Mersey Estuary Resources 2040: Climate Change

2017 Update
 Acknowledgements

The authors would like to acknowledge the guidance of

University of Liverpool professors Sue Kidd and Sarah Clement
as well as the members of the Mersey Estuary Resources 2040
steering group: Liu Rong, Paul Henbrey, Peter Batey and Walter
Menzies. We would also like to thank the 13 participants in the
topic talks and stakeholder workshop. Without their dedicated
support, this report would not have been possible.

Climate Change 2
Table of Contents & Figures Figure 5.2: Lessons from the Hudson ............................................. 33

Executive Summary ........................................................................ 4 Figure 5.3: Lessons from Portland ................................................. 34

Introduction ..................................................................................... 6 Figure 5.4: Lessons from the Thames ............................................ 35

1995 Mersey Estuary Management Plan Content Review ............... 7 Figure 5.5: Lessons from the Severn .............................................. 36

Figure 1.1: Enforced Regular Data Collection .................................... 8 Figure 5.6: Lessons from Copenhagen ........................................... 37

Figure 1.2: Systematic Coastal Observation Programmes ................... 8 Analysis SWOT, Key Sites and Themes .................................... 38

Figure 1.3: Sediment Discharge Levy ............................................... 9 Conclusion and Next Steps .......................................................... 45

Figure 1.4: Voluntary Monitoring Schemes ...................................... 10 References ................................................................................... 48

Figure 1.5: Increased Awareness and Education ............................. 11

Figure 1.6: Ballast Tank Management Scheme ................................ 12
Figure 1.7: Tree Planting Scheme .................................................. 12
Figure 1.8: Economic Impact Assessment and Zoning Strategies....... 13
Policy Context ............................................................................... 14
Table 2.1: Indication of Local Authority Policy on Mitigation ............... 17
Figure 2.1: Local Agricultural Land Classifications, 2010 ................... 18
Table 2.2: Indication of Local Authority Policy on Adaptation ............. 20
Map of the Study Area .................................................................. 21
Findings from Stakeholder Engagement ....................................... 26
Table 4.1: Organisations Represented by Workshop Attendees ......... 27
Table 4.2: Additional Potential Partner Organisations ....................... 29
Lessons for the Mersey from Elsewhere ....................................... 30
Figure 5.1: Lessons from the Netherlands ....................................... 32

Climate Change 3
Executive Summary This Report
This climate change issue report has been produced by a group of
Tackling the Mersey postgraduate students at the University of Liverpool to inform the
The Mersey Estuary was a catalyst for the urbanisation and Mersey Estuary Resources 2040 plan. Notably, climate change was
development of its surrounding areas. However, this level of intense not included to a great extent in the 1995 Mersey Estuary
urbanisation coupled with highly concentrated human activitywhich Management Plan.
is inherent with a population of five million in the estuarys 4,680-
This report provides guidance to local authorities, as well as the
square kilometre catchment areahas made it a challenging estuary
private, public and third sector bodies whom have concerns for the
to manage.
immediate catchment area of the Mersey Estuary.
The first Mersey Estuary Management Plan, published in 1995, was
A review of the original Mersey Estuary Management Plan
commissioned by the Mersey Basin Campaigns Estuary Project
established that climate change would have significant effects on:
Group and guided the groups 25-year-long Mersey Estuary clean-up
estuary dynamics, biodiversity, water quality, pollution control and
initiative. The plan was produced in response to the rivers
land use and development. The primary threat posed by climate
deteriorating state. At the time, the National Water Council
change is an increase in flooding caused by more frequent and
Classification Scheme classified the Mersey as unsatisfactory (The
severe storms.
University of Liverpool Study Team, 1995).
A review of policy determined that implementing mitigation and
The clean-up initiative resulted in dramatic improvements. Pollution
adaptation strategies is necessary to combat climate change (DCLG,
in the river decreased by 80% after 15 years following the start of the
2012). This review established that both national and local policy
campaign, enabling the return of indicator species such as salmon.
support developing a low-carbon economy and producing more
The estuary has since gained greater national recognition for its
renewable energy. However, policy directly associated with reducing
importance, as demonstrated by the Liverpool City Region (LCR)
emissions was viewed as insufficient. Policy advice on adaptation to
Devolution Agreement, which recognises it as a key driver for the
flooding also lacked rigour because it is inconsistent across the study
growth of the region. Subsequently, the LCR has set a target to
area, with recommended interventions occasionally contradicting
achieve the cleanest river standard by 2030. The River Mersey Task
one another.
Force was formed in 2014 to further advocate clean-up initiatives and
maximise the potential of the river to help reach this target. The information gathered within the review of the original plan,
coupled with the current policy context, enabled the creation of a
detailed map featuring significant sites, existing mitigation and
adaptation schemes and noteworthy future adaptation projects. The

Climate Change 4
map was an important foundation for this report as it comprised all
aspects in and around the estuary that relate to climate change. The
map displays information from the Environment Agency, such as the
land that is at risk of river-related and coastal flooding. The map also
provides a positive outlook on the potential for further mitigation
initiatives, such as renewable energy generation.
Feedback received through a stakeholder engagement workshop
stressed that group collaboration, climate change education and
physical intervention were all vital in mitigating and adapting to
climate change. Potential partnership organisations were also
identified at the workshop, which informed both Stage 1 findings and
the next steps framework for Stage 2.
of storms. The analysis also assessed the effects climate change
may have on the existing and potential development.
The main findings highlighted three key themes: (1) flood
preparedness, (2) emission reduction and (3) improved
communication and awareness. These themes should guide future
management plans for the Mersey Estuary. The themes, along with
other actions, have been synthesised into a framework describing the
next steps for the project. These steps have been divided into
strategies for adaptation and mitigation and have been further
distributed into the three underlying themes of sustainable
development: social, environmental and economic. This framework
will inform the plans that will be developed in Stage 2.

A review of experiences from elsewhere provided supporting

evidence for the adaptation and mitigation strategies discussed both
within the map and during the stakeholder engagement workshop.
However, additional opportunities and threats that need to be
addressed were highlighted as a result. These issues include:
investment in flood warning systems, production of natural and man-
made defences on banks and coasts and improved use of green
infrastructure to reduce runoff and encourage sustainable transport.
The case studies also emphasised the importance of empowering
volunteers and educating people on the local effects of climate
change, as well as the need to support renewable energy generation.

A SWOT analysis identified strengths, including an advanced

portfolio of renewable energy projects and expansive green and blue
space; weaknesses including limited environmental education and
political will to make important changes; opportunities, including Aerial view of the Mersey from Halton Aero England
suitable sites for outdoor education and additional renewable energy
production; and threats, including increased frequency and intensity

Climate Change 5
Introduction
This Stage 1 report details the issue of climate change to inform the
update to the Mersey Estuary Management Plan of 1995. The
original plan did not address climate change in a standalone section,
but new evidence has emerged to indicate that it now should be a
priority topic.
Climate change has been defined as a long-term shift in the planets
weather patterns or average temperatures (Met Office, 2017). The
effects of climate change on the Mersey Estuary and the surrounding
area are of particular concern due to the potential effects on estuary
dynamics, water quality, biodiversity and development. The study
area stretches from the north-western corner of the Wirral along the
southern shore to east of Warrington town centre, then along the
northern shore through Liverpool to Sefton. This area is relatively
dense and urbanised, containing little green belt land.
The black boundary indicates the study area Base map from Ordnance Survey
The aim of this project for Stage 1 and stage 2 is:
To contribute to discussions about how LCR partners might
respond to the LCR Devolution Agreements commitment to
achieving the cleanest river standard by 2030 and a discharge
free Mersey by 2040 by undertaking a review of the estuary
resources component of the Mersey Estuary Management Plan
of 1995.
The objective for this report and Stage 1 is:
To produce an up-to-date issue report on climate change, a key
Mersey Estuary Resources topic.
Report Structure
The report has been created according to the process of: survey
analysis plan. The first survey section of the report includes a
detailed review of the original Mersey Estuary Management Plan of
1995, which identifies potential updates concerning climate change.
The next part of the survey section contains an assessment of the
relevant national and regional policies relating to mitigating and
adapting to the effects of climate change. This section is followed by
a map identifying key qualities in the study area that relate to climate
change. In addition, a workshop with key stakeholders was held to
understand the implications of climate change for the estuary.
Information gathered during the survey phase informed a SWOT
analysis. From that analysis, the final section was prepared to
synthesise the findings and inform plans and recommendations for
Stage 2.
Climate Change 6
1995 Mersey Estuary Management Plan Content Review
Photo: the Mersey Estuary with a view of Liverpool (right) and the Wirral Peninsula (left) from Eastham Authors image

Climate Change 7
Background
This section reviews key issues from the original Mersey Estuary
Management Plan that relate to climate change (The University of
Liverpool Study Team, 1995). In 1995, the implications of climate
change were less well-understood, so the original plan only briefly
mentioned the potential effects on the estuary, and did not dedicate
a standalone chapter to the topic. However, estuaries are
continuously changing systems, therefore updating plans and adding
new priority topics is vital for successful management (Casco Bay
Estuary Partnership, 2007).
To provide a coherent overview, this section adopts a similar
structure to the original plan, but focuses on the climate change
issues within each chapter and raises new issues needing attention.
Estuary Dynamics
The dynamics of the estuary relate to the tide, wind and waves; all of
which are subject to variation due to climate change. Notably, the
original plan described how the Mersey Estuary is wider upstream,
which generates strong tidal currents through the mouth. Similarly
the Liverpool Bay shoreline is dynamic, accreting and eroding at
different rates in different areas, especially the fast eroding shoreline
at Formby Point. This shoreline erosion increases the risk posed by
storm surges and upstream flooding (Esteves et al., 2011).
The original plan advised against new developments within and
around the estuary that would increase flood risk (e.g., by building on
flood plains). Notably, the original plan indicated that the estuary had
accommodated development successfully, but the unpredictability of
climate change has prompted several more recent studies on the
Liverpool Bay.
One study on the effects of climate change on the Irish Sea showed
that Liverpool has experienced sea level rise of 17mm a year, with
an increase of 140mm from 2010 levels predicted by 2080 (Esteves
et al., 2011). In addition, the researchers predicted 5-8 more serious
storms will occur each year, thereby posing a greater flood risk when
combined with higher sea levels (Esteves et al., 2011). Given these
findings, Figures 1.1 and 1.2 identify new content for the update.
Figure 1.1: Enforced Regular Data Collection
The plan update should recommend enforcing regular data
collection. For example, Esteves et al.'s (2011) study used local
tidal data from Heysham gauges and Gladstone Dock to monitor
and simulate scenarios of how the estuary dynamics may change
over time.
Figure 1.2: Systematic Coastal Observation Programmes
Another update would be to use systematic coastal observation
programmes to power surface wave and sediment transport
models. These models can then inform research into the effect of
climate change on wave and sediment processes. The coastal
observation pilot programme in Liverpool Bay used these
methods to create several physical and ecological models, but
funding for the program has diminished and obtaining sufficient
data is becoming difficult (Howarth and Palmer, 2011). However,
the new plan could identify these programmes to be priorities,
thereby encouraging new funding streams.
Climate Change 8
Water Quality and Pollution Control
The original plan explored issues relating to pollution from industry
and sewage discharge. Specifically, the plan noted that the land that
drains into the Mersey Estuary is highly urbanised and industrialised,
which has proved a constant threat to water quality. Similarly, the
plan acknowledges that water quality in the estuary had improved
drastically since the Mersey Basin Campaign implemented
management schemes in 1985. For example, pollution loads have
decreased by 80% in the 15 years following the campaign. However,
a statement from the National Water Council Classification Scheme,
which was included in the original plan, indicated that water quality in
the Mersey basin was expected to remain unsatisfactory for years to
come. This classification is based on; dissolved oxygen levels,
aesthetics and biological conditions.
New development pressures pose a particular challenge, with the
potential to worsen the effects of climate change due to more severe
and frequent storms on the natural drainage of the river. In particular,
the risk of contaminated surface runoff could worsen through heavier
or more frequent rainfalls (Middelkoop et al., 2001). Accordingly,
careful planning should accompany the ongoing expansion of the
Port of Liverpool, which began in November 2016. Notably, the
expected construction of 400-500ha of logistic sites will increase port-
based freight, retail and manufacturing industries in the basins
drainage area (LCR Local Enterprise Partnership, 2016). This
development should proceed cautiously. Research from the United
States highlights that activities near estuary drainage areas can
negatively affect water quality and pollution levels by increasing the
1
An impermeable surface does not permit fluids to pass through it.
amount of toxic runoff (Novotny, 1998). Notably, more impermeable
surfaces1 leads to faster surface runoff, which can transmit litter and
other waste into the estuary (Pyke et al., 2011). A sediment discharge
levy, described in Figure 1.3, can help to address this risk.
Figure 1.3: Sediment Discharge Levy
The plan update should explore ways to mitigate the negative
effects of the potential increase in developments along the
estuary. One idea from overseas, would be to establish Sediment
Discharge Limit Schemes, such as those active in Maines Casco
Bay Management Plan (Casco Bay Estuary Partnership, 2007).
Under the scheme, new, large-scale developments must abide by
discharge limits set by the local authority to minimise issues with
construction surface runoff.
The original plan also describes the industrial heritage of the estuary
basin, with improved pollution control among partner organisations
identified to be a major objective. However, the expected increase of
storm severity could prove challenging for ongoing control. Evidence
from European studies suggests that countries are struggling to
manage the groundwater runoff from similar contaminated sites
(Montanarella 2007). Specifically, once rainwater penetrates the
contaminated site, groundwater runoff can carry these toxins into the
estuary, subsequently spreading the contamination and threatening
social, economic and environmental resources (Montanarella 2007).
In the Mersey Estuary, this process could affect several sites, such
as Spike Island, Widnes, where soil contamination remains.
Climate Change 9

Industrial site on the bank of the Mersey in 2017 Authors image
Some research indicates that the update may need to include more
stringent regulations on industrial discharge. Muller (2007) explains
that climate change may arguably have a large effect on estuary
flows, so monitoring these flows and discharged materials becomes
important. Figure 1.2 describes voluntary monitoring schemes as a
way to strengthen the original monitoring objective that featured in
the 1995 plan.
Figure 1.4: Voluntary Monitoring Schemes
The plan update could encourage regular voluntary monitoring of
water quality to increase awareness of the changes in estuary
systems as the effects of climate change become more noticeable.
One voluntary monitoring group exists at Ellesmere Port, but
additional such groups would make data gathering more
comprehensive. Several estuary management plans, such as
Casco Bay and Exe Estuary, include this type of monitoring (Casco
2
The Ramsar Convention is an international treaty concerned with the conservation of
natural wetlands.
Bay Estuary Partnership 2015; Exe Estuary Management
Partnership, 2016). For example, Friends of Casco Bays water
quality monitoring program involves more than 80 local participants
along 40 locations to test temperature, salinity and dissolved
oxygen (Casco Bay Estuary Partnership 2015).
Biodiversity
Much of the estuary has important sites of biodiversity, including
dune systems, intertidal flats, rocky shores and salt marshes. The
specific effects of climate change on biodiversity is unknown, with
both gains and losses possible (Nicholls and Wilson, 2001). Many of
these sites are designated Ramsar2 and Conservation Parks, or
covered by another type of protection. However, these sites are
subject to change over time and some sites may lose their
conservation significance if threatened by development. The original
plan stated that safeguarding measures should be introduced for
individual sites to accommodate uncontrollable change in the estuary
system. One measure was to form partnerships between owners,
occupiers and other stakeholders along the Sefton Coast to protect
biodiversity by adopting creative conservation practices where
appropriate. However, climate change is beginning to affect the
estuary in more ways than before, with a number of direct threats to
biodiversity of the area.
Climate Change 10

Coastal dunes in Crosby Authors image
In particular, more intense storms are threatening sensitive
conservation sites, such as the North Wirral Foreshore and Formby
Sand Dunes and Foreshore. Notably, the Formby coastal dune
system provides habitat for local plants and animals. However, winter
storms are causing the non-recoverable erosion of these sand
dunes. This erosion not only destroys the habitat, but also allows for
flood water to breach the natural sea defence and threaten other
habitats (Dissanayake et al., 2014). The speed is staggering.
Dissanayake et al. (2014) found erosion to be occurring at up to 3m
per year, which is treacherous for nesting birds, including Siskins,
Long Tailed Tits and Redwings as well as Natter Jack Toads (RSPB,
2017; Martin, 2017). In addition, local saltmarshes, which are vital
feeding grounds for many species, are under threat due to sea-level
rise and increased wave strength (Nicholls and Wilson, 2001).
In contrast to the loss of existing biodiversity, climate change has also
been linked with the transformation of bird migratory patterns, with a
higher variety of birds nesting in the UK as temperatures get warmer
(Copping, 2008). Copping (2008) documented the phenomenon of
swallows overwintering in the UK instead of migrating to Africa for
warmer wintering. Although this presents a challenge for managing
biodiversity, Figure 1.5 identifies current strategies used to raise
awareness of the issue.
Figure 1.5: Increased Awareness and Education
The original plan had limited recognition of community
involvement schemes, which recent estuary plans praise for
helping adaptation efforts, especially the preservation of
biodiversity. For example, the Exe Estuary Action Plan 2016-2017
emphasises engaging the community to raise awareness about
the effects of climate change on the estuary. The Exe Plan (2016)
also encourages hosting workshops and providing educational
packs for students to educate them on the importance of
protecting the biodiversity of the estuary.
Another noticeable consequence of climate change for biodiversity is
the threat posed by invasive macroinvertebrate species in the port
facilities. Vessels can empty their ballast tank water at port, which
may introduce foreign species that can threaten native species. In
the past, if these ships came from a tropical destination, then the
animals would generally die because they could not survive the water
temperature change. However, some species such as the European
green crab, mud crab, common periwinkle and blue mussel are now
adapting and surviving in British waters as they warm due to climate
change (Briski et al., 2012). Unfortunately, Briski et al. (2012) argues
that existing ballast water management regulations are ineffective for
these species, so the attention should be paid to this issue to avoid
having the expanded Liverpool port facilities worsen this problem
(Figure 1.6).
Climate Change 11
Figure 1.6: Ballast Tank Management Scheme
Warming water temperatures in the Mersey Estuary may enable
macroinvertebrate species carried in ballast tanks by cruise ships
and cargo vessels to survive and thrive, displacing species native
to the estuary. Accordingly, the plan update should evaluate the
opportunity presented by an active ballast tank management
scheme to mitigate the risk posed by invasive species.
Land Use and Development
The Mersey is among the most highly-developed estuaries in Britain,
with few areas of open coast. The original plan described an
increased focus on the quality of the built environment, which
included greater concern about large-scale waterfront developments.
Currently, the mouth of the estuary has important recreational and
tourism infrastructure, whereas the upper estuarys main land-use is
industrial and residential. In addition, the LCR is encouraging new
developments on the reclaimed land north of the Pier Head in
Liverpool and in Birkenhead to create Liverpool and Wirral Waters as
well as proposing plans for a new cruise liner terminal and an
expanded Liverpool John Lennon Airport (LJLA) (LCR Local
Enterprise Partnership, 2016). As many sites are on low-lying
reclaimed land, the original plan states these types of developments
should be planned carefully because the changing dynamics of the
estuary could mean flooding is worsened in areas where
impermeable materials block the drainage of flood plains.
Accordingly, Figure 1.7 suggests updates to the plan regarding the
original objective of setting landscape guidelines for new
developments.
Figure 1.7: Tree Planting Scheme
The LCR and other nearby authorities should consider the effects
of climate change for all planned and future developments along
the river. The plan update should encourage planting schemes on
urbanised flood plain areas to help absorb surface and
groundwater runoff in increased storm scenarios. Research
conducted in Brockenhurst, UK suggests that planting trees and
increasing the ecology in an urban area can reduce the height of
flooding by 20% (Dixon et al., 2016).
The Three Graces on Liverpools Pier Head Authors image
As described in the water quality section, the urbanisation of the
region may exacerbate the effects of climate change by increasing
surface runoff and may worsen flooding by reducing natural flood
plain capacity. In this context, some researchers have noted that
locating development in areas subject to the most serious effects of
climate change can greatly increase the damage (Kalnay and Cai,
2003). Several tourist sites, such as Birkenhead Waterfront, Central
Liverpool International Waterfront and Wallasey Golf Links, are
Climate Change 12
threatened by storm surge-induced flooding due to climate change.
Figure 1.8 describes existing strategies that could inform the plan
update to lessen the effects of storm surges on docks.

Figure 1.8: Economic Impact Assessment and Zoning Strategies

Cities such as Copenhagen have identified the need for and taken
action to protect their built environment from the effects of climate
change (Hallegatte et al., 2011). One of Copenhagens schemes
is the use of economic impact assessments to identify areas
worthy of protection, thus creating adaptation strategies specific
to the sites. In addition, Exe Estuary has developed a zoning
management plan specifying areas that may be at risk from
flooding (Exe Estuary Management Partnership, 2016).

Climate Change 13
Policy Context
Photo: the sand dunes at Crosby Authors image

Climate Change 14
Background
In 2012, the Department of Communities and Local Government
(DCLG), which oversees planning in England, published the National
Planning Policy Framework (NPPF) to steer local planning. The
NPPF prioritises sustainable development and states that Local
planning authorities should adopt proactive strategies to mitigate
and adapt to climate change, taking full account of flood risk, coastal
change and water supply and demand considerations (emphasis
added) (DCLG, 2012, p.21-22). Accordingly, this section addresses
local and national policies that could affect mitigation and adaptation
strategies for the Mersey Estuary. At the conclusion of each
subsection, Tables 2.1 and 2.2 indicate whether local authorities
have specific policies on mitigation and adaptation, respectively.
Mitigation
Emissions
Automobiles and the cargo and cruise industries have a significant
effect on local air quality. Parliament demonstrated a commitment to
reducing emissions with the Climate Change Act 2008 that targets a
34% reduction by 2020 and 80% by 2050. Last year, the UK and 195
other countries ratified the Paris Agreement, which commits them to
reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in order to avoid some of
the most severe impacts of climate change (HM Government, 2017,
p.3). In addition, central government recommends that the [local]
marine planning authority should take account of any relevant
statutory air quality limits (HM Government, 2011. P.19). However,
despite the Liverpool2 post-Panamax cargo terminal having opened
in 2016 as well as plans for a new cruise liner terminal, no local policy
currently targets these and any other sources of emissions.
Low Carbon Economy
The Marine Policy Statement notes that the objectives of sustainable
development, reduction of ocean acidification and mitigation of
climate change can be achieved through a low-carbon economy,
driven by renewable sources of domestic energy (HM Government,
2011). This account aligns with the NPPF, which strongly encourages
renewable energy generation (DCLG, 2012). In 2012, the LCR
demonstrated a commitment to that goal by issuing a Sustainable
Urban Development Strategy, which notes that the region has a
unique low carbon business capability with opportunities for offshore
wind, tidal energy, solar energy and waste management (LCR, 2016,
p.10).
Wind Energy
The Liverpool City Council (LCC) (2008) anticipates that offshore
wind speed will rise by 5% from 1990-2025 and a further 5% from
2055-2115 resulting in higher energy outputs from local wind
turbines. However, central government has warned that wind
turbines may have negative effects on fish and birds due to noise
during construction, changing sediment movement patterns and also
causing collisions with birds (HM Government, 2011). Careful
attention to the latter is vital, because the Mersey is a key site for
birdlife locally and internationally.
Tidal Energy
Central government believes that tidal energy could meet up to 20%
of the UKs energy needs (HM Government, 2011). Several different
ideas have been proposed for a large scale barrage on the Mersey,
however, to-date no organisation has sought planning approval. The
Marine Policy Statement notes that tidal barrages can have adverse
impacts on migratory fish and bird species and on the hydrodynamics
Climate Change 15
of the estuarine environments in which they are situated (HM
Government, 2011, p.34). Therefore, stakeholders should approach
the issue pragmatically to avoid compromising recent improvements
in estuarine biodiversity.
Solar Energy
Central government has identified the production of energy from
photovoltaic (or solar) projects to be one of the eight key sources in
its target to achieving the 2009 Renewable Energy Directive of 15%
of the UKs energy consumption coming from renewable sources
(DECC, 2013). The NPPF does not provide any direct advice relating
to solar energy, nor do any of the local authorities in the area as
shown in Table 2.1. However, one of the six recommended actions
of the LCR Sustainable Energy Action Plan is to Support the delivery
of building integrated solar photovoltaics and solar hot water (2012,
p.61). Currently, six solar energy sites are proposed around the
Mersey (see: Map of the Study Area).
Waste Energy
The Waste Management Plan for England recommends that all local
authorities collect garden and food waste separately from recyclable
and general waste, so that it can be used to produce energy through
anaerobic digestion3 (DEFRA, 2013). Two waste energy sites are
already in operation along the Mersey with a further five potential
sites identified (see: Map of the Study Area).
Carbon Capture
The Marine Policy Statement regards coastal areas of the UK to be
one of the most promising hub locations in Europe for implementing
3 4
Anaerobic digestion is the process of producing energy by adding microorganisms to
breakdown biodegradable waste.
carbon capture storage4 (HM Government, 2011, p.35). The sector
may be able to sustain 100,000 jobs by 2030, of which the Mersey
has been identified as one of around three key sites to base the
industry (Evans-Pritchard, 2016).
Emerging Diseases
As temperatures rise, new communicable diseases may threaten the
UK. Areas near air and seaports are the most vulnerable, so Public
Health England undertakes invasive mosquito surveillance at the
Port of Liverpool and Liverpool Airport (HM Government, 2017, p.17).
The Merseyside Resilience Forum (2014) stated that pandemic
infectious diseases are one of the top-five risks for Merseyside,
subsequently recommending efforts to maximise healthy lifestyles to
strengthen immune systems and noting that importance of green
infrastructure to that end. In addition, the UK Marine Policy Statement
specifies that Marine Plans should address environmental resources
to support ecotourism and recreational use (HM Government, 2011).
Table 2.1 provides indicates whether local authorities have policies
that address these mitigation issues.
Artificial reservoirs are created to store atmospheric carbon dioxide thus mitigating climate
change.
Climate Change 16
 Table 2.1: Indication of Local Authority Policy on Mitigation the lifetime of the development and potentially through a site specific
flood risk assessment also advising that civil infrastructure facilities

Warrington
should therefore not be built in flood risk zones and their access

Liverpool
CW & C*
should not be compromised by any potential flood (LCC, 2008, p.47-

Halton

Sefton

Wirral
48, p.53). Central government has advised that future policy on
adapting to climate change should prioritise low-income households,
as they are more susceptible to the effects in addition to having fewer
Emissions Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
resources to adapt (HM Government, 2017).
Low Carbon Economy Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Coastal Erosion
Wind Energy Yes Yes No Yes No Yes The Environment Agency (2015) provides basic policy advice on
Tidal Energy coastal erosion, but advises that actions should be taken on an
Yes No No No No No
individual basis. In the study area, the sand dunes in Formby, Sefton
Solar Energy No No No No No No are eroding, which is increasing the risk of river-related flooding. This
threat is expected to worsen as sea levels rise and severe storms
Waste Energy Yes Yes No No No Yes
become more frequent (CAG, 2009). In response, Sefton Council is
Carbon Capture N/A N/A No No N/A No permitting the dunes to realign naturally and has blocked new
development (Sefton Council, 2014). Further, LCC has found that the
Emerging Diseases N/A No No No N/A No river bank from Garston to Haleincluding the land around LJLA
*CW & W is abbreviated from Cheshire West and Chester Council. is eroding by 25cm a year (LCC, 2008). However, the Council has
not taken active interventions, which may risk nearby land that is of
Adaptation
high agricultural value.
Terrestrial Planning Pollution of Waterways
The UK Marine Policy Statement specifies that adapting to the The Department for Environment, Food & Rural Affairs (DEFRA)
impacts of climate change will also be a priority for terrestrial planning (2009) expects the greater rainfall to increase the risk of pollutants
on the coast inappropriate types of development are not permitted reaching surface water bodies. However, investments in porous
in those areas most vulnerable to coastal change, or to flooding from surfaces and green infrastructure can prevent runoff from entering
coastal waters (HM Government, 2011, p.23). The LCC stated that the Mersey and minimising air-born pollution can limit contamination.
any development within the climate change allowance zone will need The Merseyside Resilience Forum (2014) identified waterway
to consider the impact of climate change with regard to flood risk over pollution to be one of the top-five risks to the county. DEFRA (2009)

Climate Change 17
has also stated that point source pollution from water industry Figure 2.1: Local Agricultural Land Classifications, 2010
sewage works must be tackled. In addition, DEFRA (2009) indicated
that minimising rural pollution from entering waterways is important,
with the Department advocating for more organic agricultural
production as a solution.

Agriculture and Water Availability

Central government anticipates that climate change will harm farming
more dramatically overseas than in the UK (HM Government, 2017).
This instability in importing food will likely increase demand for locally
grown food. DEFRA (2009) forecasts that the North West will receive
20% less summer rainfall by 2080, but will benefit from longer
growing seasons. However, population increases may strain water
availability (DEFRA, 2009. P.9). The UK Marine Policy Statement
categorised the risks to public water supplies from drought as one
of the countrys most urgent issues in the face of climate change (HM
Government, 2017, p.9). Nonetheless, no local policies address
safeguarding water supply and agricultural land to of adapt to climate
change despite comparatively large parts of Merseyside having land
classified as Excellent or Very Good for farming (see: Figure 2.1).
Source: Natural England (2010), showing that considerable land area near the Mersey
Estuary is classified as being Very Good or Excellent for farming
Flood Defences
The UK Climate Change Risk Assessment 2017 Evidence Report
shows that climate change will lead to more intense rainfall and rising
sea-levels, which will increase the risk of river-related flooding and
erosion as well as rain-related flooding, respectively (HM
Government, 2017). Government has classified the risks to
infrastructure from river, surface / groundwater flooding as more
action needed recommending that development will need to be safe
over its planned lifetime and not cause or exacerbate flood and
coastal erosion risk elsewhere (HM Government, 2011, p.9; p.24-
25). The Merseyside Resilience Forum (2014) has also called the
issue a top-five risk to the area.

Climate Change 18
River-related Flooding
Flood defences and adjustments to width and depth of the estuary all
alter the natural flow, which leads to sediment build-ups, damage to
habitats, flooding occurring elsewhere and limitations on the
Merseys possibilities for recreation. Therefore, DEFRA (2016)
recommends that physical changes are taken cautiously. Locally, the
Mersey Resilience Forum (2014) noted that Merseyside has a
significant tidal flood risk with approximately 7,500 properties in the
tidal flood area, mostly along the Wirral and Sefton Coasts, which
are popular retirement and recreational areas (p.7). Sea level rise
has occurred since 1850, so the city has built some overflow
capacity, with extreme storm surge waters able to enter the docks
through lock gates (LCC, 2008, p.29-30). However, LCC (2008) has
noted that if this trend continues, this could have dramatic impacts
on the frequency and extent of flood risk along the River Mersey
(p.29). Nevertheless, permanent flood defences have not been
introduced at the Pier Head, because LCC believes it is unlikely to
flood and that any interventions may compromise the areas high
aesthetic quality.
Rain-related Flooding
Although net rainfall is expected to fall with climate change, the
frequency of severe and unseasonal weather events is expected to
rise, increasing the risk of flooding (HM Government, 2011). Since
local authorities need to be ready all year round, DEFRA (2016)
recommends taking natural flood management measures because
they can slow and store flood water and are more sustainable. In
addition, the UK Climate Change Risk Assessment 2017 states that
incorporating natural flood management measures is key to our
approach and we encourage such schemes as part of large capital
projects (HM Government, 2017, p.12). Currently, 17 warning areas
for inland flooding exist in Merseyside, but due to their sparse spatial
distribution they are less appropriate for natural flood defences (LCC,
2008). In these instances, central government believes the
installation of property-level resilience measures can play an
important role in making people and their property less vulnerable to
the physical and mental impacts of flooding. (HM Government, 2017,
p.12). LCC (2008) has noted the absence of groundwater flooding in
the Mersey catchment, so it should only be investigated on a site by
site basis (p.42).
Biodiversity
Central government has classified the risks to species and habitats
from changing climate space as more action needed (HM
Government, 2017, p.9). DEFRA (2016) anticipates that more
invasive species will be introduced to British waters through ballast
water. In addition, evidence indicates that climate change is driving
certain species further north, affecting the areas they leave and enter
(DEFRA, 2016). Greater resources are necessary to manage these
invasive species, because they can destabilise the local ecosystem
and even undermine natural flood defences. Further, any physical
interventions to prevent flooding will likely alter sediment movement,
which will further disrupt existing biodiversity (HM Government,
2011). As yet, little action or awareness exists around the Mersey
about the effects that climate change will have on the regions
biodiversity (see Table 2.2).
Green Space
The NPPF recommends safeguarding land from development that is
required for current and future flood management (DCLG, 2012,
p.23). However, in cases where building in vulnerable areas is
Climate Change 19
permissible, the NPPF specifies that such developments require Table 2.2: Indication of Local Authority Policy on Adaptation
suitable adaptation measures, such as green infrastructure, to

Warrington
ensure that proposed new developments are resilient to climate

Liverpool
change over their lifetime. (DCLG, 2012; HM Government, 2011,

CW & C

Halton

Sefton

Wirral
p.37). The LCR and Warrington Green Infrastructure Framework aim
to maximise existing and new green assets to adapt to climate
change (Mersey Forest, 2012). The framework describes needing
more green space to adapt to flood risk, support higher levels of Terrestrial Planning Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
honeybees to naturally support the productivity of the countryside
Erosion No N/A No Yes N/A No
and reduce runoff with street trees (Mersey Forest, 2012). Mersey
Forest (2012) hope a by-product of these changes will be to make Pollution of Waterways Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
the area more pleasant, increase environmental awareness and
support more sustainable travel. Agriculture & Water Avail Yes No No No Yes No

Table 2.2 indicates whether local authorities in the study area have Flood Defences Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
policies that address each adaptation topic.
River-related Flooding Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

Rain-related Flooding Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

Biodiversity No No No No No No

Green Space Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

Climate Change 20
Map of the Study Area
Photo: renewable energy facilities and a fossil fuel refinery stand side by side in Ellesmere Port Authors image

Climate Change 21
 Mersey Estuary Climate Change Evaluation Map 2017
Key
Baseline Conditions
Orrell Hill Lane Solar Farm
Areas in Flood Risk Zone 3
Active Realignment (Coastal)
Hold the Line (Coastal)
Crosby No Active Intervention (Coastal)
Billinge Hill Wind Farm and Waste Energy Study Area

Adaption and Mitigation

Burbo Bank Wind Farm

Urban areas for retrofit

Wind Energy
Solar Energy
Tidal Energy
Waste Energy
Bidston Moss Landfill Port of Liverpool Wind Farm Reclaimed Greenspace
Proposed Energy Capture
Potential Energy Capture
Improved Bike Infrastructure
Warrington Proposed Green Infrastructure
Liverpool
Penketh Solar Farm

Johnsons Lane Solar Farm and Landfill Woolston Weir

Birkenhead Otterspool Promenade

Widnes
Arpley Landfill
Mersey Tidal Barrage
Port Sunlight River Park
(reclaimed landfill)
Fiddler Ferry Solar Farm Lymm Solar Farm
Hale Village Landfill

Bromborough Solar Farm

Runcorn

Frodsham Wind Farm

Stanlow Bio-Fuel Plant

Ellesmere Port

Gowy Landfill

Climate Change 22
Baseline Conditions
Areas in Flood Risk Zone 3
The Environment Agency has identified these areas to be of high risk
with either land having a 1 in 100 (or greater) annual probability of
river flooding or 1 in 200 (or greater) annual probability of sea
flooding. The largest areas (by land) affected by this flood risk include
Birkenhead, Ince, Formby, Crosby and areas of Warrington.
However, other areas such as Liverpool, Widnes, Speke and
Ellesmere Port may incur damages because they have large
populations, are heavily urbanised and are home to many
businesses and industry. Flooding would expose these areas to large
scale damage both to property and business (including LJLA in
Speke), which would not only lead to prolonged economic strain but
also social strain.
Storm Abigail hits New Brighton, Wirral 2015 Liverpool Echo
In accordance with the recommendations outlined in the NPPF, it
would therefore be suggested that future development should be
concentrated within Flood Risk Zone 1 areas, subjecting proposals
to rigid tests and assessments in Zone 3 areas. However, all types
5
A sustainable drainage system refers to a variety of low-maintenance ways to prevent
rainwater from flooding local sewers or carrying litter into waterways. Examples include
wetlands, rain gardens and porous paving materials.
of development should implement flood management designs
including Sustainable Drainage Systems (SuDS)5 and increased
green infrastructure.
Active Realignment
The active realignment of the shoreline at Crosby and Formby Beach
is a policy option which allows the local sand dune system to accrete
and erode naturally, thereby preserving them as a natural coastal
flood defence. Limited intervention lets the shoreline move with
coastal change while also allowing management of the risks
associated with coastal erosion. However, greater rainfall and storm
surges due to climate change means that these sites are seeing
unsustainable amounts of coastal erosion with the dune system
advancing further inland. Notably, the Formby pine forest that was
planted to protect from coastal erosion is now under threat, with
proposals calling for felling of trees that interrupt the natural
processes of accretion and erosion. Worsening storms threaten
residential areas located at these coastlines both due to sand dune
movement and from flooding caused by their coastal defence
disappearing. Accordingly, policymakers should explore ways to
protect and rebuild the dunes.
Hold the Line
Holding the shoreline is an active strategy for the majority of the study
area. In effect, the shoreline will be kept in place to minimise the risk
of flooding and erosion to surrounding areas. For example, in parts
of Liverpool and Warrington with this designation, no room exists for
natural erosion, so the current defence will remain to prevent the
Climate Change 23
water moving inland. Future improvements to the existing defence
may be made, but only at the site of the original shoreline and
defence. Notably, recent storm surges, which could increase
dramatically in intensity and frequency with climate change, have
forced water over defences at held shorelines, highlighting the need
for better defences. Where water has overwhelmed the defences
authorities should consider water management design features, such
as green infrastructure, to reduce flood risk and runoff.
Liverpool John Lennon Airport and the shoreline Media City UK
No Active Intervention
This policy option means that no management or defence on the
shoreline is in place to stop natural erosion occurring. In the study
area, this policy is only enforced around Speke where the topography
decreases the risk of erosion and flooding. For example, the Speke
shoreline has significant green belt, which both provides and acts as
a natural flood defence should the water levels rise to this point.
However, as climate change increases sea levels and the frequency
of storms, which could accelerate erosion, a management plan may
become necessary. Importantly, Speke hosts many residences and
industry, but is also the location of the LJLA. If flooding occurred in
this area, then it would cause large scale devastation and disrupt
both families and day-to-day business. No active intervention on a
shoreline in a time of rising climate change could therefore be a risky
policy option.
Adaptation and Mitigation
Urban Areas for Retrofit
The highlighted locationsCrosby, Liverpool, Birkenhead, Ellesmere
Port, Widnes, Runcorn and Warringtonare all urban areas that
need to align their urban design features and development plans to
account for the increased risk of flooding, rising temperatures and
storm surges posed by climate change. Currently, these urban areas
have minimal, if any, climate change adaptation and mitigation
strategies to prepare for future threats. Accordingly, these areas
should create management plans and implement sustainable
designs that reduces the effects of climate change. Examples include
decreasing flood risk and rising temperatures by increasing urban
greenery such as street trees and green roofs that both capture water
and limit the urban heat island effect.
Wind Energy
The wind turbines surrounding the Mersey Estuary help mitigate
climate change by providing clean renewable energy to power both
local businesses and homes. For example, the Burbo Bank Wind
Farm alone, under its current expansion provided by DONG Energy,
can generate enough electricity to power over 230,000 homes
(DONG, 2016). This means there is less of a reliance on fossil fuels,
which contribute to the overall effects of climate change. Opening or
Climate Change 24
expanding other wind farms located around the Mersey Estuary
could therefore be effective as a mitigation strategy.
Solar Energy
Solar panels provide an opportunity to generate renewable energy,
but no active sites exist around the Mersey Estuary. Proposals to
create solar farms in various locations have been put forward, but
have not yet been progressed. For example, Penketh Solar Farm
proposed to occupy 25 acres, but was refused planning permission
due to both insufficient noise tests and public objections (Northwich
Guardian, 2016). As a result, large farms may be beneficial for
energy creation, but incentives to install smaller scale solar panels
on businesses and homes may be more practical.
Tidal Energy
Tidal energy does not yet exist on the river, but plans are under way
at points in the west and the east of the estuary. At Woolton Weir in
Warrington, Peel Energy has permission to harness tidal energy
flowing through the barrier across the river. The project could
generate up to 500kW which, alongside partner projects in the North
West, could power up to 2000 homes (Peel Energy, 2016). Near
Otterspool, Peel has also put forward plans for a tidal barrage. The
barrage would use tidal turbines to turn water movement into clean
energy. Although both schemes are pending, gaining planning
permission for the tidal barrage may help move to a cleaner and more
sustainable energy portfolio for the estuary.
Waste Energy
Many former landfill and waste sites surround the Mersey Estuary
that could generate renewable energy from the methane gas they
emit, much like at Bidston Moss Landfill. Landfills that cannot serve
this function should be reclaimed as greenspace for recreation (e.g.,
Port Sunlight River Park).
Improved Cycling Infrastructure
To reduce reliance on cars, and the related effects this has on
pollution and climate change, cycle infrastructure throughout the
Wirral and St Helens is receiving a major overhaul. On the Wirral, all
major roads will now be have safe cycle lanes, encouraging the
public to swap to this sustainable transport method. St Helens is also
improving the cycle infrastructure by creating a new cycle path
through Bold Forest, connecting residents and industry over the M62.
Similar improvements should be considered more broadly, especially
in Liverpool to fully utilise the City Bike scheme.
Proposed Green Infrastructure
Green infrastructure serves as an adaptation and mitigation strategy
by acting as both a flood defence and helping to reduce pollution and
store carbon. In Liverpool and St Helens, a Natural Flood Risk
Management Plan is being developed to identify locations for street
trees, SuDS and other types of green infrastructure. Developers will
be advised to include appropriate green infrastructure within new
developments, with proposals that align with the map looked upon
more favourably within the planning process.
Climate Change 25
Findings from Stakeholder Engagement
Photo: path in Sefton Park Authors image

Climate Change 26
Background
One stakeholder engagement workshop was conducted to validate
initial findings and identify areas for further research. The format
included 20-minute conversations with 7 representatives from 5
organisations (see Table 4.1). Various materials were prepared to
stimulate discussion, including a discussion guide, photographs of
developments and places along the estuary, icons for attendees to
stick on the map of the study area (e.g., miniature wind turbines) and
idea sheets with photographs related to adaptation, mitigation,
resilience and threats.
Table 4.1: Organisations Represented by Workshop Attendees
Groundwork Cheshire, Lancashire, & Merseyside
Founded 1985 / Aims to create sustainable communities by
focusing on climate change, the environment and health.
Healthy Rivers Trust
Founded 1998 / Strives to improve river conditions in the Mersey
basin as a member of the national waterways trust movement.
Merseyside Civic Society
Founded 1938 / Endeavours to increase public interest in
conserving heritage sites and promotes a high-quality built
environment.
Merseyside Environmental Trust
Founded 1984 / Seeks to increase awareness of environmental
issues, through events, research and the provision of small grants.
Wildlife Trust for Lancashire, Manchester, & N. Merseyside
Founded 1962 / Advocates for wildlife and the environment as a
member of the national wildlife trust movement.
Lessons
Conversations with the stakeholders informed this entire report, but
they also provided these 10 lessons to guide future initiatives.
1. Increase Local Interest
Bring people to important places, help them understand the real cost
of climate change to their wallet and their community and support
lower-income people so that they can have the means to participate.
2. Bring Everyone to the Table
Include public, private and third sector representatives along with
community members in discussions to arrive at new ideas, attract
funding and increase support for specific actions.
3. Energise the Community
Ask residents for their ideas and support the voluntary groups who
are vital for collecting important data, maintaining parks and
sustaining efforts when budgets are cut.
4. Educate Children
Provide high-quality environmental education in schools to ensure
children grow into adults who care about the environment or pursue
related careers.
Climate Change 27
 7. Reuse Waste Creatively
Waste can help respond to the effects of climate change. For
example, old Christmas trees in St. Annes are helping rebuild sand
dunes and former landfills along Mersey are generating electricity.

8. Discourage Driving in Town Centres

Dedicate more street space to walkers, cyclists and bus riders by
widening sidewalks, closing streets or lanes to cars, building cycle
lanes and reintroducing bus-only lanes.

9. Design for Climate Change

Transform impermeable surfaces with plants, trees and gardens; use
porous pavements wherever possible and choose sustainable
Photographs of a selection of key developments and places along the estuary used to materials for new buildings.
stimulate discussion during the stakeholder workshop Authors image
10. Monitor New Species
5. Choose Words Carefully
The arrival of new animals can signal climate change, as they may
Avoid technical wording when simpler phrases can help the
thrive in the estuary as waters warm. These new species can out-
document reach a broader audience. Be careful about using words
compete native plants and animals.
that are emotionally charged.

6. Discover Overlapping Benefits

Maximise limited resources by pooling resources to solve more than
one problem. For example, offshore wind turbines not only generate
clean energy, but can also serve as artificial reefs for sea animals.
Efforts to reduce air pollution can also improve public health and help
mitigate climate change (e.g., with fewer cars).

Climate Change 28
Potential Partners
Each organisation represented by the stakeholders who participated
in the workshop is a potential partner to help research, advocate for
and implement strategies designed to increase the resilience of the
Mersey Estuary to climate change. The stakeholders also identified
several other organisations that could be potential partners (see:
Table 4.2)
Table 4.2: Additional Potential Partner Organisations
Duncan Society
Founded 1998 / Based in Merseyside and Cheshire, the
organisation advocates for improving public health by sponsoring
research and facilitating discussion on policy proposals.
Friends Groups
Dozens of Friends Groups operate locally to maintain area parks.
The groups can attract investment from local businesses to
increase the provision of green infrastructure and support
environmental education and awareness.
Friends of the Earth EWNI
Founded 1971 / Part of the international movement, the charitable
trust operates in England, Wales and Northern Ireland, with local
groups sponsoring campaigns on climate change and more. Local
chapters are in Liverpool, Warrington and Chester.
Local and Regional Government
Six local authorities are in the immediate study area, which also
includes four of six authorities in LCR and one authority in the
Greater Manchester City Region. These councils play an essential
role in setting local policies that affect climate change resilience.
Mersey Forest
Founded 1990 / The public-private partnership is one of 12 English
community forests created to increase tree coverage. Mersey
Forest has a particular focus on the benefits of trees for adapting
to climate change.
Nature Connected
Founded 2012 / The local nature partnership for the LCR, the
organisation convenes public, private and third sector groups to
help improve the local natural environment.
United Utilities
Founded 1995 / The water utility for Northwest England, the
company is actively pursuing strategies to reduce demand for
water and improvement wastewater management, including
through SuDS.
Limitations
All participants were currently involved with third sector, charitable
organisations. Additional participants from private and public sector
organisations, local politicians and members of the public may have
helped to further refine findings and identify additional areas for
further study. Fortunately, most participants had past experience with
other organisations from the public or private sector (e.g., local
utilities), and referenced that experience when providing feedback.
Climate Change 29
Lessons for the Mersey from Elsewhere
Photo: Tom McCall Waterfront Park, formerly a motorway, in Portland, Oregon Authors image

Climate Change 30
Background
This section reviews six case studies and examines what has been
done in terms of climate change mitigation or adaptation, identifying
lessons for the Mersey Estuary. Case studies were selected on the
basis that they have similar population sizes and levels of
development to the Mersey Estuary and its surrounding areas. These
places are also experiencing similar changes in climate and are
preparing to withstand similar threats.
The Netherlands Coastline Management
The Waal River, Netherlands showing reconfigured levees and a new flood relief channel
Dutch Water Sector
A significant part of the Netherlands is on a delta formed by the rivers
Rhine, Meuse and Scheldt. Around 60% of the country is prone to
6
A low wall or barrier extending from the coastline to prevent erosion
flooding and nearly 26% lies below sea level (Slomp, 2012). Climate
change has the potential to exacerbate local flooding and storms,
therefore the country has sought to manage its coastline to avoid the
worst effects.
With climate change, forecasters anticipate that the rivers will drain
increasing volumes of rain and melt water from upstream locations
(Ruimte voor de rivier, 2017). However, dykes along the river have
limited capacity to hold this extra water. As a result, the Netherlands
has designed and implemented the Room for the River scheme
which enables the water to drain faster and more effectively. The
scheme was set up in 2006 and involves:
o Deepening the river bed
o Relocating dykes
o Creating higher water channels
o Lowering the floodplains and groynes6
o Removing obstacles in the river bed, increasing the flow rate
Operating in over 30 locations along the river Rhine, the programme
aims to achieve safer river management, create an attractive
environment and protect settlements prone to flooding (Ruimte voor
de rivier, 2017). Notably, the scheme has successfully achieved its
objectives, increasing water safety and improving spatial quality
(Rijke et al., 2012). Figure 5.1 highlights lessons from the
Netherlands for planners along the Mersey Estuary.
Climate Change 31
Figure 5.1: Lessons from the Netherlands
Similar to the Netherlands, the land around the Mersey Estuary
is often low-lying and flood prone, so the Room for the River
strategy highlights the potential to manage natural and
manmade defences to prevent flooding.
Creating a greener, more attractive environment can help to
reduce runoff and create a pleasant place for recreation and
walking.
The Hudson River - Community engagement
Volunteers planting trees as part of the Trees for Tribs program
NY Department of Environmental Conservation
The Hudson River is a major waterway in New York State that flows
from the Adirondack Mountains south to New York Harbor. The New
York Department of Environmental Conservation has prepared six
management plans for the Hudson Rivers estuary, the most recent
in 2015. The current plan identifies three main threats posed by
climate change: increased frequency and severity of flooding, heat
waves and short-term drought (Department of Environmental
Conservation, 2015). Climate change may also threaten local
ecosystems and water quality.
In response, the state has sponsored the Hudson River Estuary
Program to educate and work with local communities to adapt to and
mitigate the effects of climate change, developing a deeper
understanding of the topic.
Trees for Tribs is one scheme promoted by the estuary programme
to help defend and re-establish natural streamside buffers. The
project was created in 2007 and involves planting a range of
vegetation along the banks of the Hudson River, which acts as a
natural flood defence, absorbing flood waters (Department of
Environmental Conservation, 2017). The scheme also prevents
pollutants from reaching the water and provides a habitat for local
species. 66,000 trees and shrubs have been planted on over 470
sites in the New York State by more than 7,600 volunteers
(Department of Environmental Conservation, 2017).
A second scheme, promoted by the Action Agenda, gives
communities the opportunity to become Climate Smart
Communities. By taking this pledge, voluntary groups receive state
assistance to prepare and adopt strategies aimed at reducing
emissions and preparing for the effects of future storms and flooding.
The scheme provides communities with modernised green
infrastructure, low-carbon technologies (e.g., solar technology for
outdoor lighting) and reduces energy intensity by implementing a
purchasing policy for energy products, in the hope of lowering overall
energy consumption (New York State, 2014; Department of
Climate Change 32
Environmental Conservation, 2017). Planners for the Mersey Estuary
can learn from these efforts (see: Figure 5.2).
Figure 5.2: Lessons from the Hudson
Providing both opportunities for residents to learn about climate
change and take action is essential to building local support for
broader efforts.
Preparing regular updates to the estuary management plan is
important to incorporate new evidence and lessons learned
from elsewhere.
An approach such as this is can develop public commitment to
climate mitigation.
Portland, Oregon Green infrastructure
Rain garden planted along a street in Portland, Oregon
City of Portlands Environmental Services
Portland, Oregon is a West Coast American city exposed to flooding
from the overflow of the rivers Columbia, Tualatin, Willamette and
Sandy. Storm surges and melting snow are major factors in the
severity of flooding events. However, climate change risks more
frequent and intense rainfall, which may increase flooding and
landslides, putting strain on existing systems for managing runoff
(City of Portland and Multnomah County, 2015). These effects, when
combined with a growing population and new development, could
lead to substantial social and economic costs (City of Portland and
Multnomah County, 2015).
In 2007, Portland adopted The Green Streets Policy to manage
excess rainwater and protect water quality (City of Portland, 2017).
A Green Street is one which uses vegetation to restrict surface run-
off (City of Portland, 2007). The SuDSs create a space for water while
utilising areas for natural growth, improving street aesthetics and
promoting connectivity between city neighbourhoods (City of
Portland, 2007). Currently, 12 streets have been listed as Green
Streets in Portland (City of Portland, 2017).
Portland recommitted to Green Streets as part of the citys 2015
Climate Action Plan, which aims to provide local strategies to address
climate change and its effects. Objective 15 of the plan is to reduce
the risks and effects from flooding and landslides by preparing for
much stronger storms. By 2020, Portland aims to manage storm-
water naturally by, for example, encouraging green infrastructure,
reducing paved surfaces and defending floodplains and wetlands
crucial for flood protection (City of Portland and Multnomah County,
2015). The success of Portlands efforts offers lessons for the Mersey
Estuary (see: Figure 5.3).
Climate Change 33
Figure 5.3: Lessons from Portland
Planting vegetation along urban streets can reduce surface
runoff, mitigate flood risk while also improving aesthetics and
create a pleasant spatial characteristic.
Establishing a local policy that promotes Green Streets can
help popularise the concept and encourage more businesses
and residents to invest in streetscape improvements.
The Thames Estuary Flood risk preparedness
Thames Barrier raised to prevent flooding This Is Local London
The Thames Estuary flows through London, North Kent and South
Essex. The region is heavily populated, with considerable floodplain
development that is important for business, heritage, culture and
commerce. Climate change increases the risk of flooding for all these
sites (Environment Agency, 2012). In particular, if sea level rise
continues to accelerate, then the Thames Estuary and London may
have to cope with sea levels of over 2.7m by 2100 (Environment
Agency, 2012).
To protect against rising seas, the Greater London Council invested
in the Thames Barrier, which opened in 1984. The structure is a
moveable flood barrier, spanning 520m across the Thames Estuary
in central London (Environment Agency, 2014). Including the
Thames Barrier, the manmade flood defence system includes nine
major barriers, 36 flood gates, 400 moveable structures and over
330km of walls and embankments (Environment Agency, 2012).
In 2011, the Environment Agency published The Thames Estuary
TE2100 Plan, which identifies proposals for flood risk management
for estuary and the surrounding areas. To prepare the plan, the Met
Office and others conducted research to understand the overall
effects of climate change. This data informed five, detailed spatial
policies in strategic flood risk management.
For example, TE2100 calls on London City to take further action to
reduce flood risk. Notably, the report calls for additional action
despite the Thames Barrier, secondary flood tidal defences along the
estuary frontage, 22 sewer overflows for urban drainage mitigation
and flood forecasting and warning systems. However, although the
Thames Barrier has been successful in protecting approximately 1.5
million people over the past three decades, the effects of climate
change are requiring the barriers to be closed at an increasing rate.
This situation is leading to questions about its long-term efficacy and
the possible need for a new barrier (Hanlon, 2014). Figure 5.4
highlights some lessons for the Mersey Estuary.
Climate Change 34
Figure 5.4: Lessons from the Thames
The comprehensive flood defence system, most notably the
Thames Barrier, demonstrates the importance of investing in
flood prevention infrastructure. This evidence base can inform
plans to build a Mersey Barrage to reduce flood risk.
London has recognised the potential for flood-risk warning
systems to alert communities to approaching storms.
Authorities along the Mersey Estuary should strongly consider
a similar approach.
The Severn Estuary Renewable energy generation
Design for the planned Severn Tidal Barrage Marks Barfield Architects
The Severn, Wye, Usk and Avon rivers create the Severn Estuary in
Southern Wales and Southwest England. Crucially, the estuary
supports major cities and rural populations, is prominent in nature
conservation and has a rich cultural and historical heritage (Severn
Estuary Partnership, 2016). In 1995, the Severn Estuary Partnership
was formed to inform residents and organisations who have interests
in the estuary and to support a cohesive approach to estuary
management. Similar to the original Mersey Estuary Management
Plan, the Severn Estuary Strategy does not have a standalone
section on climate change.
The Estuary Strategy has five key principles (e.g., achieving a
sustainable marine economy), with some content on climate change.
For example, the plan states that the estuary must be resilient to the
effects of climate change, specifically flood risk and coastal erosion
(Severn Estuary Partnership, 2016). In addition, one objective is to
encourage renewable and sustainable resource use and to facilitate
appropriate action on climate change adaptation and mitigation
(Severn Estuary Partnership, 2016). The strategy hopes those with
interests in the estuary understand, discuss and prepare for the
effects of climate change.
The plan also describes the area as favourable for renewable energy
generation. Specifically, the area has widespread connections to the
national grid system, high demand, good transport infrastructure,
wind resources and a large tidal range (Severn Estuary Partnership,
2017). High on the agenda for energy generation in the Severn
Estuary is tidal power. The UK government has set a target for
renewable energy to power 15% of total consumption by 2020
(Department of Energy and Climate Change, 2010). Tidal power,
including the proposed Severn Estuary Barrage (and nearby
Swansea Tidal Lagoon) may contribute to this aim.
Climate Change 35
Figure 5.5: Lessons from the Severn
Plans for the tidal power demonstrate an important opportunity
for generating renewable energy and a reduction in the reliance
on fossil fuels.
Proposals for a tidal barrage in the Mersey Estuary should
examine the Environmental Impact Assessments from the
projects on the Severn and apply appropriate strategies to
plans for the Mersey.
The absence of a climate change section in the Severn Estuary
Strategy should encourage the new Mersey Estuary
Management Plan to firmly acknowledge climate change.
Copenhagen Alternative transport
Painted cycle lane in Copenhagen Tatyana Synkevych.
Copenhagen, the capital of Denmark, is a coastal city on the islands
of Zealand and Amager. In 2009, the city published a Climate Plan
aiming to make Copenhagen climate neutral by 2025 (City of
Copenhagen, 2009). The plan acknowledged that mobility is
essential, but favoured alternative modes of transport (especially
walking and bicycling) instead of cars to reduce GHG emissions. To
achieve this outcome, the city is pursuing several transport initiatives,
including re-routing car traffic away from retail areas (City of
Copenhagen, 2009).
Copenhagen had experimented with ways to facilitate cycling before
releasing the climate change plan. In 2007, Copenhagen introduced
the Green Wave concept (Copenhagenize, 2014). The scheme
controls the citys traffic lights so that if cyclists ride at 20km per hour,
green lights will change to match their progress as they travel through
the city centre. This mechanism gives preference to cyclists instead
of drivers, while also improving traffic flow (Copenhagenize, 2014).
Copenhagen has also invested in significant new cycle infrastructure
throughout the city (Cathcart-Keays, 2016; Copenhagenize, 2017).
One example is the Cykelslangen, or the bicycle snake (Hoj, 2014).
The snake is an elevated two-way cycle bridge that connects the
harbour bridge and the highway. Notably, the ground-level includes
a separate walkaway for pedestrians. As a result, the development
has simplified the crossing for both people on foot and cyclists.
These investments have helped Copenhagen achieve significant
results. In 2016, over 50% of all trips within the city centre were made
by bicycle (Cathcart-Keays, 2016). Figure 5.6 summarises lessons
for the Mersey Estuary.
Climate Change 36
Figure 5.6: Lessons from Copenhagen

Enabling people to use alternative modes of transport requires

shifting investments from infrastructure designed to
accommodate cars to infrastructure designed for cycling,
walking and public transport.

Although new infrastructure is important, transport planners

around the Mersey Estuary can also modify existing
infrastructure to prioritise other transport modes (e.g., changing
traffic light cycles).

Climate Change 37
Analysis SWOT, Key Sites and Themes
Photo: the Mersey Estuary with a view of Liverpool (left) and Birkenhead (right) from New Brighton Authors image

Climate Change 38
Strengths
Accessible yet sheltered location
This strength enables the estuary to remain relatively calm and stable
despite its advantageous proximity to the Atlantic Ocean and beyond.
Its location in north-western England is also beneficial as the area is
continentally rebounding7, which lessens the threat of future sea level
rise. The area is a historically populous and educated one, a strength
which provided the estuary with the strong support basefrom
residents to organisationsit needed to spur past clean-up efforts.
Support for biodiversity and flood prevention
The Mersey Estuary provides and is surrounded by a diverse network
of protected natural areas and habitatsranging from marshes to
sand duneswhich makes it an important habitat for thousands of
migratory bird and marine species. The existing marshes, sand
dunes and coastal green spaces also act as buffers to defend against
floods and sea level rise due to climate change. Some studies have
shown that the local offshore wind turbines already in place have
created artificial reefs for marine species, thereby improving the
quality of local marine ecosystems (Wilson, 2007).
Helpful estuarine dynamics and renewable energy facilities
The Merseys extreme, powerful tidal range can be harnessed for
energy generation. The estuary can also help moderate the
temperature of Liverpool and other riverside towns if air temperatures
fluctuate drastically due to climate change. Fortunately, a detailed
7
Continental rebound occurs to land masses that were once depressed by ice sheets but no
longer are, resulting in their slow uplift for millennia to follow.
historical record exists on Mersey tides, temperatures, winds and sea
levels to help identify weather patterns now and in the future. The
area is currently home to various wind farms, photovoltaic facilities
and bioenergy facilities and is suitable for much more.
An area suitable for sustainable transportation
Much of the historic housing stock in the region is dense, which
makes retrofitting those specific settlements into more pedestrian-,
cyclist- and transit-friendly places a feasible way to reduce GHG
emissions. One initiative, City Bike Liverpool, was implemented in
May of 2014 and now has over 130 stations between Garston and
Walton. Currently, cycle lanes on major roadseven in the less
dense areas of the Wirralare being installed. The area is also
already home to Merseyrail and an expansive bus network. For
destinations further afield, the Mersey Estuary is well-connected to
major markets such as London and Paris by high-speed rail.
Strong partnerships and a vested interest
An effective, interconnected network for water management already
exists in the area, which makes coordinated efforts for estuary clean-
up much more feasible. In addition, Nature Connected, a local branch
of the UK-wide Local Nature Partnerships exists in Liverpool. Further,
in March of 2015, a Combined Authority Transport Plan for Growth
outlined the plans for the LCR to become a more car-independent
area, thus mitigating climate change through lower GHG emissions
Climate Change 39
Weaknesses

Inherently vulnerable to flooding
Much of the population and vital infrastructure are located on or near
the Mersey, which are in increasing danger due to sea level rise and
intensified flooding. In particular, the Liverpool docks are all built on
reclaimed land, making them extremely susceptible to flooding.
Complex estuarine shape, town history and climate
The estuary cannot be easily bridged between New Brighton and
Runcorn, which prevents people from crossing the river by foot or on
bicycle. Much of the dense housing stock in the area has been
demolished to widen roads or build larger houses on larger plots.
Environmental issues are not addressed alongside socioeconomic
interventions, thus inhibiting integrated solutions. Low sun exposure
and strong winds make it more difficult for street trees to grow.
reluctant to support innovative projects because of a lack of pressure
from voters. For example, Liverpool Mayor Joe Anderson approved
removing all but four of the citys bus lanes in 2013 (BBC, 2014).
Carbon- and chemical-intensive industries
As a major shipping port, the region bears the brunt of GHG
emissions from ships and heavy goods vehicles, leading to poor local
air quality. The areas industrial legacy also left many hard-to-treat
brownfield sites behind, with high rehabilitation costs discouraging
developers from investing in them despite the potential benefits for
sustainable transport and the economy.

A lack of political will

Many local policy documents do not focus on climate change in the
context of the Mersey Estuary. A regional policy requiring
environmentally-friendly construction does not yet exist and the
approach to planning and implementing green infrastructure is
piecemeal. No local policies address air pollution, schools do not
spend nearly enough time teaching students about environmental
issues and no regional campaign is making citizens aware of the
effects of climate change on their hometown. High profile national
politicians who deny the existence or severity of climate change
inhibit productive planning on the issue. Local politicians may be Inconvenient pedestrian crossing on Upper Parliament St in Liverpool Authors image

Climate Change 40
Opportunities

Renewable energy also enact ballast water policies, which could reduce the number of
Many additional sites in the area are suitable for housing renewable invasive species that enter the Mersey Estuary via the shipping
energy facilities and those sites should be used especially if the effect industry. Arriva has hybrid buses that emit fewer GHG emissions
on wildlife is minimal. Illustrative technologies include: barrages, than their current fleet, and the LCR could encourage Arriva to use
solar panels, wind turbines, tidal lagoons, waste-to-energy, tidal those buses locally (Stakeholder Information, 2017).
stream generators, tidal energy converters, tidal turbines and water- Nature as a resource
source heat pumps. The region has also been designated as one of
The estuary is centrally located for many area residents, so it can be
three locations for carbon capture and storage in the UK. As noted in
an outdoor classroom for teaching about the harms of pollution on
the map, some waste-to-energy facilities are already active, with
the beauty and utility of the estuary. Many engineers and scientists
more planned. However, more untapped landfills exist.
are already aware that naturally occurring safeguards work best for
Strong foundation for urban revitalisation mitigating the damage caused by natural processes. Local
Climate change and hazardous air pollution can be simultaneously safeguardssuch as sand dunesshould be imitated to better
mitigated by retrofitting dense settlements in the area into places that protect the area from flooding and erosion.
are more accommodating to alternative modes of transportation, thus
reducing GHG emissions. Wide streets that are not used as
thoroughfaressuch as in neighbourhoods with terraced housing
can be narrowed to allow space for wider pavements, trees,
lampposts, etc. In the process of retrofitting those dense areas,
permeable paving could replace impervious surfaces so as to reduce
urban runoff, thus mitigating flood risk.

A Liverpool City Region

The devolution deal, which encompasses most of the study area
(excluding Warrington) creates a structure to plan climate change
mitigation and adaptation activities at a regional scale. A regional
coordinated effort could be made to strengthen, connect and expand
View of the wind turbines at the Port of Liverpool Authors image
the current network of green and blue infrastructure in the area to
improve biodiversity and mitigate flooding. The City Region could

Climate Change 41
Threats

Development pressures changing climate may negatively affect the migrating, feeding and
Increased development places pressure on the water supply and breeding patterns of many species.
increases the amount of impermeable surfaces in the area, which Intensified storms
exacerbates urban runoff into the estuary. The proposed expansion
Storm surges could flood homes, businesses, refineries and power
of LJLA may encroach upon the areas used by thousands of species
plants. The rapid inundation of marshland and other terrains used by
for feeding, breeding and dwelling. Due to the planned expansion of
wildlife could reduce their utility for local species.
the north docks, many essential spaces for wildlife and/or flood
prevention like Seaforth Nature Reserve are being pressured to Sea level rise
relinquish space to development.
This threat could cause permanent flooding of manmade structures
Increased rainfall lining the estuary leading to extremely high costs to the local
economy and the livelihood of residents. Notably, many local
This threat can exacerbate the flooding of homes and businesses.
heritage sites and beloved spaces are along the banks of the Mersey.
Increased rainfall will also accelerate erosion, thus threatening the
structural integrity of many buildings, sand dunes and cliffs. In
addition, erosion will increase turbidity8 in the estuary and hasten the
silting of the Mersey, thus threatening marine species and increasing
dredging costs. Increased rainfall will raise the regions water table,
possibly leading to inland flooding.

Increased air and water temperatures

By warming waters, climate change is enabling some invasive marine
species to continue living once they have been discharged into the
Mersey. Increased air temperatures could also worsen air quality,
thus harming the health of local residents. People living in warmer
climates are also more prone to pandemic diseases which are
generally transported via the shipping industry. In addition, a quickly
Grade 1-listed Albert Dock threatened by flooding and sea level rise Authors image

8
The cloudiness of the water caused by erosion and urban runoff.

Climate Change 42
Key at-risk sites
These seven sites listed here are particularly susceptible to the
effects of climate change, especially flooding, and should receive
attention from policymakers.
Ellesmere Port
The wider Ellesmere Port area, including Ince and Stanlow, is a
popular location for heavy industry, including a chemical plant and an
oil refinery. This industry is located near the Mersey and is thus at
risk of flooding and sea level rise. Marshes used by migratory birds
and other species are located just north of the industrial area
between the Mersey and the Manchester Ship Canaland are at risk
of inundation as well.
Formby
The coastal area stretching north and south of Formby is lined with
sand dunes that protect the inland settlements from flooding.
However, the dunes are naturally attempting to move further inland
which threatens many homes. Some of the dunes are restricted from
moving inland by the pine plantation that exists immediately east of
them. The pine plantation is now a natural reserve for red squirrels
so any alterations to it are extremely controversial despite the need
to enable the sand dunes to carry out their natural processes.
Disabling the natural movement of those dunes may exacerbate
flooding in areas either north or south of them. The dunes are also at
risk of erosion due to increased rainfall caused by climate change.
Liverpool John Lennon Airport
The local access to destinations abroad is at risk if the Mersey
Estuary floods the runway of the airport. Local revenue from tourism
is also threatened by a flooded runway. Conversely, the planned
expansion of the airport will increase plane traffic and could remove
nearby open space used by birds and other species.
Liverpool and Birkenhead docks
The local economy and heritage is threatened if Liverpool city centre
and the docks on either side of the Mersey are flooded and rendered
unusable.
New Brighton
Many homes and businesses that exist near the riverbanks in New
Brighton are at risk of flooding caused by climate change.
Runcorn
Many homes and businesses that exist near the riverbanks in
Runcorn are at risk of flooding. The Rocksavage Power Plant located
in Runcorn is also low-lying and at risk of flooding.
Warrington
Many homes, businesses and industry that exist near the riverbanks
in Warrington are at risk of flooding. The Fiddlers Ferry Power Plant
located in Warrington is also low-lying and at risk of flooding.
Climate Change 43
Key themes

Flood preparedness climate change on their livelihoods unless they are educated about
The main issue caused by climate change in the area surrounding the ties between climate change and the Mersey. Many economic
the Mersey Estuary is flooding. Flooding is exacerbated by increased assistance programmes in the area could also focus on
rainfall, intensified storms, increased impervious surfaces, sea level environmental issues. Local schools should also focus more on
rise and the destruction of natural flood defences such as a dunes environmental issues from start to finish and a regional campaign
and marshes. The area can prepare for future flood events by could be set in place to increase awareness of the effects of climate
mitigating its effect on local waterways such as protecting and change on the Mersey and the wider area. The Mersey is also a
planting trees, reducing the amount of impervious surfaces in the centrally located public good that can be exploited by local
area and protecting dunes and marshes. The area can also prepare organisations and educational institutions as an outdoor classroom,
for future flood events by adapting to the predicted increases in which places the issues of climate change and pollution directly in
flooding, such as installing additional flood defences that mimic the hands of learners. Local people are more likely to make efforts in
natural safeguardslike sand dunes and marshesand limiting new reducing their carbon footprint as well as vote for policies and
construction in sensitive habitats and high-risk flood zones. politicians that are in favour of reducing our negative impact on the
environment if they are educated about the topic.
Greenhouse gas reduction
Climate change is already occurring and will persist as humans
continue to emit unprecedented amounts of GHGs into the
atmosphere. Humans living around the Mersey Estuary have much
to lose as a result of climate change, however, they have the ability
to reduce those eventual losses. The emission of GHGs into the
atmosphere can be lessened by planting trees, installing more
renewable energy facilities, retrofitting dense areas to accommodate
walking, cycling and public transit use and incentivising dense,
transit-orientated development.

Improved communication and awareness

Climate change is an issue that is due to be a low priority for most
people living around the Mersey Estuary unless communication and
Former docks on the Mersey with view of the Wirral Authors image
awareness are improved. Local people may not realise the effect of

Climate Change 44
Conclusion and Next Steps
Photo: path between mature trees in Birkenhead Park Authors image

Climate Change 45
Summary & Analysis

The content in this framework Empower residents to Enhance climate

comes from synthesising and share ideas & act change education
analysing the research from Engage & support for children & adults
vulnerable residents Enable sustainable
this stage and will guide the Prepare for infectious lifestyles, including
approach to Stage 2. disease outbreaks transport choices

Increase renewable
Bolster shoreline energy generation
management Reduce GHG
Recruit volunteers emissions
to fill data gaps
Environmental Adaptation Mitigation Environmental
Preserve & expand
Police the dumping public green infra-
of ballast water structure

Incentivise
Retrofit or remove
recycling, clean
infrastructure at high-
energy & green
risk of flood damage
infrastructure
Boost storm surge &
Limit new
flood warning systems
construction in
Prepare emergency
sensitive habitats &
response teams
high-risk flood
zones
Climate Change 46
Next Steps
To include robust climate change strategies in the Mersey Estuary
Resource 2040 plan, these actions should be taken:
Further collaboration with peers working on biodiversity,
estuarine dynamics, water quality and pollution and land use
and development projects to gain knowledge on the
interrelated effects on climate change.
Conduct further research into specific sites to reinforce the
importance of a mitigation and adaptation delivery plan for the
LCR Combined Authority.
Review practices from the Severn Estuary to evaluate the
possibility of incorporating similar approaches. This exercise
will be conducted through a site visit to the Severn Estuary
during the 24-27th April.
Continue interaction with potential partners to understand the
deliverability of the recommendations of this report, in terms
of priority, responsibility and outline costs.
Stage 2
The next stage of the project will aim to compose a set of visions and
objectives to include climate change in the Mersey Estuary
Management Plan.
Consequently, these objectives will help to underpin the findings from
Stage 1 and allow for the creation of a set of comprehensive action
plans concerning the specific sites worthy of mitigation and
adaptation interventions.
A coherent policy and funding strategy will be compiled to act as
supporting evidence for the rationale behind the proposed site-
specific action plans.
The action plans will be added to the climate change evaluation map
to provide visual context for the final outputs of the project. This task
is important to visualise key sites, which will build upon the issues
identified in Stage 1.
Climate Change 47
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Basin Campaign. Liverpool University Press.
Wilson, J. (2007). Offshore wind farms: their impacts, and potential habitat gains as artificial
reefs, in particular for fish. Tethys Knowledge Base.
Climate Change 49
 Climate Change
Teodora Golemdzhiyska
Maxime Devilliers
Erin Fairweather
Lauren Neary
Harry Berks
Jared Alves
ENVS467 - Spatial Planning In Action

Session 2016/17

Department of Geography and

Planning
School of Environmental Sciences
University of Liverpool

Climate Change 50