Electrical Power and Energy Systems 50 (2013) 924

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Electrical Power and Energy Systems

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijepes

Optimized load-frequency simulation in restructured power system

with Redox Flow Batteries and Interline Power Flow Controller
I.A. Chidambaram , B. Paramasivam
Department of Electrical Engineering, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar, Tamilnadu 608 002, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This paper proposes the Load Frequency Control (LFC) of an interconnected two-area multiple-unit ther-
Received 2 November 2012 mal reheat power system in a restructured environment. In the restructured scenario, various kinds of
Received in revised form 2 January 2013 apparatus with large capacity and fast power consumption may cause a series problem of frequency
Accepted 2 February 2013
oscillations. The oscillation of system frequency may sustain and grow to cause a series frequency
Available online 19 March 2013
stability problem if no adequate damping is available. Moreover, the larger amount of the steam stored
in steam chest and reheater of thermal power plant delays the control valve motion to increase the
Keywords:
mechanical power output after the load perturbation. So in order to stabilize the system, impacts of Inter-
Bacterial Foraging Optimization
Control Performance Standards
line Power Flow Controller (IPFC) in series with tie-line and Redox Flow Batteries (RFB) at the terminal of
Restructured power system area 1 have been investigated. The Bacterial Foraging Optimization (BFO) algorithm is used to optimize
Interline Power Flow Controller the integral gains of the Load-frequency Controller under different transactions in the competitive
Load-Frequency Control electricity market. Compliance with North American Electric Reliability Council (NERC) standards for
Redox Flow Batteries Load Frequency Control has also been established in this work. Simulation studies reveal that the RFB
coordinated with IPFC units for LFC loop has greater potential for improving the systems dynamic
performance.
2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
The electric power business at present is largely in the hands of
Vertically Integrated Utilities (VIU) which own generation, trans-
mission and distribution systems that supply power to the cus-
tomer at regulated rates. The VIU is usually interconnected to
other VIU is almost always for the transmissions of power and
denoted as tie-line. Thus, electric power can be bought and sold
between VIU along these tie-lines and moreover, such interconnec-
tion provides greater reliability. The major change that has hap-
pened is the emergence of Independent Power Producer (IPP)
that can sell power to VIU. Given the present situation, it is gener-
ally agreed that the rst step in deregulation will be to separate the
generation of power from the transmission and distribution, thus
putting all the generation on the same footing as the IPP. In an
interconnected power system, a sudden load perturbation in any
area causes the deviation of frequencies of all the areas and also
in the tie-line powers. This has to be corrected to ensure the gen-
eration and distribution of electric power with good quality. This is
achieved by Load Frequency Control, also known as Automatic
Generation Control (AGC). The main objectives of LFC [1,2] are to
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: driacdm@yahoo.com (I.A. Chidambaram), bpssivam@gmail.
com (B. Paramasivam).
be maintained the desired megawatt output and the nominal fre-
quency in an interconnected power system besides maintaining
the net interchange of power between control areas at predeter-
mined values. With the restructuring of electric utilities, Load Fre-
quency Control requirements should be expanded to include the
planning functions necessary to ensure the resources needed for
LFC implementation are within the functional requirements. So
most of the methods that may be proposed must have a good abil-
ity to track the contracted or non-contracted demands and can be
used in a practical environment. A lot of studies have been made
about LFC in a deregulated environment over last decades. These
studies try to modify the conventional LFC system to take into ac-
count the effect of bilateral contracts on the dynamics [3] and im-
prove the dynamical transient response of the system under
competitive conditions [47].
This paper proposes a control scheme that ensures reliability
and quality of power supply, with minimum transient deviations
and ensures zero steady state error. The importance of decentral-
ized controllers for multi area load-frequency control system,
where in, each area controller uses only the local states for feed-
back, is well known. The stabilization of frequency oscillations in
an interconnected power system becomes challenging when
implements in the future competitive environment. So advanced
economic, high efciency and improved control schemes [8,9] are
required to ensure the power system reliability. The conventional

0142-0615/$ - see front matter 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijepes.2013.02.004
10 I.A. Chidambaram, B. Paramasivam / Electrical Power and Energy Systems 50 (2013) 924
load-frequency controller may no longer be able to attenuate the
large frequency oscillation due to the slow response of the gover-
nor [10]. The recent advances in power electronics have led to
the development of the Flexible Alternating Current Transmission
Systems (FACTS). These FACTS devices are capable of controlling
the network condition in a very fast manner [11] and because of
this reason the usage of FACTS devices are more apt to improve
the stability of power system. Several FACTS devices, such as Thy-
ristor Controlled Series Capacitor (TCSC), STATic synchronous
COMpensator (STATCOM), Thyristor Controlled Phase Shifter
(TCPS), Static Synchronous Series Compensator (SSSC), Unied
Power Flow Controller (UPFC), Interline Power Flow Controller
(IPFC), have been developed in recent decades [12]. An Interline
Power Flow Controller consists of a set of converters that are con-
nected in series with different transmissions lines which can effec-
tively manage the power ow control in multi line systems. The
schematic diagram of IPFC is illustrated in Fig. 1. The UPFC and IPFC
consists at least two converters. It is found that, in the past, much
effort has been made in the modeling of the UPFC to compensate a
single transmission line for power ow analysis [1315], whereas
the IPFC is conceived for the compensation and power ow man-
agement of multi-line transmission system. Therefore, UPFC is
not attractive for compensating multi-line systems from economi-
cal point of view [16]. Interline Power Flow Controller not only can
compensate each transmission line separately but also can com-
pensate all of them at the same time. It employs a number of Volt-
age Source Converters (VSC) linked at the same DC terminal; each
of them can provide series compensation for its own line [17]. In
this way, the power optimization of the overall system can be ob-
tain in the form of appropriate power transfer through the com-
mon DC link from over-loaded lines to under-loaded lines [18]. A
simple model of IPFC with optimal power ow control method to
solve overload problem and the power ow balance for the mini-
mum cost [19] has been proposed.
In this paper IPFC is being install in the tie-line between any
interconnected areas, which is used to stabilize the area frequency
oscillations by high speed control of tie-line power through the
interconnections. In addition it can also be expected that the high
speed control of IPFC can be coordinated with slow speed control
of governor system for enhancing stabilization of area frequency
oscillations effectively. Under these situations, the governor
system may no longer be able to absorb the frequency uctuations.
In order to compensate for sudden load changes, an active power
source with fast response namely Redox Flow Batteries are
expected as the most effective counter measure. The Redox Flow
Batteries will, in addition to load leveling, a function convention-
ally assigned to them, have a wide range of applications such as
power quality maintenance for decentralized power supplies. The
Redox Flow Batteries are the excellent short-time overload com-
pensator and the response characteristics possessed in the partic-
ular [20,21]. The effect of generation control and the absorption
of power uctuation required for power quality maintenance are
Fig. 1. Schematic diagram IPFC.
expected. However, it will be difcult to locate the placement of
RFB alone in every possible area in the interconnected system
due to the economical reasons. Therefore RFB coordinated with
IPFC are capable of controlling the network conditions in a very fast
and economical manner.
Now-a-days the complexities in the power system are being
solved with the use of Evolutionary Computation (EC) such as Dif-
ferential Evolution (DE) [22], Genetic Algorithms (GA), Practical
Swarm Optimizations (PSO) [23], and Ant Colony Optimization
(ACO) [24], which are some of the heuristic techniques having
immense capability of determining global optimum. Classical
approach based optimization for controller gains is a trial and error
method and extremely time consuming when several parameters
have to be optimized simultaneously and provides suboptimal re-
sult [23,24]. Some authors have been applied GA to optimize the
controllers gain more effectively and efciently than the classical
approach. But the premature convergence of GA degrades its
search capability. Recent research has brought out some decien-
cies in using GA, PSO based techniques [25,26]. The Bacterial For-
aging Optimization [BFO] mimics how bacteria forage over a
landscape of nutrients to perform parallel non-gradient optimiza-
tion [27]. The BFO algorithm is a computational intelligence based
technique that is not affected larger by the size and non-linearity of
the problem and can be convergence to the optimal solution in
many problems where most analytical methods fail to converge.
This more recent and powerful evolutionary computational tech-
nique BFO [28] is found to be user friendly and is adopted for
simultaneous optimization of several parameters for both primary
and secondary control loops of the governor. In this study, BFO
algorithm is used to optimizing the integral controller gains for
the load frequency control of a two-area thermal power system
without and with IPFC and RFB. To obtain the best convergence
performance, a cost function is derived by using the tie-line power
and frequency deviations of the control areas and their rates of
changes according to time integral. The main function of LFC is
to regulate a signal called Area Control Error (ACE), which accounts
for error in the frequency as well as the errors in the interchange
power with neighboring areas. Conventional Load Frequency Con-
trol uses a feedback signal that is either based on the Integral of
ACE or is based on ACE and it is Integral. These feedback signals
are used to maneuver the turbine governor set points of the gener-
ators so that the generated power follows the load uctuations.
However, continuously tracking load uctuations denitely causes
wear and tear on governors equipment, shortens their lifetime,
and thus requires replacing them, which can be very costly.
Control Performance Criteria (CPC) has been formerly used to
evaluate AGC performance. The Control Performance Standard
(CPS) is specically designed to comply with the performance stan-
dards imposed by the North American Electric Reliability Council
(NERC) for equitable operation of an interconnected system. Con-
trol Performance Standard 1 (CPS1) and Control Performance
Standard 2 (CPS2) are derived from rigorous theoretical basis.
CPS1 is a measurement to asses the performance of frequency con-
trol in each area. CPS2 is designed to restrain the ACE 10-min aver-
age value and in doing so provides a means to limit excessive
unscheduled power ows that could results from large ACE. This
paper presents a novel load frequency controller which is being
manipulated by Fuzzy logic system whose rules are designed to re-
duce wear and tear of the equipment and assures the NERCs con-
trol performance standards [29,30], CPS1 and CPS2. Considering
the power system Load Frequency Control, this paper establishes
a fuzzy logic controller to predict the future frequency of the target
object, thus forecasting the optimized controller is designed, which
follows the Control Performance Standards through the fuzzy logic
rules. This control structure is a decentralized, integral type con-
troller whose parameter is automatically tuned using Bacterial For-
 I.A. Chidambaram, B. Paramasivam / Electrical Power and Energy Systems 50 (2013) 924 11

aging Optimization algorithm. This control parameter is reduced to

diminish high frequency movement of the speed governors equip-
ment when the control area has high compliance with NERCs stan-
dards. When the compliance is low, the control parameter is raised
to the normal value. This paper adopts CPS1 and CPS2 as input to
the fuzzy logic controller and output gain of fuzzy controller ad-
justs the optimum control parameter gain (ki) depending up on
NERCs compliance. The simulation results show that with the
inclusion of IPFC and RFB units improves the dynamic performance
of the system by optimally tunning the controller.
Fig. 3. Power injection model of IPFC.

2. Operating principle of Interline Power Flow Controller

X
Q inj;i  V i Vsein bin coshi  hsein 2
In its general form, the inter line power ow controller employs
nj;k
a number of dc-to-ac converters each providing series compensa-
tion for a different line. In other words, the Interline Power Flow Pinj;n V n Vsein bin sinhn  hsein 3
Controller comprises a number of Static Synchronous Series Com-
Q inj;n V n Vsein bin coshn  hsein 4
pensators. The simplest IPFC consists of two back-to-back dc-to-
ac converters, which are connected in series with two transmission where Vx = Vx\hx (x = i, j and k)
lines through series coupling transformers and the dc terminals of
Vsein Vsein \hsein n j; k
the converters are connected together via a common dc link as
shown in Fig. 1. With this Interline Power Flow Controller, in addi- The equivalent power injection model of an IPFC is shown in Fig. 3.
tion to providing series reactive compensation, any converter can As the Interline Power Flow Controller neither absorbs nor injects
be controlled to supply real power to the common dc link from the active power with respect to the ac system; the active power ex-
its own transmission line [31]. It can effectively manage the power change between the converters via the dc link is zero, i.e.
ow via multi-line transmission system by the injection of proper  
series voltages in transmission lines with the aid of its inverters. Re Vseij Iji Vseik Iki 0 5

where the superscript denotes the complex conjugate. If the series

2.1. Power injection model of Interline Power Flow Controller resistances of the transformers are neglected, then Eq. (5) can be
written as
In this section, a mathematical model for IPFC is obtained with X
the power injection model [32] which is helpful in understanding Pinj;m 0 6
the impact of the IPFC in the power system during the steady state. mi;j;k

Furthermore, the IPFC model can easily be incorporated in the Normally in the steady state operation, the IPFC is used to control
power ow model. Usually, in the steady state analysis of power the active and reactive power ows in the transmission lines in
systems, the Voltage Source Converter may be represented as a which it is placed. The active and reactive power ow control con-
synchronous voltage source injecting an almost sinusoidal voltage straints are
with controllable magnitude and angle. Based on this, the equiva-
lent circuit of IPFC is developed and shown in Fig. 2. Where Vi, Vj Pni  Pspec
ni 0 7
and VK are the complex bus voltages at the buses i, j and k respec- Q ni  Q spec
ni 0 8
tively, Vsein is the complex controllable series injected voltage
source, and Zsein (n = j, k) is the series coupling transformer imped- where n j; k; Pspec Q spec
are the specied active and reactive power
ni ni
ance. The active and reactive power injections at each bus can be ow control references respectively, and
easily calculated by representing IPFC as current source. For the  
Pni Re V n Ini 9
sake of simplicity, the resistance of the transmission lines and  
the series coupling transformers are neglected. The power injec-
Q ni Im V n Ini 10
tions at buses are summarized as Thus, the power balance equations are as follows:
X
Pinj;i V i Vsein bin sinhi  hsein 1 Pgm Pinj;m  Plm Pline;m 0 11
nj;k
Q gm Q inj;m  Q lm Q line;m 0 12
where Pgm and Qgm are generation active and reactive powers, Plm
and Qlm are load active and reactive powers. Pline,m, Qline,m are con-
ventional transmitted active and reactive powers at the bus m = i,
j and k.

3. Operating principle of Redox Flow Batteries

The conguration of Redox Flow Battery is shown in Fig. 4. A

Fig. 2. Equivalent circuit of IPFC.
sulpuric acid solution containing vanadium ions is used as the po-
sitive and negative electrolytes, which are stored in respective
tanks and circulated to battery cell. The reactions that occur in
the battery cell during charging and discharging can be express
simply with the following equations [20].
12 I.A. Chidambaram, B. Paramasivam / Electrical Power and Energy Systems 50 (2013) 924

at the earliest, after a load disturbance so that the RFB unit is ready
to act for the next load disturbance. The Redox Flow Batteries are
capable of ensuring a very fast response and therefore, hunting
due to a delay in response does not occur. For this reason, the
DFi is being used directly as the command value for LFC to control
the output of RFB.

4. System modeling for control design

The Redox Flow Battery and Interline Power Flow Controller are
found to be superior to the governor system in terms of the faster
response against the frequency uctuations. They are charged with
suppressing the peak value of frequency deviations quickly against
the sudden load change, subsequently the input to the governor
system are updated with the required input for the compensation
of the steady state error of the frequency deviations. Fig. 5 shows
the linearized reduction model for the control design of RFB and
IPFC. Where the dynamics of governor systems are eliminated by
setting the mechanical inputs to be constant since the response
Fig. 4. Principles of a Redox Flow Battery.
of governor is much slower than that of RFB or IPFC. The Redox
Flow Battery is modeled as an active power source for area 1 with
a time constant TRFB. The IPFC is modeled as a tie line power ow
controller with a time constant TIPFC. The tie-line power modulated
13
by the IPFC ows into both areas simultaneously with different
signs (+ and ) since the responses of power control by the RFB
and by the IPFC are sufciently fast compared to the dynamics of
14 the frequency deviations, the time constants TRFB and TIPFC are re-
garded as 0 sec[10] for the control design. Then the state equation
The Redox Flow Batteries offer the following features and are of the system represented by Fig. 5 becomes.
suitable for high capacity systems that differ from conventional 2 3 2 k
3
2 3
2k k
3
power storage batteries. The battery reaction only involves a DF_ 1  T1p1  Tp1 0 DF 1
p1
T p1
 Tp1 " #
7 6 7 6 7 DPRFB
p1 p1
6
change in the valence of a vanadium ion in the electrolyte. There 6 DP_ T12 7 6
6 2 p T 0 2 p T
76
74 D P
7 6
5 6 0 0
7
7
4 5 4 12 12
5
T12
4 5 DP IPFC
are none of the factors which reduce the battery service life seen a12 kp2 a k
in other batteries that use a solid active substance, such as loss DF_ 2 0 T p2
 1
T p2
DF 2 0 12T p2p2
are electro depositions of the active substance. Further more, oper- 15
ation at normal temperatures ensure less deterioration of the bat-
tery materials due to temperature. The system congurations are Here, from the physical view point it is noted that the IPFC located
such that battery output (cell section) and battery capacity (tank between two areas is effective to stabilize the inter-area oscillation
section) can be separated, therefore the layout of the sections mode only, and then the RFB which is capable of supplying the en-
can be altered according to the place of installation. For example, ergy into the power system should be suitable for the control of the
the tank can be placed underground. So the output of the RFB units inertia mode.
can easily be modied according to the required output and capac-
ity. The charged electrolyte is stored in separate positive and neg- 4.1. Control design of Redox Flow Batteries
ative tanks when the battery has been charged, therefore no self-
discharge occurs during prolonged stoppage nor is auxiliary power The design process starts from the reduction of two area system
required during stoppage. Furthermore, start-up after prolonged into single area which represents the Inertia centre mode of the
stoppage requires only starting of the pump, thus making start- overall system. The controller of RFB is designed in the equivalent
up possible in only a few minutes. The electrolyte (i.e., the active one area system to reduce the frequency deviation of inertia cen-
substance) is sent to the each battery cell from the same tank, tre. The equivalent system is derived by assuming the synchroniz-
therefore the charging state of each battery cell is the same, elim- ing coefcient T12 to be large. From the state equation of DP_ T12 in
inating the need for special operation such as uniform charging. So Eq. (15)
that, maintenance is also easy because the electrolyte is relatively
safe and the operating are at normal temperature and assures DP_ T12
DF 1  DF 2 16
superior environmental safety. Waste vanadium from generating 2pT 12
stations can be used so it can be superior recyclability. Further-
more, the vanadium in the electrolyte can be used semi- Setting the value of T12 in Eq. (16) to be innity yields DF1 = DF2.
T
permanently. Next, by multiplying state equation of DF_ 1 and DF_ 2 in (15) by p1 kp1
The RFB units are incorporated in the power system to suppress T p2
and respectively, then
the load frequency control problem and to ensure an improved a12 kp2

power quality. With the excellent short-time overload output re-

T p1 _ 1
sponse characteristics possessed by RFB in particular [21], the ef- DF 1  DF 1  DPT12  DPIPFC DPRFB 17
kp1 kp1
fects of generation control and the absorption of power
uctuation needed for power quality maintenance are well estab- T p2 1
DF_ 2 DF 2 DPT12 DPIPFC 18
lished with RFB units. The set value of the RFB has to be restored a12 kp2 kp2 a12
 I.A. Chidambaram, B. Paramasivam / Electrical Power and Energy Systems 50 (2013) 924 13

Fig. 5. Linearized reduction model for the control design.

By summing Eqs. (17) and (18) and using the above relation 4.2. Control design of Interline Power Flow Controller
DF1 = DF2 = DF
  The controller for the IPFC is design to enhance the damping of
 k1p1  kp21a12 1 the inter-area mode. In order to extract the inter-area mode from
DF_ T  DF   DP RFB C DPD 19
p1

T p2 T p1

T p2 the system Eq. (15), the concept of overlapping decompositions
kp1 kp2 a12 kp1 kp2 a12
is applied. First, the state variables of the system Eq. (15) are clas-
The load change in this system DPD is additionally considered, sied into three groups, i.e. x1 = [DF1], x2 = [DPT12], x3 = [DF2]. next,
where C is constant, here the control DPRFB = KRFB DF is applied the system Eq. (15) is decomposed into two decoupled subsystems.
then. Where the state variable DPT12 is duplicated included in both sub-
systems, which is the reason that this process is called overlapping
C decompositions. Then, one subsystem which preserves the inter-
DF DP D 20
S A K RFB B area mode is represented by
where
" # " Kp1
#
" Kp1 #
DF_ 1  T1p1 DF 1
   T p1
T p1 DPIPFC  23
1 1 T p1 T p2 1 DP_ T12 2pT 12 0 DPT12 0
A   ; B hT i
kp1 kp2 a12 kp1 kp2 a12 p1 T
K p2p2a12
K p1
It has been proved that the stability of original system is guaranteed
Since the control purpose of RFB is to suppress the deviation of DF by stabilizing every subsystem. Therefore the control scheme of IPFC
quickly against the sudden change of DPD, the percent reduction of is designed to enhance the stability of the system Eq. (23) by eigen-
the nal value after applying a step change DPD can be given as a value assignment method. Here let the conjugate eigenvalue pair of
control specication. In Eq. (20) the nal values with KRFB = 0 and the system Eq. (23) be a jb, which corresponds to the inter-area
with KRFB 0 are C/A and C/(A + KRFBB) respectively therefore the mode. The control purpose of the IPFC is to damp the peak value of
percent reduction is represented by frequency deviation in area 1 after a sudden change in the load de-
mand. Since the system Eq. (23) is the second order oscillation sys-
C=A K RFB B=C=A R=100 21 tem, the percentage overshoot Mp (new) can be specied for the
control design. Mp (new) is given as a function of the damping ratio by
For a given value of speed regulation coefcient (R), the control gain
p
of RFB is calculated as 1d2
Mp new epd= 24
A
K RFB 100  R 22 The real and imaginary parts of eigenvalue after the control are ex-
BR pressed by
14 I.A. Chidambaram, B. Paramasivam / Electrical Power and Energy Systems 50 (2013) 924

as dwn 25 GENCO4, DISCO3, DISCO4 be in area 2 as shown in Fig. 6. The

p corresponding DPM is given as follows:
bs wn 1  d2 26
DISCO
where wn is the undamped natural frequency, by specifying Mp and 2 3 G
assuming bs = b, the desired pair of eigenvalue is xed. As a result, cpf11 cpf12 cpf13 cpf14
6 cpf E
the eigenvalue assignment method derives to feed back scheme as DPM 6 21 cpf22 cpf23 cpf24 7
7 30
6 7 N
4 cpf31 cpf32 cpf33 cpf34 5
DPIPFC k1 DF 1  k2 DP T12 27 C
cpf41 cpf42 cpf43 cpf44
The characteristic polynomial of the system Eq. (23) with state feed- O
back, which is given by where cpf represents Contract Participation Factor and is like sig-
jkI  A  BKj 0 28 nals that carry information as to which the GENCO has to follow the
load demanded the DISCO. The linearized model of an intercon-
where state feedback gain matrix K = [k1, k2]. The desired character- nected two-area reheat thermal power system in deregulated envi-
istic polynomial from the specied eigenvalue (l1, l2) is given by ronment is shown in Fig. 7 after incorporating IPFC and RFB units.
k  l1 k  l2 0 29 The actual and scheduled steady state power ow through the
tie-line are given as
By equating the coefcients of Eqs. (28) and (29) the elements k1, k2 X
2 X
4 X
4 X
2
of state feedback gain matrix K are obtained. DPtie12;scheduled cpfij DPLj  cpfij DPLj 31
i1 j3 i3 j1

5. Linearized model of two-area interconnected power system DPtie12;actual 2pT 12 =sDF 1  DF 2 32

in restructured scenario
And at any given time, the tie-line power error DPtie12, error is de-
ned as
In the restructured competitive environment of power system,
the Vertically Integrated Utility (VIU) no longer exists. The deregu- DPtie12;error DPtie12;actual  DP tie12;scheduled 33
lated system consists of GENCOs, DISCOs, and TRANSmissions
The error signal is used to generate the respective ACE signals as in
COmpanies (TRANSCOs) and Independent System Operator (ISO).
the traditional scenario [6]
GENCOs which will compete in a free market to sell the electricity
they produce. It can be assumed that the retail customer will ACE1 b1 DF 1 DPtie12;error 34
continue for some time to buy from the local distribution company. ACE2 b2 DF 2 DPtie21;error 35
Such distribution companies have been designated as DISCOs. The
entities that will wheel this power between GENCOs and DISCOs For two area system as shown in Fig. 6, the contracted power sup-
have been designated as TRANSCOs. Although it is conceptually plied by ith GENCO is given as
clean to have separate functionalities for the GENCOs, TRANSCOs X
DISCO4

and DISCOs, in reality there will exist companies with combined DPg i cpfij DPLj 36
or partial responsibilities. With the emergence of the distinct iden- j1

tities of GENCOs, TRANSCOs, DISCOs and the ISO, many of the
ancillary services of a VIU will have a different role to play and
hence have to be modeled differently. Among these ancillary ser-
vices one of the most important services to be enhanced the Load
Frequency Control. The LFC in a deregulated electricity market
should be designed to consider different types of possible transac-
tions, such as poolco-based transactions, bilateral transactions and
a combination of these two [3]. In the new scenario, a DISCO can
contract individually with a GENCO for acquiring the power and
these transactions will be made under the supervision of ISO. To
make the visualization of contracts easier, the concept of a DISCO
Participation Matrix (DPM) will be used [37] which essentially x_ Ax Bu Cd
provides the information about the participation of a DISCO in con-
tract with a GENCO. In DPM, the number of rows has to be equal to
the number of GENCOs and the number of columns has to be equal
to the number of DISCOs in the system. Any entry of this matrix is a
fraction of total load power contracted by a DISCO toward a
GENCO. As a results total of entries of column belong to DISCOi
P u u1 ; . . . ; uN T DPC1 ; . . . ; PCN T ;
of DPM is i cpfij 1. In this study two-area interconnected power
system in which each area has two GENCOs and two DISCOs. Let
GENCO1, GENCO2, DISCO1, DISCO2 be in area 1 and GENCO3,
Also note that DPL1,LOC = DPL1 + DPL2 and DPL2,LOC = DPL3 + DPL4. In
the proposed LFC implementation, contracted load is fed forward
through the DPM matrix to GENCO set points. This is shown in
Fig. 7 i.e., DPg1, DPg2, DPg3 and DPg4. The actual loads affect system
dynamics via the input DPL,LOC to the power system blocks. Any
mismatch between actual and contracted demands will result in
frequency deviations that will drive LFC to re dispatch the GENCOs
according to ACE participation factors, i.e., apf11, apf12, apf21 and
apf22. The state variable equation of the minimum realization model
of N area interconnected power system [33] may be expressed as
37
y Cx
where x xT1 ; Dpei . . . xTN1 ; DpeN1 . . . xTN T , n-state vector
X
N
n ni N  1
i1
N  Control input vector
d d1 ; . . . ; dN T DP D1 ; . . . ; PDN T ; N  Disturbance input vector
T
y y1 ; . . . ; yN  ; 2N  Measurable output vector

where A is system matrix, B is the input distribution matrix, C is the

Fig. 6. Schematic diagram of two-area system in restructured environment.
disturbance distribution matrix, C is the control output distribution
matrix, x is the state vector, u is the control vector and d is the
disturbance vector consisting of load changes. In order to ensure
zero steady state error condition an integral controller may
suitability designed for the augmented system. To incorporate the
integral function in the controller, the system Eq. (37) is augmented
with new state variables dened as the integral of
 I.A. Chidambaram, B. Paramasivam / Electrical Power and Energy Systems 50 (2013) 924 15

Fig. 7. Linerized model of an interconnected two-area thermal reheat system in restructured environment with IPFC and RFB units.

R 
ACEi v i dt ; i 1; 2; . . . ; N. The augmented system of the order The problem now is to design the decentralized feedback control
(N + n) may be described as law
T
x_ Ax Bu Cd 38 i i 1; 2; . . . ; N
ui ki y 39
where The control law in Eq. (39) may be written in-terms of vi as
2R 3 2 3
2 3 2 3 Z
v dt gN 0 C 0 0
ui ki v i dti 1; 2; . . . ; N 40
x 6
4
7
5
6
A4
7 6 7 6 7
5B 4 5 and C 4 5
x gn 0 A B C where ki is the integral feedback gain vector, vi is the scalar control
output
16 I.A. Chidambaram, B. Paramasivam / Electrical Power and Energy Systems 50 (2013) 924
The objective of LFC is to reestablish primary regulation, restore
the frequency to its normal value as quickly as possible and mini-
mize the tie-line power ow oscillations between neighboring con-
trol areas. In order to satisfy the above requirements, gain (ki1, ki2)
of integral controllers in the LFC loop without and with IPFC and
RFB units are to be optimized. In the present work an Integral
Square Error (ISE) criterion is used to minimize the objective func-
tion which is dened as follows. The objective function is mini-
mized with help of Bacterial Foraging Optimization Technique.
Z T
J fb1 Df1 2 b2 Df2 2 DPtie12 2 gdt
0 In the proposed method of integral gain ki, (i = 1, 2) scheduling,
6. Bacterial Foraging Optimization Technique
6.1. Review of Bacterial Foraging Optimization
The BFO method was introduced by Passino [27] motivated by
the natural selection which tends to eliminate the animals with
poor foraging strategies and favor those having successful foraging
strategies. The foraging strategy is governed by four processes
namely Chemotaxis, Swarming, Reproduction and Elimination
and Dispersal. Chemotaxis process is the characteristics of move-
ment of bacteria in search of food and consists of two processes
namely swimming and tumbling. A bacterium is said to be swim-
ming if it moves in a predened direction, and tumbling if it starts
moving in an altogether different direction. To represent a tumble,
a unit length random direction /(j) is generated. Let, j is the in-
dex of chemotactic step, k is reproduction step and l is the
elimination dispersal event. hi(j, k, l), is the position of ith bacteria
at jth chemotactic step kth reproduction step and lth elimination
dispersal event. The position of the bacteria in the next chemotatic
step after a tumble is given by
hi j 1; k; l hi j; k; l Ci/j
If the health of the bacteria improves after the tumble, the bacteria
will continue to swim to the same direction for the specied steps
or until the health degrades. Bacteria exhibits swarm behavior i.e.
healthy bacteria try to attract other bacterium so that together they
reach the desired location (solution point) more rapidly. The effect
of swarming [27] is to make the bacteria congregate into groups and
moves as concentric patterns with high bacterial density. Mathe-
matically swarming behavior can be modeled
X
S (41) is obtained by running the simulation of system using the
J cc h; Pj; k; l J i cch; hi j:k:l
i1
" #
X
S p 
X 2
m i
dattract expxattract h  hm
i1 m1
" #
X
S p 
X 2
m i
hrepelent expwrepelent h  hm
i1 m1
where JCC is the relative distance of each bacterium from the ttest
bacterium, S the number of bacteria, p the number of parameters to
be optimized, hm the position of the ttest bacteria, and dattract,
xattract, hrepelent, xrepelent are the different co-efcients representing
the swarming behavior of the bacteria which are to be chosen
properly.
In Reproduction step, population members who have sufcient
nutrients will reproduce and the least healthy bacteria will die. The
healthier population replaces unhealthy bacteria which get elimi-
nated owing to their poorer foraging abilities. This makes the pop-
ulation of bacteria constant in the evolution process. In this process
a sudden unforeseen event may drastically alter the evolution and
may cause the elimination and/or dispersion to a new environ-
ment. Elimination and dispersal helps in reducing the behavior of
stagnation i.e., being trapped in a premature solution point or local
optima.
6.2. Bacterial Foraging Algorithm
In case of BFO technique each bacterium is assigned with a set
of variable to be optimized and are assigned with random values
[D] within the universe of discourse dened through upper and
41 lower limits between which the optimum value is likely to fall.
each bacterium is allowed to take all possible values within the
range and the cost objective function which is represented by Eq.
(41) is minimized. In this study, the BFO algorithm reported in
[27,28] is found to have better convergence characteristics and is
implemented as follows.
Step 1 Initialization:
1. Number of parameter (p) to be optimized.
2. Number of bacterial (S) to be used for searching the total
region.
3. Swimming length (Ns), after which tumbling of bacteria will
be undertaken in a chemotactic loop
4. NC the number of iteration to be undertaken in a chemo-
tactic loop (NC > NS)
5. Nre the maximum number of reproduction to be
undertaken.
6. Ned the maximum number of elimination and dispersal
events to be imposed over bacteria
7. Ped the probability with which the elimination and dis-
persal events will continue.
8. The location of each bacterium P (1  p, 1  s, 1) which is
specied by random numbers within [1, 1]
42 9. The value of C(i), which is assumed to be constant in this
case for all bacteria to simplify the design strategy.
10. The value of dattract,Wattract, hrepelent and Wrepelent. It is to be
noted here that the value of dattract and hrepelent must be same
so that the penalty imposed on the cost function through JCC
of Eq. (43) will be 0 when all the bacteria will have same
value, i.e. they have converged.
After initialization of all the above variables, keeping one vari-
able changing and others xed the value of J proposed in Eq.
parameter contained in each bacterium. For the corresponding
minimum cost, the magnitude of the changing variable is selected.
Similar procedure is carried out for other variables keeping the al-
ready optimized one unchanged. In this way all the variables of
step 1-initialization are obtain and are presented below
S 6; Nc 10; Ns 3; Nre 15; Ned 2;
43 Ped 0:25; dattract 0:01; wattract 0:04;
hrepelent 0:01; and wrepelent 10; p 2:
Step 2 Iterative algorithms for optimization:
This section models the bacterial population chemotaxis
Swarming, reproduction, elimination, and dispersal (initially,
j = k = l = 0) for the algorithm updating hi automatically results in
updating of P.
1. Eliminationdispersal loop: l = l + 1
2. Reproduction loop: k = k + 1
3. Chemotaxis loop: j = j + 1
 I.A. Chidambaram, B. Paramasivam / Electrical Power and Energy Systems 50 (2013) 924 17

Table 1
LFC optimization rules based on CPS.

Condition The state of LFC units

CPS1 P 100% and CPS2 P 90% No optimization adjustment
CPS1 < 100% and CPS2 P 90%
ACE DF > 0 Optimization adjustment
ACE DF < 0 No optimization adjustment
CPS1 P 100% and CPS2 < 90% Optimization adjustment
CPS1 < 100% and CPS2 < 90% Optimization adjustment

Fig. 9. Membership function for the controller outputs (ai).

(a) For i = 1, 2, . . ., S, calculate cost for each bacterium i as
follows:
 Compute value of cost J(i, j, k, l) Let Jsw(i, j, k, l) = J(i, j, k,
Table 2
l) + Jcc(hi(j, k, l),P(j, k, l)) [i.e., add on the cell to cell attrac-
Fuzzy logic rules.
tant effect obtained through Eq. (43) for swarming behav-
ior to obtain the cost value obtained through Eq. (41)]. CPS2 CPS1
 Let Jlast = Jsw(i, j, k, l) to save this value since a better cost PS PM PB
via a run be found. PS ZE PS PS
 End of for loop. PM PS PB PM
PB PB PVB PVB
(b) For i = 1, 2, . . ., S take the tumbling/swimming decision.
 Tumble: generate a random vector Di 2 Rp with each
element Dm(i) m = 1, 2, . . ., p, a random number ranges
from [1, 1].
 Move the position the bacteria in the next chemotatic
4. If j < Nc, go to step 3. In this case, chemotaxis is continued since
step after a tumble by Eq. (42). Fixed step size in the
the life of the bacteria is not over.
direction of tumble for bacterium i is considered
5. Reproduction.
 Compute J(i, j + 1, k, l) and then let
(a) For the given k and l for each i = 1, 2, . . ., S, let
Jsw i; j 1; k; l Ji; j 1; k; l J cc hi j J ihealth minj2f1...Nc  fJ sw i; j; k; lg be the health of the bacte-
rium i (a measure of how many nutrients it got over its life
1; k; l; Pj 1; k; l 44
time and how successful it was in avoiding noxious sub-
 Swim: stance). Sort bacteria in the order of ascending cost Jhealth
(i) Let m=0; (counter for swim length) (higher cost means lower health).
(ii) While m < Ns (have not climbed down too long) (b) When Sr = S/2 bacteria with highest Jhealth values die and
other Sr bacteria with the best Value split [and the copies
 Let m = m + 1 that are placed at the same location as their parent].
 If Jsw(i, j + 1, k, l) < Jlast (if doing better), let Jlast = Jsw(i, j + 1, 6. If k < Nre, go to 2; in this case, as the number of specied repro-
k, l) and let duction steps have not been reached, so the next generation in
Di the chemotactic loop is to be started.
hi j 1; k; l hi j; k; l Ci q 7. Eliminationdispersal: for i = 1, 2, . . ., S with probability Ped,
T
D i Di eliminates and disperses each bacterium [this keeps the num-
45 ber of bacteria in the population constant] to a random location
on the optimization domain.
where C(i) denotes step size; D(i) Random vector;
DT(i) Transpose of vector D(i) using Eq. (45) the new J(i,
j + 1, k, l) is computed. Else let m = Ns. This the end of while 7. North American Electric Reliability Councils Control
statement Performance Standards

In 1997, the North American Electric Reliability Council (NERC)

(c) Go to next bacterium (i + 1) is selected if i S (i.e. go to proposed new Control Performance Standards [29,30] CPS1 and
step-b) to process the next bacterium CPS2 to evaluate the control area performance in normal intercon-

Fig. 8. Membership function for the input variables (CPS1, CPS2).

18 I.A. Chidambaram, B. Paramasivam / Electrical Power and Energy Systems 50 (2013) 924

Table 3 Table 4
RFB and IPFC control design results. Tuned parameters of the control system for the three case studies.

IPFC RFB Two area interconnected restructured power Feedback Cost function
system (pool Co transactions) gain (ki) value (J)
1. Eigenvalue of system Eq. (23) 1. Design specication, R = 2.4
Case:1 Integral controller only 1.1848 0.127
k1 0:25 j1:8081 Case:2 Integral controller with IPFC unit only 1.4182 0.035
k2 0:25  j1:8081 Case:3 Integral controller with IPFC and RFB 1.7658 0.021
units
2. Inter-area mode, Mp = 53.25% 2. RFB gain by Eq. (22),
KRFB = 0.6787
3. Design specication, Mp (new) = 20%
4. New eigenvalue of the system Eq. (23)
7.2. Control Performance Standard 2
k1new 0:9273 j1:8081
k2new 0:9273  j1:8081 The Control Performance Standard 2, (CPS2), limits the magni-
5. State feed back gain Eq. (27) tude of short-term ACE values. It requires the 10-min averages of
K 1 ; K 2  0:3; 0:2622
a control areas ACE be less than a given constant (L10), as in the
equation below:
AVG10 min ACEi 6 L10 49
p
where L10 1:65e10 10bi 10bs . Note that bs is the summa-
nected power system operation. Each control area is required to tion of the frequency bias settings of all control areas in the consid-
monitor its control performance and report its compliance CPS1 ered interconnection, and e10 is the target frequency bound for
and CPS2 to NERC [34,35] at the end of each month. CPS2. To comply with this standard, each control area must have
its compliance not less than 90%. A compliance percentage is calcu-
7.1. Control Performance Standard 1 lated from the following equation:
AVG10 min ACEi
Control Performance Standard 1 (CPS1) assesses the impact of K CPS2 50
L10
Area Control Error(ACE) on frequency over a certain period win-
dow or horizon and it is dened as follows: over a sliding certain In order to meet the requirements of the power grid frequency qual-
period, the average of the clock-min averages of a control areas ity, the average ACE value during 10-min in each control region
Area Control Error divided by 10 times its area frequency bias should be in the normal distribution as:
times the corresponding clock-min averages of the interconnec- p
tion frequency error shall be less than the square of a given con-
r e10 10bi 10bs 51


stant, C 1; representing a target frequency bound. This is expressed
[36,37] 7.3. Optimization rules based on Control Performance Standards
 

ACEi
AVGperiod DF i 6 e21 46 Suppose Control Performance Standard 1 P 100% and Control
10bi 1
Performance Standard 2 P 90% to be goal of the LFC control strat-
DFi: interconnection frequency error, bi: frequency bias of the ith egy. Table 1 shows LFC optimization rules based on Control Perfor-
control area e1: targeted frequency bound for CPS1, and ( )1: the mance Standard.
clock 1-min average. e1 is a constant derived the historical fre-
quency record of a control area. It is the root mean square of 7.4. Fuzzy logic design
one-min average frequency deviation from a schedule based on fre-
quency performance over an averaging period of a year. The period Fuzzy logic rules are designed to manipulate the conventional
(n) is dened as one year for control area evaluation or one month integral-type Load Frequency Control to achieve two objectives:
for the report of NERC. To calculate CPS1 (KCPS1), a dimensionless (i) minimize equipmentss wear and tear and (ii) comply with
compliance factor (KCF) is dened as: NERCs Control Performance Standard 1 and Control Performance
P h ACEi  i Standard 2. The control structure for each area is
10bi
DF 1 Z
1
K CF 47
ne21 ui DP c i ai K i ACEi dt 52

CPS1 is then obtained from the following equation:

where DPci is the governor set point or raise/lower signal, ki the
K CPS1 2  K CF  100% 48 integral-control parameter and ai is set using fuzzy logic and called
fuzzy gain. This paper uses the information that reects compliance
The fundamental requirement for CPS1 is that performance, as mea-
with CPS1 and CPS2 are used as the input to form the fuzzy rules.
sured by percentage compliance must be at least 100%.
The proposed fuzzy logic will lower the integral gain ki when the
P control area has high compliance. On the other hand, that the inte-
1. When KCPS1 P 200%, which means KCF 6 0, there is (ACE1 -
gral gain ki will be increased when the compliance with CPS1 of the
DF1) 6 0. Under this condition, ACE facilitates the frequency
control area is low. According to the optimized rules from the Table
quality
1, the membership functions of CPS1, CPS2 and ai could be dened
2. When 100% 6 KCPS1 < 200%, which means 0 6 KCF 6 1, there is
h  i as shown in Figs. 8 and 9. Fuzzy rules are summarized in Table 2.
ACEi
0 6 R 10b  DF 1 6 ne21 . The Control Performance Standard
i 1
1 standard is satised. h  8. Simulations results and observations
ACEi
3. When KCPS1 < 100%, which means KCF > 1, there is R 10b
i 1
DF 1  > ne21 . ACE has exceeded the permitted range so that it The effect of using Redox Flow Batteries along with Interline
has a bad effect on the frequency and quality of power grid. Power Flow Controller for the Load Frequency Control in the mul-
 I.A. Chidambaram, B. Paramasivam / Electrical Power and Energy Systems 50 (2013) 924 19

0.15 0.15
0.1 0.1
0.05 0.05
0
0
-0.05
F1 (Hz)

F2 (Hz)
-0.1 -0.05
-0.15 -0.1
-0.2
-0.15
-0.25
-0.3 -0.2
-0.35 -0.25
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (s) Time (s)
(a) F1 (Hz) Vs Time (s) (b) F2 (Hz) Vs Time (s)
0.14
0.04
0.12
0.02
0.1
Ptie12 (p.u.MW)

Pc1 (p.u.MW)
0
0.08
-0.02
0.06
-0.04 0.04
-0.06 0.02
-0.08 0
-0.1 -0.02
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (s) Time (s)

(c) Ptie12 (p.u.MW) Vs Time (s) (d) Pc1 (p.u.MW) Vs Time (s)

0.01 0.14

0.12
0.005
Pg1 = Pg2 (p.u.MW)

0.1
Pc2 (p.u.MW)

0
0.08
-0.005
0.06
-0.01
0.04
-0.015 0.02
-0.02 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (s) Time (s)

(e) Pc2 (p.u.MW) Vs Time (s) (f) Pg1 = Pg2 (p.u.MW) Vs Time (s)

0.04

0.03
Pg3 = Pg4 (p.u.MW)

0.02

0.01

-0.01

-0.02
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (s)
(g) Pg3 = Pg4 (p.u.MW) Vs Time (s)
Fig. 10. Dynamic responses of the frequency deviations, tie-line power deviations, control input deviations and required additional mechanical power generation for a two
area LFC system in the restructured scenario-1 (poolco based transactions).

Table 5
Comparison of the system performance for the three case studies.

Two area restructured power system (pool Co transactions) Setting time (ss) in (s) Peak over/under shoot
DF 1 DF 2 DPtie DF1 (Hz) DF2 (Hz) DPtie (p.u.MW)
Case:1 Integral controller only 16.69 15.48 14.46 0.321 0.224 0.081
Case:2 Integral controller with IPFC units only 6.27 5.47 7.46 0.204 0.112 0.059
Case:3 Integral controller with IPFC and RFB units 4.98 4.72 6.12 0.148 0.082 0.042
20 I.A. Chidambaram, B. Paramasivam / Electrical Power and Energy Systems 50 (2013) 924

0.15 0.2
0.1
0.1
0.05
0 0
-0.05

F2 (Hz)
F1 (Hz)

-0.1
-0.1
-0.2
-0.15
-0.2 -0.3
-0.25
-0.4
-0.3
-0.35 -0.5
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (s) Time (s)

(a) F1 (Hz) Vs Time (s) (b) F2 (Hz) Vs Time (s)

0.08
0.01
0.07
0
Ptie12, actual (p.u.MW)

0.06

Ptie12, error (p.u.MW)

-0.01
0.05
-0.02
0.04 -0.03
0.03 -0.04
0.02 -0.05
0.01 -0.06
0 -0.07
-0.01 -0.08
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (s) Time (s)

(c) Ptie12, actual (p.u.MW) Vs Time (s) (d) Ptie12, error (p.u.MW) Vs Time (s)

0.3 0.3

0.25 0.25

0.2 0.2
Pc2 (p.u.MW)
Pc1 (p.u.MW)

0.15 0.15

0.1 0.1

0.05 0.05

0 0

-0.05 -0.05
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30

Time (s) Time (s)

(e) Pc1 (p.u.MW) Vs Time (s) (f) Pc2 (p.u.MW) Vs Time (s)

0.12
0.25
0.1
0.2
0.08
Pg2 (p.u.MW)
Pg1 (p.u.MW)

0.15
0.06

0.1 0.04

0.05 0.02

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (s) Time (s)

(g) Pg1 (p.u.MW) Vs Time (s) (h) Pg2 (p.u.MW) Vs Time (s)
Fig. 11. Dynamic responses of the frequency deviations, tie-line power deviations, control input deviations and required additional mechanical power generation for a two
area LFC system in the restructured scenario-2 (bilateral based transactions).

ti-unit interconnected thermal reheat restructured power system
as shown in Fig. 7, in each equal area consists of two GENCOs
and two DISCOs. With the installation of RFB unit at the terminal
of area 1 along with the active power model of IPFC controller in
the tie-line near to area 1, the performance of system has been ana-
lyzed by adopting LFC. The nominal parameters are given in
Appendix. The gain of RFB is calculated using Eq. (22) for the given
value of speed regulations coefcients (R) and Interline Power Flow
Controller feedback gain k1 and k2 are calculated using Eq. (27) for
given design specications shown in the Table 3. The optimal solu-
 I.A. Chidambaram, B. Paramasivam / Electrical Power and Energy Systems 50 (2013) 924
0.16
0.14
0.12
Pg3 (p.u.MW)
0.1
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0 0
0 5 10 15 20
Time (s)
(i) Pg3 (p.u.MW) Vs Time (s)
tion of control inputs is taken an optimization problem, and the
cost function [38] in Eq. (41) was derived using the frequency devi-
ations of control areas and tie-line power changes. The integral
controller gain ki is tune with BFO algorithm by optimizing the
solutions of control inputs for the three case studies. The results
are obtained by MATLAB 7.01 software and 100 iterations are cho-
sen for the convergence of the solution in the BFO algorithm. Rel-
ative compliance of the propose controller based LFC schemes to
the NERC standards have been establish for the above power sys-
tem In the present work, variation of load has been considered
for different transactions and the compliance factor (KCF) is com-
puted for 1-h using Eq. (47). Assuming that the response of the
controller to the load variations for the year will be similar to that
obtained during the sample period of 1-h. According to the compli-
ance factor (KCF) value to calculate Control Performance Standard 1,
as dened in Eq. (48). In addition, the Control Performance Stan-
dard 2, as dened in Eq. (50), has also been computed. CPS1 and
CPS2 will be the two inputs of the fuzzy logic controller, fuzzy logic
rules are design according to their Compliance and the optimum
integral gain ki changes depends up on the fuzzy gain ( ai). The gain
of this integral-type controller consists of products of two terms, a
conventional control gain and fuzzy gain. The fuzzy gain is set
using fuzzy logic rules. The fuzzy gains (ai) are used to retune
the optimal integral gains (ki) of LFC are automatically changed
according to individual control areas percentages of compliance
with CPS1 and CPS2. The fuzzy rule also assures compliance NERCs
Control Performance Standards for different transactions.
8.1. Scenario 1: Poolco based transaction
Consider a case where the GENCOs in each area participate
equally in LFC. Assume that the load change occurs only in area
1. Thus, the load is demanded only by DISCO1 and DISCO2. Let
the value of this load demand be 0.1 p.u.MW for each of them i.e.
DPL1 = 0.1 p.u.MW, DPL2 = 0.1 p.u.MW, DPL3 = DPL4 = 0.0. DISCO
Participation Matrix (DPM), referring to Eq. (30) is considered as
2 3
0:5 0:5 0 0
6 0:5 0:5 0 0 7
6 7
DPM 6 7 53
4 0 0 0 05
0 0 0 0
Note that DISCO3 and DISCO4 do not demand power from any
GENCOs and hence the corresponding contract participation factors
(columns 3 and 4) are zero. DISCO 1 and DISCO2 demand identically
from their local GENCOs, viz., GENCO1 and GENCO2. Therefore,
cpf11 = cpf12 = 0.5 and cpf21 = cpf22 = 0.5 For given transaction using
Eq. (53), the optimal gains of Integral controllers (Ki1Ki2) for the
21
0.12
0.1
0.08
Pg4 (p.u.MW)
0.06
0.04
0.02
25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (s)
(j) Pg4 (p.u.MW) Vs Time (s)
Fig. 11. (continued)
three case studies are obtained using BFO algorithm as shown in
Table 4. It is observed from the Fig. 10d and e that changes in gov-
ernor set points or raise/lower (DPc) of each area gradually varied
with the use of information that reects compliance with CPS1
and CPS2. Compliance with NERCs standards were manipulate
the generators set points only if need be to reduce excessive
maneuvering and hence minimize the cost of operation and main-
tenance associate with LFC. This algorithm will signicantly reduce
the wear and tear of the equipment since movements of the gover-
nor set point or raise/lower signal (DPc) generated from the integral
controller are less frequent when the control area has high compli-
ance or that values of 1-min average Compliance Factor (CF) is less
than unity. Simulation results are shown in Fig. 10ac; it can be ob-
served that the oscillations in area frequencies and tie-line power
deviations have decreases to a considerable extent as compare to
that of the system without IPFC controllers. Moreover the location
of RFB unit in area 1 with IPFC controllers improves the inertia
mode oscillation and continues to eliminate the steady state error
of frequency deviations. The settling times and peak over/under
shoot for the frequency deviations in each area and tie-line power
deviations for three case studies are shown in Table 5. It is observed
that the coordination between RFB and IPFC effectively suppress the
oscillation and stabilize the system effectively. The frequency devi-
ation in each area goes to zero in the steady state since there are no
contracts of power between a GENCO in one area and a DISCO in an-
other area, the scheduled steady state power ow over tie-line is
zero as shown in Fig. 10c. In the steady state, generation of a GENCO
must match the demand of the DISCOs in contract with it. Expand-
ing Eq. (36), DPgi = cpfi1DPL1 + cpfi2DPL2 + cpfi3DPL3 + cpfi4DPL4 for
the case under consideration,
DPg1;steadystate 0:5  0:1 0:5  0:1 0:1 p:u:MW;
DPg2;steadystate 0:5  0:1 0:5  0:1 0:1 p:u:MW;
DPg3;steadystate 0 p:u:MW; DPg4;steadstate 0 p:u:MW:
Fig. 10f and g shows the actual generated powers of the GENCOs
reaches the desired values in the steady state when the GENCO3
and GENCO4 are not contracted by any of the DISCO for a transac-
tions of power, hence, their change in generated power is zero in the
steady state. The convergence proles with BFO algorithm for the
power system, without IPFC and RFB, with IPFC only, with IPFC
coordinated RFB as shown in Fig. 13. The coordination of IPFC and
RFB offers the least value of cost function value (J) as compared to
that of the system without IPFC and RFB, with IPFC only. Thus coor-
dinated control by IPFC and RFB is superior to stabilize the fre-
quency oscillations when compared to that of the system without
IPFC and RFB.
22 I.A. Chidambaram, B. Paramasivam / Electrical Power and Energy Systems 50 (2013) 924

0.1
0.2
0
0.1
-0.1
0
F1 (Hz)

-0.2 -0.1

F1 (Hz)
-0.3 -0.2
-0.3
-0.4
-0.4
-0.5 -0.5
-0.6 -0.6
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (s) Time (s)

(a) F1 (Hz) Vs Time (s) (b) F2 (Hz) Vs Time (s)

0.1
0.02
0.08
0
Ptie12 (p.u.MW)

Ptie12 (p.u.MW)
0.06
-0.02
0.04
-0.04
0.02
-0.06
0

-0.02 -0.08

-0.04 -0.1
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30

Time (s) Time (s)

(c) Ptie12, actual (p.u.MW) Vs Time (s) (d) Ptie12, error (p.u.MW) Vs Time (s)

0.4 0.06
0.35
0.05
0.3
Pc1 (p.u.MW)

0.04
Pc2 (p.u.MW)

0.25
0.03
0.2
0.02
0.15
0.1 0.01

0.05 0

0 -0.01
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30

Time (s) Time (s)

(e) Pc1 (p.u.MW) Vs Time (s) (f) Pc2 (p.u.MW) Vs Time (s)

0.35
0.16
0.3
0.14
Pg1 (p.u.MW)

0.25 0.12
Pg2 (p.u.MW)

0.2 0.1
0.15 0.08
0.06
0.1
0.04
0.05
0.02
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (s) Time (s)

(g) Pg1 (p.u.MW) Vs Time (s) (h) Pg2 (p.u.MW) Vs Time (s)
Fig. 12. Dynamic responses of the frequency deviations, tie-line power deviations, control input deviations and required additional mechanical power generation for a two
area LFC system in the restructured scenario-3 (contract violation).

8.2. Scenario 2: Bilateral transaction In this case, the DISCO1, DISCO2, DISCO3 and DISCO4, demands
0.15 p.u.MW, 0.05 p.u.MW, 0.15 p.u.MW and 0.05 p.u.MW from
Here all the DISCOs have contract with the GENCOs and the fol- GENCOs as dened by cpf in the DPM matrix and each GENCO par-
lowing DISCO Participation Matrix (DPM) be considered. ticipates in LFC as dened by the following ACE participation factor
2 3 apf11 = 0.75, apf12 = 0.25 and apf21 = apf22 = 0.5. The dynamic re-
0:4 0:25 0:75 0:3
6 0:3 0:2 sponses are shown in Fig. 11. In this case also, the coordination of
6 0 0:25 7
7 IPFC and RFB works satisfactorily. Note that ACE participation factor
DPM 6 7 54
4 0:2 0:2 0:25 0:25 5 affect only the transient behavior of the system and not the steady
0:1 0:35 0 0:2 state behavior when uncontracted load are absent, i.e., DPuc1 =
 I.A. Chidambaram, B. Paramasivam / Electrical Power and Energy Systems 50 (2013) 924 23

0.18 0.14
0.16
0.12
0.14
Pg3 (p.u.MW)
0.1
0.12

Pg4 (p.u.MW)
0.1 0.08
0.08 0.06
0.06
0.04
0.04
0.02 0.02

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (s) Time (s)

(i) Pg3 (p.u.MW) Vs Time (s) (i) Pg4 (p.u.MW) Vs Time (s)
Fig. 12. (continued)

quency deviations vanish in the steady state more over the

0.7 coordination of IPFC and RFB works satisfactorily. As DISCO
0.6 Participation Matrix (DPM) is same as in the scenario-2 and excess
Cost function values (J)

load demand is taken up by GENCOs in the same area (area-1),

0.5
the tie-line power is same as in scenario-2 in the steady state
0.4 as shown in Fig. 12c. In the steady state, the generation of
0.3 GENCO3 and GENCO4 are not affected by the excess load
of DISCO1, i.e., DPg3,steadystate = 0.09 p.u.MW, DPg4,steadystate =
0.2
0.0425 p.u.MW as shown in Fig. 12i and j. The uncontracted
0.1 load of DISCO1 is reected in the generations of GENCO1 and
0.01 GENCO2. ACE participation factors of area 1 decide the distri-
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 bution of uncontracted load in the steady state. Therefore in this
Iteration Number scenario, DPg1,steadystate = DPg1 + apf11 DPuc1 = 0.2 + 0.75 0.1 =
0.275 p.u.MW and DPg2,steadystate = DPg2 + apf12DPuc1 = 0.0675 +
Fig. 13. Convergence proles for Bacterial Foraging Optimization Algorithm.
0.25 0.1 = 0.0925 p.u.MW. This is also shown in Fig. 12g and h.

DPuc2 = 0.0. The scheduled power ow on the tie-line in the direc- 9. Conclusions
tion from area 1 to area 2 is by expanding Eq. (31) we have,
Load Frequency Control of restructured two area thermal reheat
DPscheduled
tie;12 cpf13 cpf23 DPL3 cpf14 cpf13 DPL4  cpf31
power systems coordinated with RFB and IPFC units in is presented
cpf41 DPL1  cpf32 cpf42 DPL2 55 in the paper. The coordinated action of IPFC and RFB units effec-
tively suppresses the frequency deviations and tie-line power ex-
DPscheduled 0:75 00:15 0:3 0:250:05  0:2 0:10:15 changes under various transactions taking place in competitive
tie;12
electricity market. The gain of this integral-type controller consists
 0:2 0:350:05 of products of two terms, a conventional control gain and fuzzy
0:0675 p:u:MW gain. The fuzzy gain is set using fuzzy logic rules which are devel-
oped to comply with NERCs standards and to manipulate the gen-
The Fig. 11c shows the actual power on the tie-line and it is to be erators set points only if need be to reduce excessive maneuvering
observed that it settles to 0.0675 p.u.MW which is the scheduled and hence minimize the cost of operation and maintenance associ-
power ow on the tie-line in the steady state. As given by Eq. ate with LFC. The conventional control gain of integral controller
(36) DPg1,steadystate = 0.2 p.u.MW, DPg2,steadystate = 0.0675 - are optimized through Bacterial Foraging Optimization algorithm
p.u.MW,DPg3,steadystate = 0.09 p.u.MW, DPg4,steadystate = 0.0425 - This BFO algorithm is a faster converging algorithm which reduces
p.u.MW. This is also in Fig. 11gj. the computational burden and a simple a control strategy has been
proposed to adjust the voltage of IPFC which in turn controls the
8.3. Scenario 3: Contract violation inter-area tie-line power ow. Moreover, the tie-line power ow
control by an IPFC unit has to be efcient and effective for improv-
It may happen that a DISCO violates a contract by demanding ing the dynamic performance of Load Frequency Control of inter
more power than that specied in the contract and this excess connected power system than that of the system without IPFC con-
power is not contracted to any of the GENCOs. This uncontracted trollers. The advantages of the RFB unit with the existing power
power must be supplied by the GENCOs in the same area to the system in the LFC applications were examined. RFB unit contrib-
DISCO. It must be reected as a local load of the area but not as utes a lot in promoting the efciency of overall generation control
the contract demand. Consider scenario-2 again with a modica- through the effect of the use in load leveling and the assurance of
tion that DISCO1 demands 0.1 p.u.MW of excess power i.e., LFC capacity after overload characteristic and quick responsive-
DPuc1 = 0.1 p.u.MW and DPuc2 = 0.0 p.u.MW. The total load in area ness. Simulation results reveal that the design concept of damping
1 = Load of DISCO1+Load of DISCO2 = DPL1 + DPuc1 + DPL2 = the inertia mode and inter-area mode, the co-ordinate control is
0.15 + 0.1 + 0.5 = 0.3 p.u.MW. Similarly, the total load in area more effective to suppress the frequency deviation of the restruc-
2 = Load of DISCO3 + Load of DISCO4 = DPL3 + DPL4 = 0.15 + tured two area power system for different transactions. It may
0.5 = 0.2 p.u.MW. Fig. 12 shows the stabilized transient responses therefore be conclude that, the Redox Flow Batteries with a suf-
in the event of contract violation with the coordinated device oper- cient margin of LFC capacity absorbs the speed governor capability
ations under this condition. From Fig. 12a and b, it is seen that fre- in excess of falling short of the frequency bias value and tie-line
24 I.A. Chidambaram, B. Paramasivam / Electrical Power and Energy Systems 50 (2013) 924
power ow control by an Inter line Power Flow Controller which
acts as a new ancillary service for the stabilization of the tie-line
power oscillations even under the congestion management envi-
ronment of the power system.
Acknowledgement
The authors wish to thank the authorities of Annamalai Univer-
sity, Annamalainagar, Tamilnadu, India for the facilities provided
to prepare this paper.
Appendix A
(A) Data for Thermal Reheat Power System [33,36,37]
Rating of each area = 2000 MW, Base power = 2000 MVA, fo =
60 Hz, R1 = R2 = R3 = R4 = 2.4 Hz/p.u.MW, Tg1 = Tg2 = Tg3 = Tg4 = 0.08
s, Tr1 = Tr2 = Tr1 = Tr2 = 10 s, Tt1 = Tt2 = Tt3 = Tt4 = 0.3 s, Kp1 = Kp2 = 120
Hz/p.u.MW, Tp1 = Tp2 = 20 s, b1 = b2 = 0.425 p.u.MW/Hz, Kr1 = Kr2 =
Kr3 = Kr4 = 0.5, 2pT12 = 0.545 p.u.MW/Hz, a12 = 1, DPD1 = 0.01
p.u.MW, e1 = 18 mHz, e10 = 5.7 mHz.
(B) Data for IPFC [17]: TIPFC = 0.01 s; (C) Data for RFB [21]:
TRFB = 0 s.
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