According to the competitive exclusion principle, no two species that occupy the same niche can coexist indefinitely;

eventually
one species will always reign dominant and lead to the eventual extinction of the other. This can be avoided by the organisms
undergoing a shift towards different niches.
About 40% of all humans live within 100 km of a coastline, so humans have a large impact on aquatic environments.
A "dead zone" occurs when the aquatic environment is very low on dissolved oxygen. Many aquatic organisms depend on oxygen to
survive, so with low concentrations of oxygen, organisms will die out or leave for other areas with higher oxygen levels. This creates
a dead zone with very little aquatic life.
The state of having low oxygen levels is also known as hypoxia. The state of almost no dissolved oxygen is known as
anoxiaEPAhe- release of greenhouse gases into the air affects the quality of the air we breathe, since certain particulates can
cause discomfort or even diseases.
Acid rain is the effect that occurs when greenhouse gases, primarily sulfur dioxide and nitrous oxides, are dissolved into water
droplets in the air. This leads to a high concentration of hydrogen ions in the rain, which in turn results in an acidic solution (ph below
7).
Climate Change is defined as the change in weather patterns over an extended period of time. Factors that can determine and affect
climate are called forcing mechanisms. Forcing mechanisms can be further classified as either internal or external. In Green , the
greatest emphasis is on external forcing mechanisms, primarily human influences
Bioremediation
Bioremediation is the use of biological organisms to clean up an environment. Generally the term refers to the use of microbes to
decontaminate a polluted area, but the term can apply to plants and fungi as well.
Renewable Energy
Renewable energy comes from resources that can be renewed relatively quickly, such as wind or vegetation. The use of renewable
energy can prevent ecological damage if a resource is only utilized under a sustainable yield.
Resources can be divided into three classifications based on how promptly they are renewed:
Perpetual-resource is continuously and instantaneously renewed on a human timescale (e.g., solar energy, wind, etc.)
Logistical Growth (the most common): dN/dt = rmaxN((K - N)/(K))

Where dN/dt is basically the population at certain times (not really important) and K being the carrying capacity, and rmax being
the maximum growth rate (biotic potential of the organisms)

Exponential Growth (less common): P(t) = P(initial)e^(rt)

Age of reproduction: The average age in an organism when it becomes capable of reproduction (For example, population A
might have many more members than population However, all the members of A might be post-reproductive, whereas population
B might consist of mostly pre-reproductive and reproductive age individuals. Population A might be in danger of extinction).
r-selected organisms: Put most of their energy into rapid growth and reproduction. This is common of organisms that occupy
unpredictable environments, e.g. weeds are usually annuals with rapid growth and early reproduction. They produce large number
of seeds containing few stored nutrients K-selected organisms: Put most of their energy into growth. They are common in stable
environments near carrying capacity, e.g. long lived trees such as redwoods take many years of growth to reach reproductive age

Almost all of the electricity that powers modern life comes from burning fossil fuels such as coal, natural gas, and
oil. Acid deposition is caused by two pollutants that are released into the atmosphere when fossil fuels are
burned: sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx). Coal accounts for most U.S. SO2 emissions and a large
portion of NOx emissions. Sulfur is present in coal as an impurity, and it reacts with air when the coal is burned to
form SO2. In contrast, NOx is formed when any fossil fuel is burned.There are several options for reducing SO2
emissions, including using coal containing less sulfur, washing the coal, and using devices called scrubbers to
chemically remove the SO2 from the gases leaving the smokestack. Power plants can also switch fuelsfor
example, burning natural gas creates much less SO2 than burning coal. Certain approaches will also have the
additional benefit of reducing other pollutants such as mercury and carbon dioxide (CO2). Similar to scrubbers on
power plants, catalytic converters reduce NOx emissions from cars. As emissions from the largest known sources
of acid depositionpower plants and automobilesare reduced, EPA scientists and their colleagues must assess
the reductions to make sure they are achieving the results that Congress anticipated when it created the Acid
Rain Program in 1990.

MY CONCISE NOTES:Survivorship is the percentage of remaining survivors of a population over time; usually shown graphically.
Type I survivorship curve: most individuals live out their life span and die of old age (e.g., humans).

Type II survivorship curve: individuals die at a constant rate (e.g., birds, rodents, and perennial plants).
Type III survivorship curve: most individuals die early in life (e.g., fishes, invertebrates, and plants). Closed vs. Open
Closed sharp boundaries;Open Lack boundaries
Species abundance and diversity Ecological pyramid - a graph representing trophic level numbers within an ecosystem. The primary
producer level is at the base of the pyramid with the consumer levels above.
Numbers pyramid - compares the number of individuals in each trophic level ;Biomass pyramid - compares the total dry weight of
the organisms in each trophic level;Energy pyramid - compares the total amount of energy available in each trophic level. This
energy is usually measured in kCAL.;Point source pollution from a clearly identifiable source Nonpoint pollution comes from many
different sources;Four main categories industrial, residential, commercial, and environmental organic pollution decomposition of
living organisms and their bi-products
inorganic pollution dissolved and suspended solids as silt, salts, and minerals;toxic pollution heavy metals and other chemical
compounds that are lethal to organism;thermal pollution waste heat from industrial and power generation processes;
Eutrophication bodies of water becomes enriched with nutrients. This can be a problem in marine habitats such as lakes as it can
cause algal blooms; run-off from fertilizers, into nearby water causing an increase in nutrient levels.
It causes phytoplankton to grow and reproduce more rapidly, resulting in algal blooms;This bloom of algae disrupts normal
ecosystem functioning and causes many problems.The algae may use up all the oxygen in the water, leaving none for other marine
life. This results in the death of many aquatic organisms such as fish, which need the oxygen in the water to live.
The bloom of algae may also block sunlight from photosynthetic marine plants under the water surface.
Some algae even produce toxins that are harmful to higher forms of life. This can cause problems along the food chain and affect
any animal that feeds on them. Eutrophication is magnified as rivers lead into larger rivers and eventually into the ocean as the
Mississippi River network. This leads to ocean dead zone Chemical spills and dumping of waste in the oceans or near coral reefs
and ocean shelf areas causes major environmental problems.
Change in the water temperatures of lakes, rivers, and oceans caused by made-man industries or practices
Water as coolant is warmed returned & to body of water
Ocean warming from climate changes Dams are a major factor in
water diversion. Dams are built along rivers to produce reservoirs. This affects the ecology of the river and the surrounding
environment including Habitat Loss, Habitat Fragmentation, and Loss of Biodiversity Nuclear pollution is pollution that is
radioactive;Fallout can lead to radiation sickness and death. Nuclear fallout can destroy environmental features and animal life
Greenhouse Effect - warming that results when the atmosphere traps heat radiating from Earth toward space.
Ozone Depletion - ozone layer is deteriorating due to the release of pollution containing the chemicals chlorine and bromine CFCs
Tragedy of Commons Conflict between individual interest and the common good
Environmental remediation is the removal of pollution or contaminants from the environment
Strategies and techniques include (coordinated by EPA)
Site assessment and mapping;Excavation and dredging;Pump and treat;Solidification and stabilization;Oxidation; Soil
Bioremediation using microbes to remove pollutants;Sustainability - biological systems enduring and remaining diverse and
productive;Minimize energy consumption & using,alternate energy;Minimize water consumption, Minimize negative environmental
impacts, Minimize waste generation and, recycling, Develop eco-friendly products and, processes advancing technologies to reduce
waste, increasing recycling and reuse;creating even safer treatment and disposal options,developing sources of renewable
energy,sharing the benefits of our learning and innovation Benefits of Composting,Soil Conditioner create rich humus Recycles
kitchen and yard waste,Introduces beneficial organisms in the soil,Good for th it DCC te environment as a natural alternative to
chemical fertilizers,Reduces landfill waste
1. Clean Air Act (CAA)- to control air pollution on a national level. It requires the Environmental Protection Agency (5#,6EPA) to
develop and enforce regulations to protect the public from airborne contaminants kno,,,,wywn to be haz#!#ardous to human
health75#
2. Clean Water Act (CWA)-USA to restore and maintain integrity of the nation's waters by preventing pollution so is we tedghk 5urce
is the, his elk jrrrrrrrki, providing assistance to publicly owned t((reatment works for the improvement of wastewater treatment, and
maintaining integrity of wetlands
3. Emergency Planning & Community Right-To-Know Act (EPCRA)-with information concerning potential chemical hazards present
in their communities.
4. Endangered Species Act-to protect critically imperiled species from extinction as a consequence of economic growth and
development untempered by adequate concern and conservation.1973
5. Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA)-U.S. system of pesticide regulation to protect applicators,
6. Freedom of Information Act (FOIA)-
7. National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA)- to prepare e nv assessments (EAs) and environmental impact statements (EISs).
8. Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA)-to ensure that employers provide employees with an environment free from
recognized hazards, such as exposure to toxic chemicals, mechanical dangers, heat or cold stress, or unsanitary c onditions
9. Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (OPA)- to mitigate and prevent civil liability from future oil spills off US coast
10. Pollution Prevention Act (PPA)- to have pollution prevented or reduced at the source wherever possible
11. Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA)-disposal of solid waste and hazardous waste.
12. Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA)- set standards drinking water quality oversee localities water suppliers implement standards
13. Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA or Superfund)-to clean up sites
contaminated with hazardous substances
14. Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act-added important minimum cleanup requirements
15. Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA)-regulates the introduction of new or already existing chemicals
1. Prevention Its better to prevent waste than to treat or clean up waste afterwards.
2. Atom Economy Design synthetic methods to maximize the incorporation of all materials used in the process
into the final product.
3. Less Hazardous Chemical Syntheses Design synthetic methods to use and generate substances that
minimize toxicity to human health and the environment.
4. Designing Safer Chemicals Design chemical products to affect their desired function while minimizing their
toxicity.
5. Safer Solvents and Auxiliaries Minimize the use of auxiliary substances wherever possible make them
innocuous when used.
6. Design for Energy Efficiency Minimize the energy requirements of chemical processes and conduct
synthetic methods at ambient temperature and pressure if possible.
7. Use of Renewable Feedstocks Use renewable raw material or feedstock rather whenever practicable.
8. Reduce Derivatives Minimize or avoid unnecessary derivatization if possible, which requires additional
reagents and generate waste.
9. Catalysis Catalytic reagents are superior to stoichiometric reagents.
10. Design for Degradation Design chemical products so they break down into innocuous products that do not
persist in the environment.
11. Real-time Analysis for Pollution Prevention Develop analytical methodologies needed to allow for
real-time, in-process monitoring and control prior to the formation of hazardous substances.
12. Inherently Safer Chemistry for Accident Prevention Choose substances and the form of a substance used
in a chemical process to minimize the potential for chemical accidents, including releases, explosions, and
fires.