: Parent material or base metal

Manual metal arc. Heat affected zone
Tungsten inert gas. Fusion zone
Metal inert gas.
Submerged arc.
Differences between them:

Methods of shielding the arc.
Consumable or non-consumable electrode.
Degree of automation.
2
Manual Metal Arc Welding Manual Metal Arc (MMA)
Shielding provided Welder controls Consumable

by decomposition of electrode
Arc length.
flux covering. Angle of electrode. Flux
Electrode Speed of travel. Arc coating
consumable.
Amperage settings. Evolved gas
Manual process. shield
Core
Slag
wire
Parent metal
Weld metal
Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG)

Metal Inert Gas (MIG)
Gas nozzle Gas

Non- nozzle
Filler wire consumable Consumable
tungsten electrode (filler wire)
electrode Reel feed
Gas shield Gas

Arc
Arc shield
Parent metal Weld metal Parent metal Weld metal
Submerged Arc Submerged Arc
Flux Consumable
retrieval electrode Reel feed
Slag
Flux feed
Weld metal Parent metal
3
Welding Defects Welding Defects
Cracks
Cracks
Classified by shape Classified by position Four crack types:
Longitudinal HAZ Solidification cracks.
Transverse Centreline
Crater Hydrogen induced cracks.
Branched
Fusion zone Lamellar tearing.
Chevron
Parent metal Reheat cracks.
Solidification cracking
Cracks
Solidification
Occurs during weld solidification process.
Steels with high sulphur content (low ductility
at elevated temperature).
Requires high tensile stress.
Occur longitudinally down centre of weld,
eg crater cracking.
Cracks Hydrogen cracking

Hydrogen Induced
Requires susceptible grain structure, stress
and hydrogen.
Hydrogen enters via welding arc.
Hydrogen source, atmosphere or
contamination of preparation or electrode.
Moisture diffuses out into parent metal on
cooling.
Most likely in HAZ.
4
Cracks Lamellar tearing

Lamellar tearing
Step like appearance.
Occurs in parent material or HAZ.
Only in rolled direction of the parent material. Restraint
Associated with restrained joints subjected to
through thickness stresses on corners, tees High
and fillets. contractional
Requires high sulphur or non-metallic stress
inclusions.
Lamellar tear
Cracks
Incomplete root
Re-heat cracking penetration
Occurs mainly in HAZ of low alloy steels Causes
during post weld heat treatment or service at Too large or small a root
elevated temperatures. gap.
Occurs in areas of high stress and existing Arc too long.
defects. Wrong polarity.
Prevented by toe grinding, elimination of poor Electrode too large for joint
profile material selection and controlled post preparation.
weld heat treatment. Incorrect electrode angle.
Too fast a speed of travel
for current.
Root concavity
Incomplete root fusion
Causes Causes
Too small a root gap.
Arc too long.
Root gap too large.
Wrong polarity.
Electrode too large for joint Insufficient arc
preparation. energy.
Incorrect electrode angle. Excessive back purge
Too fast a speed of travel for TIG.
current.
5
Excess root penetration

Root undercut
Causes
Excessive amperage
during welding of Causes
root. Root gap too large.
Excessive root gap, Excessive arc energy.
poor fit up. Small or no root face.
Excessive root
grinding.
Improper welding
technique.
Cap undercut
Lack of fusion
Causes
Excessive welding current.
Welding speed too high. Causes
Incorrect electrode angle.
Excessive weave. Contaminated weld
Electrode too large. preparation.
Amperage too low.
Amperage too high (welder
increases speed of travel).
Incompletely filled groove

Inter run incompletely filled groove
Lack of side wall Fusion
Causes
Causes
Insufficient weld metal deposited.
Insufficient weld metal
Improper welding technique.
deposited.
Improper welding
technique.
6
Gas pores/porosity: Inclusions: Slag

Causes
Excessive moisture in flux or preparation. Causes
Contaminated preparation. Insufficient cleaning between passes.
Low welding current. Contaminated weld preparation.
Arc length too long. Welding over irregular profile.
Damaged electrode flux. Incorrect welding speed.
Removal of gas shield. Arc length too long.
Burn through
Inclusions: Tungsten
Causes
Causes Excessive amperage during welding of root.
Contamination of weld caused by tungsten Excessive root grinding.
touching weld metal or parent metal during Improper welding technique.
welding using the TIG welding process.
Arc strikes
Spatter
Causes
Causes Electrode straying onto parent metal.
Excessive arc energy. Electrode holder with poor insulation.
Excessive arc length. Poor contact of earth clamp.
Damp electrodes.
Arc blow.
7
Welding Defects Interpretation of Radiographs
Radiographic Details
Source of
Radiation
150 kV X-Ray Film Type Agfa D7
Screens Pb 0.125 mm front & back FFD/SFD 450
Mechanical damage SWSI

Technique Development Standard
TWI Training & Examination Services
Radiographic Interpreter
Chisel Marks Pitting Grinding

Corrosion
Name: Joe Bloggs Date: 01/ 01/ 01
Marks
Reference No. 097-200 Material Carbon Steel
Welding Details
Root Gap 3 Root Face 1.5 Material 10

Thickness
Process SMAW
Joint Prep. Single Vee
Diameter N/A
Film Artefacts Film Artefacts
Crimp marks.
Dirty intensifying screens.
During radiography and film processing Scratched intensifying screens.
images can be formed which are not due to a Static marks.
defect or a change in component thickness. Reticulation.
Such images are referred to as artefacts. Solarisation.
Chemical or water splashes.
Diffraction mottling.
Drying marks.
Streakiness.
Film crimped Film crimped

before exposure after exposure
8
Scratched
intensifying
Dirty
screens
intensifying
screens May appear as either light
or dark images often
difficult to identify.
Static Reticulation
marks
Release of static electricity Mottled effect caused by

due to poor film handling extreme temperature
and dry ambient change during
conditions. processing.
Solarisation
Solarisation is image reversal due to extreme
over exposure or exposure to light during
development.
Water/developer
splashes
(Before development)
9
Diffraction
Fixer/stop-bath
mottling
splashes
(Before development) Mottled effect
sometimes seen in x-
radiography of large
grained materials.
Drying marks
Dark marks caused by uneven drying.
Streakiness
caused by
poor agitation
during development
Interpretation of Radiographs Interpretation of Radiographs
Film Density (a) Weld

1.4 (b) Parent
Material
2.7
IQI Type
None No. of wires or steps visible
N/ A
Sensitivity calculation in full
N/ A
The film density is less than 2.0. No IQI present. No

identification or location markers present. A reshoot is
required.
10
TWI Training & Examination Services
Radiographic Interpreter
Name: Joe Bloggs Date: 01/ 01/ 01

Reference No. 097-201 Material Carbon Steel
Welding Details
Root Gap 3 Root Face 1.5 Material 8

Thickness
Process SMAW
Joint Prep. Single Vee
Diameter 324 mm
Radiographic Details
1. Crater crack, 85 from datum 3 long. Source of

Radiation
180 kV X-Ray Film Type Agfa D7
2. Tool mark, 90 from datum.

Screens Pb 0.125 mm front & back FFD/SFD 400
Technique DWSI Development Standard

3. Undercut, 125 from datum, 35 long (intermittent).
4. Wormholes and porosity, 145 from datum, 30 long.
Film Density (a) Weld

1.2 (b) Parent
Material
1.7
IQI Type
10ISO16 No. of wires or steps visible
2
Sensitivity calculation in full
0.32/ 8 x 100 = 4%
The film density is less than 2.0. The sensitivity is greater than
2%. No identification or location markers present. The IQI is
cannot be properly identified. A reshoot is required.
1. Suspected LORF, difficult to interpret due to thickness

change, 0-75mm.
2. Porosity, Datum + 120, 45mm long. 1. Transverse crack probably caused by Cu pick-up.
3. Lack of penetration, 2 sections 110-130mm and 145- 2. Scattered pores/wormholes and small slag inclusions.
168mm. 3. Intermittent minor cap undercut.
4. Undercut (cap), intermittent full length, both weld
toes.
11
1. Linear porosity indicating lack of fusion.

1. Tungsten Inclusion.
1. Lack of fusion. 1. Linear slag inclusions indicating lack of fusion.

2. Cap undercut. 2. Weld spatter.
3. Dense metal inclusions.
1. Lack of root penetration.

2. Burn through.
3. Undercut.
4. Uneven penetration bordering excessive, full
length.
1. Crack, probably solidification crack.
12
Radiographic testing (RT) Welds Part 8: Safety
Radiation Safety Radiation Safety
Principles
Justification
Due to the hazardous nature of ionising radiation Optimisation ALARA
it is important to understand the basic principles
Limitation
of radiation safety and have an understanding of
the current legislation regarding radiation
protection.
Units of dose
Units of dose
Quality factor
Gray
The degree of biological damage caused by a
The amount of radiation that will deposit one joule quantity of radiation.
of energy/kg of absorber.
1
Quality factors
X or gamma rays: QF = 1.
Beta particles: QF > 1.
Units of dose Alpha particles: QF = 20.
Sievert: Radiobiological effectiveness, Penetrating power

Grays x QF. X or gamma: 600mm of steel.
Beta particles: Sheet of paper/layer of skin.
Alpha particles: Less than 1cm of air.
Safe working
Safe working
Controlled area: Any area in which the dose will Supervised area: Any area in which the
exceed 3/10th annual dose for employees aged dose rate will exceed 1/3rd that of
18 or over. controlled area.
7.5mSvh-1: Maximum dose rate at the barrier.
Shielding Shielding: Half and Tenth Value layers
t
I I x2
0 HVL
The intensity of radiation is reduced by absorption
as is passes through matter.
t
I I x 10
Half value layer 0 TVL
The thickness of any material that will reduce the
radiation intensity to one half its initial value.
2
Calculating safe distances Calculating safe distances
D1 2 R1 D2 2 R2 D 1 2 R 1 D 2 R 2
2
D1 2 R1
D1: Original distance.
D2: Required distance.
R1: Original dose rate. D2
R2: Required dose rate. R2
Calculating safe distances Calculating safe distances: For 20 Ci of Co60
D 1 2
R1
D2
R2 D2
1 13mGy / hr / Ci 20Ci 10001
7.5 Sv/hr
Dose rate at 1m also called output.
Co 60 13 mGy/hr/Ci. Safe distance = 186.2m
Ir 192 4.8 mGy/hr/Ci.
Yb 169 1.25 mGy/hr/Ci.
Safe distances
Personnel
Controlled area: Any area in which the dose
Radiation protection advisor (RPA). is likely to exceed 6mSv/yr or 3/10th annual
Radiation protection supervisor (RPS). dose for employees 18+.
Classified persons.
Trainee. 7.5mSvh-1: Maximum dose rate at the
Others. barrier.
3
Radiation Safety Controlled Area
You are required to follow special

procedures to restrict exposure/prevent
Safe distances accidents
During site radiography: Around the
Supervised area: Any area in which the dose is radiography position, wherever the dose rate
likely to exceed 1mSv/yr or 1/10th of annual dose is 7.5Sv/h or more.
for employees 18+. Inside an x or gamma radiography compound.
Inside a source store.
Controlled area may be set up following an
incident.
Controlled Areas Supervised Area
Access is restricted to There are no special procedures to

Classified workers. follow but the area is kept under
Others working under a written arrangement. review by monitoring to pick up any
change in conditions
Local rules.
Radiation protection supervisor. Some areas in a radiographic installation:
Where dose rates are higher than background.
Boundary is physically demarcated.
Around enclosures where gamma sources are used.
Warning notices.
Routine radiation monitoring.
Personal dosimetry must be used.
Supervised Area Local Rules
Boundaries are not physically demarcated.

Warning signs not always legally required but
sometimes useful. Written document describing how to:
No restriction on access. Carry out the work in accordance with the legislation.
Routine monitoring is carried out. Restrict exposure.
Prevent accidents.
Area is described in the local rules.
4
Local Rules Radiation Safety
Read and work in accordance with your

employers local rules Monitoring
Local rules will always include: Ionisation chamber.

Name and contact details of the RPS. Geiger muller tube.
The dose investigation level. Scintillation counter.
Description of any controlled or supervised Film badge.
areas. Thermo-luminescent dosimeter (TLD).
Written arrangements for non classified people
working in a controlled area. Quartz fibre electroscope.
Summary of the contingency plan. Audible monitors (personal monitor).
Survey Meters Survey Meters
Survey meters produce a reading of the current For the detection of X or gamma radiation geiger
dose rate, usually in mSv/h or mSv/h. counters are usually used.
Geiger counters are effectively high voltage
Three types are used in industrial radiography: ionisation chambers.
They are designed to produce pulses of current
1. Geiger counters. when exposed to radiation.
2. Ionisation chambers. The number of pulses produced can be related to
3. Scintillation counters. the radiation dose rate.
Geiger counters are more compact and more
durable than standard ionisation chambers and
have a wider measurement range.
Survey Meters Survey Meters
Ionisation Chamber Scintillation counters are extremely sensitive to low

When the gas is levels of radiation.
ionised a They are useful for checking for contamination.
current can flow A scintillation counter uses a phosphor which flashes
through the in the light spectrum when exposed to ionising
chamber. radiation.
The magnitude
of the current is Flashes of light are detected by a photomultiplier
related to the tube.
AMMETER Different phosphors are used for different
intensity of
ionising applications: eg sodium iodide for X and gamma ray
radiation. detection or zinc sulphide for alpha particles.
5
Radiation Dose Monitoring
Quartz fibre electroscopes, film badges,

thermo-luminescent dosimeters and some
types of personal monitor are all devices for
measuring total radiation dose over a period
of time.
TLDs use a lithium fluoride (LiF) phospor.
When exposed to ionising radiation LiF stores
energy which is later released as flashes of
light when the phosphor is heated.
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Radiographic Testing (RT) - Welds

Training and Examination Services

1 Properties of Penetrating Radiation

EN ISO 1330-1 Non Destructive Testing Terminology

EN ISO 1330-2 Non Destructive Testing Terminology

EN ISO 1330-3 Non Destructive Testing Terminology

EN ISO 5579 Non-destructive testing General principles for radiographic

EN ISO 19232-1 Non-destructive testing Image quality of radiographs

EN ISO 19232-2 Non-destructive testing Image quality of radiographs

EN ISO 19232-3 Non-destructive testing Image quality of radiographs

EN ISO 19232-4 Non-destructive testing Image quality of radiographs

EN ISO 19232-5 Non-destructive testing Image quality of radiographs

EN ISO 11699-1 Non-destructive testing Industrial radiographic film

EN ISO 11699-2 Non-destructive testing Industrial radiographic film

EN ISO 17636-1 Non-destructive testing of welds Radiographic testing. Part 1: X-

BS 4094-1 Recommendation for Data on shielding from ionizing radiation

BS 4094-2 Recommendation for Data on shielding from ionizing radiation

EN ISO 10675-1 Non-destructive testing of welds Part 1: Evaluation of welded

EN 25580 Minimum requirements for industrial radiographic illuminators

BS M 34 Method of preparation and use of radiographic techniques

BS M 38 Guide to compilation of instructions and reports for the in-

EN 4179 Aerospace series. Qualification and approval of personnel for

EN ISO 9712 Non-destructive testing. Qualification and certification of

Mathematics and Formulae in NDT. Edited by Dr. R Halmshaw.

Hazard Data Sheets

Trade name of the product; eg Magnaglo, Ardrox, etc.

EH40 Occupational Exposure Conditions

Electrical Hazards include the following

Breathing fume, dust, gas or mist.

Testing materials shall be used in accordance with manufacturers instructions. National

Cautions and Warnings

Visual testing (VT).

Visual testing (VT)

Penetrant testing (PT)

Applicable to non-ferromagnetics Only detects defects open to the surface

Batch testing Not applicable to porous materials

Applicable to small parts with complex Temperature dependent

Simple, cheap, easy to interpret Cannot retest indefinitely

Sensitivity Compatibility of chemicals

History of penetrant testing

Many of these early developments were carried out by

Will detect some sub-surface defects Ferromagnetic materials only

Rapid and simple to understand Requirement to test in two directions

Pre-cleaning not as critical as with dye Demagnetisation may be required

Will work through thin coatings Oddly-shaped parts difficult to test

Cheap equipment Not suited to batch testing

Direct test method Can damage the component under test

History of magnetic particle testing

Introduction to electromagnetic testing

Developments in electromagnetic induction tests

Eddy current testing (ET)

Sensitive to surface defects Very susceptible to permeability changes

Can detect through several layers Only on conductive materials

Can be automated Signal interpretation required

Little pre-cleaning required No permanent record (unless automated)

Continued advances in research and development, advanced electronics and digital

Ultrasonic testing (UT)

Sensitive to cracks at various orientations No permanent record (unless automated)

Portability Not easily applied to complex geometries

Safety Unsuited to coarse grained materials

Able to penetrate thick sections Reliant upon defect orientation

Measures depth and through-wall extent

History of ultrasonic testing