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CONTENT

SL No Experiment Name Page No.


1 BENDING TEST ON UTM 2
2 BRINELL HARDNESS TEST 4
3 ROCKWELL HARDNESS TEST` 6
4 CHARPY IMPACT TEST 8
5 IZOD IMPACT TEST 10
6 COMPRESSION TEST 13
7 DEFLECTION TEST ON BEAM 16
8 STUDY OF FATIGUE TESTING MACHINE 19
9 SINGLE AND DOUBLE SHEAR TEST 22
10 TENSION TEST ON MILD STEEL 24
11 TORSION TEST 28
12 TEST ON TILES BREAKING LOAD TEST 30
13 TEST OF TILES IN WATER ABSORPTION 32
14 TEST ON BITUMEN DUCTILITY PENETRATION 33
15 TEST ON BITUMEN FLASH AND FIRE POINT 36
16 37
TEST ON BITUMEN VISCOSITY AND SOFTINING
POINT
17 TEST ON BRICK COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH 39
18 TEST ON BRICK WATER ABSORPTION 42

1
EXPERIMENT No. 1

BENDING TEST ON UTM


Aim: To determine the Bending stress and Youngs Modulus of elasticity of a material of beam
simply supported at ends and carrying a concentrated load at the centre.

Apparatus: Universal Testing Machine, Wooden Beam, Scale etc.


75cm
50mm
50mm
[Wooden Specimen]

[Universal Testing Machine]

Theory: If a beam is simply supported at the ends and carries a concentrated load at its centre,
then the beam bends concave upwards. The distance between the original position of the beams
and its position after bending at different points along the length of the beam being maximum
at the centre in this case. The difference is known as deflection.
In this particular type of loading the maximum amount of deflection () is given by the relation,

W=Load acting at the center, N


L=Length of the beam between the supports, mm
E=Youngs modulus of material of the beam, N/mm2
I=Second moment of area of the cross-section (Moment of Inertia) of the beam, about the
neutral axis, mm4

Bending stress:

As per the bending equation, = =
Where,
M=Bending moment, N-mm
I=Moment of inertia, mm4
=Bending stress, N/mm2 and
y=Distance of the top of fiber of the beam from the neutral axis

Procedure:

2
1. Adjust cast-iron block along the bed so that they are symmetrical with respect to the
length of the bed.
2. Place the beam on the knife edges on the block so as to project equally beyond each
knife edge. See that the load is applied at the centre of the beam.
3. Note the initial reading of Vernier scale.
4. Add a weight of 20N (say) and again note the reading of the Vernier scale.
5. Go on taking readings adding 20 N (say) each time till you have minimum six readings.
6. Find the deflection () in each case by subtracting the initial reading of Vernier scale.
7. Draw a graph between load (W) and deflection (). On the graph choose any two
convenient points and between these points find the corresponding values of W and .
3
putting these values in the relation of = 48, calculate the value of E.

8. Calculate the bending stresses for different loads using relation = , =


, = . As given in the observation table.
4

Observation Table:
Sl. No. Load, W Bending Bending Deflection, Youngs
(N) Moment, M Stress, (mm) Modulus of
(N-mm) (N/mm2) elasticity, E
(N/mm2 )
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Calculations:

Results:
1. The Youngs modulus for steel beam is found to be .N/mm2.
2. The Youngs modulus for wooden beam is found to be N/mm2.

Precautions:
1. Make sure that beam and load are placed in a proper position.
2. The cross-section of the beam should be large.
3. Note down the readings of the Vernier scale carefully.

Comments/Conclusions:

3
EXPERIMENT No. 2

BRINELL HARDNESS TEST

Aim: To determine Brinell Hardness No of a metallic specimen.


Apparatus: Brinell hardness tester, Brinell Microscope, Specimen etc.

Theory: A steel ball of diameter D is forced into a test piece by a load P and the diameter d of
the indentation left on the surface of the specimen is measured. After removal of load, the
indentation formed on the surface of the specimen is assumed to be spherical. Brinell hardness
No is obtained as load in kgf divided by surface area of the indentation in mm square.

[Brinell Hardness Machine]

Load P
BHN

IndentedArea D D D 2 d 2
2

dd h

If depth of the indentation h is known, Brinell Hardness No. can be computed as


Load P
BHN , where h is the depth of indentation.
IndentedArea Dh

Procedure: (i) place the specimen on bearing plate after cleaning its surface properly and
rotate the hand wheel until the specimen comes in contact with the indenter. The load P for
various metals is shown above as rough guide depending upon the diameter D of the
penetrometer ball.
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(ii) Select the load from the table for the material has been supplied to you and put the dead
weight on the knife of the lever arm.
(iii) Engage the load by lifting the load releasing lever.
(iv) When movement of the lever ceases, wait up to 10 seconds for hard metal and 30 seconds
for soft metal for stability.
(v) Take 5 to 6 indentations and measure the cross diameters by Brinell Microscope and
tabulate them properly.
The distance of centre of indentation from the edge of the test piece shall be at least 2.5d of
indentation and the distance between centers of two adjacent indentations shall be at least 4
times the diameter of indentation. For light metals and alloys, the corresponding distances are
3d and 6d respectively.

Observation:

Sl. Material Load, Diameter of indentation, Surface Mean


No. P kg mm area, mm2 BHN BHN
d1 d2 D

Calculation:

Results:

Precautions and Comments:

5
EXPERIMENT No. 3

ROCKWELL HARDNESS TEST

Aim: To find the Rockwell Harness Number of a metallic specimen.


Apparatus: Rockwell hardness tester, Specimen etc.
Description and Theory: Rockwell hardness testing method like any other method of
hardness testing measures the resistance to plastic deformation or indentation principle.. A steel
ball or a diamond cone called Brale by trade name is used. An initial load of 10 kg called
minor load is applied due to which negligible indentation is formed on the surface of the
specimen. And other main purpose of this load is to maintain the contact between the indenter
and the bottom portion of the indentation. This load is increased by additional load called major
load. Purpose of this load is to increases the depth of indentation. If h is the depth of penetration
h
of the indenter or depth of indentation, Rockwell Hardness No. is given HR K ,
0.002
where K is constant and 0.002 is the value of one dial division in mm. In Rockwell hardness
1
test of B scale K is assumed to be 130 and the indenter used is hardened steel ball of inch
16
diameter and major load is 100 kg. In Rockwell C scale K is assumed to be 100 and indenter
is diamond cone with included angle 1200 rounded at the tip. The major load is 140 kg. The
minor load 10 kg is same for both the cases.

[Rockwell Hardness Machine]


Procedure: (i) keep the position of the lever towards operator.
(ii) Adjust the load with proper weight on the oil dash pot.
(iii) Adjust the reading on dial as small pointer0 and long pointer 0by zero setting screw.
Keep the specimen on the work table and rotate the hand wheel clockwise so that the indenter
touches the specimen and pushes it. Rotate the hand wheel till the small pointer reaches 3 (red
dot) and long pointer to zero.
(iv)Turn the load lever situated at right side so that the total load is brought into action.
(v) After the pointer reaches the steady position, turn the load lever anticlockwise. The major
load is disengaged and minor load remains active. Due to plastic recovery, pointer moves clock
wisely and remains stationary at certain position.
(vi)Read the figure against long pointer. This is the direct reading of hardness. Black figures
indicates hardness in C scale and red figure in B scale.

6
Observation:
Sl. Material Scale Minor Major Indenter Rockwell Mean
No load, kg load, kg Hardness HR
No.
1
2
3
4

Precautions and Comments:

Comparison of Rockwell and Brinell Method:


Brinell Method: Process is sow, cannot be used in thin sheets and cannot be used in extremely
hard materials due to flattening of the ball or ovalization of the ball due to plastic deformation
produces a more pronounced disfiguration of the material tested. Error arises in measuring the
diameter of the indentation due to upward flow of material around the sphere. Cannot be used
in surface hardened material since the depth of penetration may exceed the depth of case. The
load depends upon the material to be tested. Some upward thrust is applied to contact the
indenter with the specimen, due to which a small indentation may form before actual test is
conducted.
Rockwell Method: Harder material can also be tested rapidly. It does not spoil the surface
since indentation very small. By applying an initial minor load, the initial error caused by
upward thrust while making the specimen contact the indenter with this specimen, is
eliminated. The hardness no. can directly be read avoiding calculations.

7
EXPERIMENT No. 4

CHARPY IMPACT TEST (I. S.: 1499 1959)

Principle of Test: The test consists of breaking the specimen by a single blow from swinging
hammer under prescribed test conditions. The test piece is of U notch and supported at the
ends. The energy absorbed is determined by striking the specimen with a hammer at the centre
from which the impact value is obtained...

Detail of Notch
Hammer with tip
R = 1 mm radius = 2.0 to 2.5 mm
300
5 mm
4 mm

10 mm x 10 mm 55 mm
Square

5 mm 20 mm
40 mm

[Charpy Impact Testing Machine]

Testing Machine: (i) Distance between two supports is 40 mm.


Radius of curvature of supports is 1 mm.
Slope of supports 1 : 5.

8
Angle of tip of support is 300.
Radius of curvature of tip of supports is 2.0 to 2.5 mm.
Speed o hammer at the time of strike is4.0 to 7.0 m/s (BSS 5.7 m/s).
(ii) for standard test striking energy should be 30.0 1.0 kg m (300.0 10.0 Nm)
(iii) accuracy of the machine should be 0.5% of the maximum striking energy.
(iv) loss of energy in machine frame work should be negligible. The plane of swing of the
hammer should be vertical.
(v) the centre of percussion of the hammer should be at the point of impact..
Testing Requirements: tests should be performed at ambient temperature (27.0 2.00C).
(ii) test piece should lie squarely against supports with the plane of symmetry of notch within
0.5 mm of plane midway between them.
(iii) the test piece should be struck by the hammer in plane of symmetry of notch and its
opposite side.

Result:-

Note: A ductile test piece will not break into two parts, but will bend enough to pass along the
bent test piece through the clearance between supports. If it happens so, it is deemed to have
been fractured.

9
EXPERIMENT No. 5

IZOD IMPACT TEST

Aim: To find the amount of energy required to break a standard notched specimen by impact
load conducting Izod Impact Test.
Apparatus: Impact Testing Machine, Izod Hammer, Specimen gauge, Specimen.

Theory and Description: In manufacturing locomotive wheels, coins, connecting rods etc. the
components are subjected to impact (shock) loads. These loads are applied suddenly. The stress
induced in these components is many times more than the stress produced by gradual loading.
Therefore, impact tests are performed to asses shock absorbing capacity of materials subjected
to suddenly applied loads. These capabilities are expressed as (i) Rupture energy (ii) Modulus
of rupture and (iii) Notch impact strength.

Two types of notch impact tests are commonly-

Izod test
Charpy test

In Izod test, the specimen is placed as cantilever beam. The specimens have V-shaped
notch of 45. U-shaped notch is also common. The notch is located on tension side of specimen
during impact loading. Depth of notch is generally taken as t/5 to t/3 where t is thickness of
the specimen.

[Izod Impact Testing Machine]

Procedure: (i) Fix the Izod hammer in the position by locking arrangement provided in the
machine.
(ii) Fix the supporting block to the base of the machine by tightening the bolts provided.

10
(iii) Adjust the lifting arm to desired initial inclination.
(iv)Lift the hammer until its hook is engaged in the arm.
(v) Push down the measuring as well as indicator on the guide tube..
(vi)Grip the specimen in the support and tighten it. The rim of the index indicates in the scale
the available energy in the hammer in that position.
(vii) Pull the handle attached at one end of the rope, another end is connected to the hook of
the hammer. The hammer strikes the specimen after disengaging from arm, breaks the
specimen and swings in backward direction. Carrier lifts the arm fixed to the guide tube. The
guide tube is lifted up and this displaces the index.
(viii) Read the energy spent in breaking the specimen on the measuring device against the
index. Check the measuring device before conducting actual test by dropping the hammer from
a height observing whether index is raised to zero position or not, otherwise correct the zero
error.

Observation:
Sl. No. Initial Energy (E1), Residual Energy (E2), Absorb Energy or Energy
Joule Joule Required to break the
Specimen (E2 E1), Joule

Calculation :

Rupture
ModulusofRupture
EffectiveV olumeofSpecimen
AbsorbEnergy
Notch Im pactStrength
EffectiveC ross SectionalArea

Precaution: (i) The specimen should be prepared in proper dimensions.

(ii) Take reading more frequently.

(iii) Make the loose pointer in contact with the fixed pointer after setting the pendulum.

(iv). Do not stand in front of swinging hammer or releasing hammer.

(v) Place the specimen proper position.

(vi) no body should pull the handle, when the operator is fixing the specimen in the interest of
latters life.
(vii) to obtain accurate result, always apply such an impact energy that the specimen may break
in a single blow.
(viii) to ensure correct working of rope rake, the rope and roller over which it slides should be
clean.

11
(viii) always make sure that before starting the experiment rope brake works properly. This
should be checked by dropping the hammer from a small height..
(ix) calibration should be checked initially by leaving the hammer free so that the index comes
to zero or some positive error should be given to the machine for accurate measurement of
energy consumed to break the specimen.

12
EXPERIMENT No. 6

COMPRESSION TEST

Aim: To find the Compressive Strength and Material Properties of a wood specimen by
conducting Compression Test on CTM.
Apparatus: UTM, Wooden specimen, Vernier Calipers, Scale etc.
Theory: When a simple compressive load is applied to a specimen, the following types of
deformation may take place: Elastic or Plastic shortening of ductile materials, crushing and
fracture in brittle materials, a sudden bending deformation called Buckling in long slender
bars or combination of these. Ductile materials, such as mild steel has no meaningful
compressive strength. The lateral expansion and thus an increasing cross sectional area
accompanying the axial shortening. The specimen will not break. In wood when tested fracture
occurs commonly along a diagonal plane which is not the plane of maximum compressive
stress but one of the higher shear stress accompanying the uniaxial compression.
Wood consists of tube like cells which are tightly cemented together to form a basically
homogeneous material. The cells which run mostly in the same direction are called fibers. The
important physical properties are moisture content and density. These properties are related to
mechanical properties of wood.
Wood is an anisotropic material, which means that mechanical properties will be different
in different directions. When wood is loaded in the direction parallel to grain, it resists
maximum force. If loaded in the direction perpendicular to the direction of grain, the load
resisted by the wood is less. The compressive stress to weight ratios of some of the woods
exceed that of structural steel by as much as 80%..
W

b
W

13
[Compression Testing Machine]

If W is the load applied and A is the cross sectional area, then compressive stress is given
W W
by,
A bxd
Procedure: (i) Set the machine in working condition.
(ii) Fix the compressive platens in respective positions.
(iii) Place the specimen in bottom movable compressive platen and spherical plate on top of
the specimen.
(iv)Turn on the electrical switch so that the machine becomes operational.
(v) Move the upper plate such that there should be very small gap between upper plate and the
specimen.
(vi)Load the specimen and note down the forces in a fixed interval. Deformations should be
measured in each incremental load such that graph vs can be plotted to find the various
values such as Tangent Modulus, Proportional limit, compressive Strength and Modulus of
Elasticity.
Observation: Size of the specimen: L = cm, b = cm, d = cm.

Compressive Load = kgf


Calculation:
W W
=
A bxd
Stress calculation based on measured load may not be accurate when premature crushing occurs
at the ends of specimens.

14
Compressive
Strength

Proportional
Limit


The curve vs as shown in Figure, gives Tangent Modulus, Proportional limit,
compressive Strength and Modulus of Elasticity can be found.

Result:

Precautions:

Comments/Conclusions:

15
EXPERIMENT No. 7

DEFLECTION TEST ON BEAM

Aim: To find the modulus of elasticity by conducting deflection test on a simply supported
beam
Apparatus: Beam with horizontal supports, Loads, Scale, Vernier Calipers
Theory:

W y

A C D F B
x

a b

L
x
y
Fig. shows a simply supported beam of span length L, where load W acts at a distance a from
left support. Assume sign conventions as y positive () and x positive ().
By Mecaulian Theorem
EId 2 y
R1 x W x a
dx 2
EIdy R1 x 2
W
x a 2 C
1
dx 2 2

EIy
R1 x 3
W

xa
3

C1 x C 2
6 6
Boundary conditions, x = o, y = o and x = L, y = o
W L a
3
R1 L3
C2 2 0 and C1 L 0
6 6

C1
Wb 3 WLb
6L

6

Wb
6L

x L2 b 2
y
Wbx 3
Wbx


L2 b 2 W x a
3

6 EIL 6 EIL 6 EI

At C, x = a, y
Wba 3

2

Wab L b 2

6 EIL 6 EIL

ya
Wb 3
6 EIL
2

a a L b
Wa 2 b 2
3EIL
L 3
xab , WL
y
2 48 EI

16
L L 2L 23WL3
When, x , a and b , y
2 3 3 1296 EI
Thus assigning different values of x and a, we can get deflections at different points,. which
W
can be measured and thus E can be found drawing graph W vs . The slope ( Tan ) of

3
L
the curve is multiplied by gives the value of E for a simply supported beam loaded at
48 I
centre and deflection also measured at centre. For other point in the span same process is
repeated except the change in the multiplication factor.

[Universal Testing Machine]

Procedure: (i) measure the length of the beam (in this case it is 121 cm).
(ii) check the level of beam AB by spirit level.
(iii) clamp the dial gauge in the slotted guide at E above the beam, so that the gauge can measure
accurately any deflection produced by load ranging from 1 kg to 10 kg. In no cases load should
increase 6 kg. As this may cause permanent deformation.

17
(iv) place the hanger at C and gradually increase the load and measure the corresponding
reading in dial gauge at E.
(v) measure the breadth b and depth d at three different sections and take the average to find
bd 3
the moment of inertia as I .
12

Observation:
Sl. Load, Dial Gauge Reading, mm WL 3 Remark/
No. kg W W Mean Difference E Comment
48 I
increasing decreasing

Calculation:
Result:

Precautions and Comments: (i) extreme care to be given in the manner of loading.
(ii) ensure no skewness of beam.
(iii) plunger of dial gauge should have sufficient latitude.
(iv) any initial deformation or deviation from straightness will incur erroneous result.
(v) in spite all precaution taken, if value of E is does not come within 10% of actual value,
it meant that the material of beam was stressed beyond proportional limit.

18
Experiment No.-8

STUDY OF FATIGUE TESTING MACHINE


Aim: To study about the fatigue testing machine, endurance limit of a specimen and S-N curve.
Apparatus: Rotary Fatigue Testing Machine, Test Pieces, Vernier Caliper, Weights
Theory:
Introduction: Fatigue can be defined as the failure material under varying loads, well below
the ultimate static load, after a finite number of cycles of loading and unloading. This is very
frequent cause of failure of working parts of machines and load bearing parts of aircraft
structures, rockets and missiles etc. subject to repetitive loading.
A variety of fatigue testing apparatus is available in the market. Basically it should consist of
some way to produce alternating loads on the specimen, some counting arrangement for the
number of load cycles and some load measuring device. Control devices like stopping the
motor once the specimen breaks and keeping the load amplitude constant etc. may also be
incorporated.

Fig. Cantilever Rotary Fatigue Testing Machine

Description: The Rotating Cantilever Fatigue Testing Machine is designed for determining the
fatigue strength under reversed bending stresses using S-N curves. In modern machine
designing the fatigue strength has become important for determining the dimensions of a
component. For this reason the Fatigue Test has become one of the most important dynamic
test methods. The rotating cantilever machine helps test materials under revised bending
stresses using single point loading method.
The machine consists of a heavy base on which the vertical bracket is mounted which carries
the ball bearing housing for the main shaft. On one side of the main shaft driven pulley is
mounted. Driving pulley is fitted on the motor shaft which in turn is bolted on the base. The
pulleys are connected through a V-belt. The other end of the main shaft is threaded and collet
and nut assembly can be screwed on to it for clamping the test specimen having a shoulder of
12.7mm diameter. The loading hanger carries a ball bearing at the upper end. A sleeve is fixed
inside the bearing and the test piece shoulder 12.7 mm diameter slips in the sleeve during the
test run. The lower side of the hanger rod carries a platen with a raised step for centrally placing
the additional weights for loading the test specimen. Top of the hanger carries a guide rod
which passes through the cross arm of the frame for proper positioning of the loading hanger.
An electronic counter ON-OFF switch and an indicator are mounted on the base at the right
hand side. A proximity switch is fitted on the vertical bracket near the driven pulley and it
records the number of revolutions (stress cycles) of test specimen in conjunction with the
digital counter. The counter has a built in memory system which retains the counted number
even if power supply fails or the machine is stopped for some other reason. The digital counter

19
will show the previously counted number after restoration of power and start further counting
when the machine is started. It will set to zero only when the zero setting (re-setting) knob is
pressed with the power supply ON. A toggle switch provided on the electrical panel is for
switching on the power supply to the counter. An automatic stop switch is also provided
underneath the weight hanger which will stop the motor and the digital counter simultaneously
when the specimen fails and the hanger drops down on the stopper fitted below it. The system
works on 220/230V, single phase, 50Hz AC supply. A set of slotted weights is provided for
loading the test specimen. The self-weight of hanger is adjusted to 2.5Kg. Any load above this
in steps of 2Kg can be selected upto a maximum of 10Kg i.e. equivalent to 200Kg-cm bending
moment on a 20cm lever.

Test Specimen:
The standard test piece for this machine should have a total length of 256+-0.5mm and shoulder
on one end 12.7+-0.02mm diameter approximately 38mm long leaving about 50mm long
central portion of test section which may be machined to desired test section diameter between
5mm and 12mm. the ends should be joined to the test section by a smooth fillet leaving no
sharp edge. Ends of the test piece are tapped 3/16 BSW for ease of insertion in the collet and
its removal using a T-type holder.

Mounting of Test Specimen and Testing:


Screw the specimen T-type specimen holder into one end of the test piece and insert the test
piece through the hole in the RHS vertical member of the frame into the loading hanger sleeve
after raising the loading hanger by hand. Push the specimen further into the collet nut on the
main shaft coming out from the main ball bearing housing. Push the specimen till it touches
the stop inside the hollow main shaft. Then tighten the collet nut over the shaft end. A locking
pin is provided; tighten the RHS nut with the collet over the shaft till the specimen is firmly
held. Release the locking pin and remove the C-spanner. Take out the T-type specimen holder
by unscrewing it. Connect the MAIN. Set the counter to zero. Start the machine using given
push button on addressed weights on the hanger and set the counter R in the machine till the
desired number of stress cycles is completed or the specimen falls. Record the weight on the
specimen and the number of cycles.

Calculations: For calculations of bending moment on the test specimen, the lever arm should
be taken as 20cm. the actual mass of the slotted weights is marked on each weight. The mass
of the hanger should be taken as 2.5Kg.

Procedure:
1. Insert the test piece in the bearing housing of the machine and measure its diameter.
2. By using a dial gauge and rotating the test piece check the eccentricity which should
not be generally more than 0.03mm.
3. Apply suitable load by adjusting the jockey weight.
4. Set the revolution counter to zero.
5. Start the motor of the machine and record the number of revolutions after which the
specimen fails.
6. Increase the load and test other specimen in a similar way.
7. In each test calculate the stress applied
8. Plot a curve between stress and log N(where N denotes number of cycles).

Observations:

20
Diameter of the test Load(W) No. of cycles(N) Stress(N/mm2)
piece d(mm)
Endurance
limit(106 cycles)

Endurance Limit: In S- N curve, end is known as endurance limit. It is defined as the


maximum value of alternating stress, which a material can withstand without fracture. In
practice if a material can withstand 10 million cycles of stress, it is assumed that the material
will not fail for infinite time.

log Sa

Log end

Log N

Fig. S-N Curve

Precautions:

Results/Conclusion:

21
EXPERIMENT No. 9

SINGLE AND DOUBLE SHEAR TEST

Aim: To determine the shear strength of a mild steel specimen by Single and Double Shear
Test on UTM.
Apparatus: UTM, Vernier Calipers, Double Shear attachment etc.
Theory: The experiment is based breaking of specimen at two places The effective area of
specimen at the time of breaking is sum of cross-sectional areas at which it fails, which is twice
the cross-sectional area of specimen at which the specimen slips.
Load W 4W
Shearstress, 2
Sheararea d 2
d
4
Load W 2W
Shearstress, 2 , where W is the load at which the specimen
Sheararea 2 xd 2
d
4
fails, d is the diameter of the specimen.

[Universal Testing Machine]

Procedure: Clean the specimen and measure the diameter at three places and take the mean..
Then the specimen is placed properly in three annular shear testing kit and then the load is
applied gradually. The load is recorded after failure, when load pointer does not increase on
further loading.
Observation:
Diameter of specimen ,d =
Ultimate Load =

Ultimateload Ultimateload
Calculation: Shearstress,
2 xCross sec tionlArea 2 xCross SectionalArea

22
Results:

Comments:

23
EXPERIMENT No.- 10

TENSION TEST ON MILD STEEL

Aim: (i) To study the behaviour of mild steel specimen under the action of gradually increasing
load tested up to failure.
(ii) To determine yield stress, ultimate tensile strength, modulus of elasticity and Poissons
ratio.
Apparatus: 60T UTM, Gripping devices, Extensometer, Scale, Micrometer, Screw gauge,
Punch and Hammer.
Theory: The definitions used in this experiment are as follows
Gauge Length: The reference length over which the extension is measured.
Stress: When material is subject to action of force, it develops resistance. The
resistance per unit cross-sectional area is stress.
Linear Strain: Change in length per unit length per is strain.
Yield Stress: Stress at which considerable elongation first occurs in the test piece
without increase in load.
Ultimate Tensile Strength: The maximum load reached in a test piece divided by
original cross-sectional area
Modulus of Elasticity: It is the ratio of normal stress to axial strain up to
proportional limit. This is also termed as Youngs Modulus of Elasticity.
Percentage Elongation: Permanent elongation of gauge length after breaking. This
is expressed as percentage of original gauge length.
The value of percentage elongation depends on gauges chosen. Its value is higher for small
gauge length as the maximum stretching occurs near the point of fracture. According to ISI
specification for rods, Gauge length is 5.56Ao 5d.
Procedure: The diameter of the given specimen is found out with the help of micrometer screw
gauge at two or three places. The centre point of the specimen is located and half the value of
gauge length set off on either side of it using scale. The punch marks are made at these extreme
points to facilitate to mounting of extensometer. The punch marks also made at the interval of
2.5d for calculation of percentage elongation. Permanent elongation is measured over the
length of 5d, which contains neck.
The jaws for gripping the specimen are inserted in the bores provided in the cross-head and
adjustable cross-head. The test specimen is fixed at its upper end in the top cross-head by
operating hand wheel and locking lever. The adjustable cross-head is moved up to necessary
height. The lower end of the specimen is gripped at its lower end and locked. The extensometer
is mounted on the specimen. The points of the screw of the extensometer are fixed on the punch
mark of the specimen. After initial reading or zero error at zero load, the extensometer readings
are noted down at regular interval of increased load. Before yield point eight to ten readings
are taken.
The hydraulic pump is now put into operation and rate of loading is adjusted so that rate of
loading should not increase 1 kg/mm2 or as desired per second up to yield point.

As the yield point approaches, the pointer of the load measuring gauge remains stationary and
pointer of extensometer moves very rapidly indicating the flow of material without
corresponding increase in load. As loading is continued, the pointer shows increasing load. The
load reaches to its maximum value.. On further loading the pointer shows the decreasing order.
This is due to formation of neck. Although the load goes on decreasing the length of the
specimen goes on increasing, because real stress at neck goes on increasing. The specimen thus
breaks into two pieces with breaking sound. It is observed that the specimen has broken into

24
cup and cone fashion, a typical ductile fracture.. The pieces are put together and final gauge
length and final diameter at neck are recorded
Observations: Material of the specimen:
Original diameter of the specimen =
Original gauge length of the specimen =
Final diameter of the specimen =
Final gauge length of the specimen =
Yield load =
Ultimate tensile load =
Breaking load =
Calculation:

ChangeinareaofCross Section
Percentage reduction in area =
OriginalareaofCross Section
Changeinlength
Percentage increase in length =
OriginalLe ngth
YieldLoad
Yield Stress =
OriginalCross Sectionalarea

UltimateTe nsileLoad
Ultimate Tensile Strength =
OriginalCross Sectionaarea

BreakingLoad
Breaking Stress =
OrigialCro ss Sectionalarea
L
Modulus of Elasticity = Slopeoftheplot(loadvselongation) x
A0
Results:
Percentage reduction in area =

Percentage increase in length =

Yield Stress =

Ultimate Tensile Strength =

Breaking Stress =

Modulus of Elasticity =

25
Strain () Ultimate
Tensile Strength

Upper Yield Point

Lower Yield Point Breaking


Elastic Limit
stress

Proportional Limit

Elastic range
( )
0

[Universal Testing Machine]

Curve vs is a typical class of steel known as Mild Steel. The relationship between stress
and strain is linear up to proportional limit, the material is said to follow Hookes Law up to
point namely proportional limit. After this point the Hookes Law ceases to be applied even
though the material is in elastic stage. The point is called Elastic Limit and region is called
Elastic Range. Up to this point, the specimen can be unloaded without permanent
deformation, unloading will be along the linear portion of the diagram, the same path followed
during loading. A peak value upper yield point is quickly reached followed by leveling off
lower yield point. At this stage of loading, the specimen continues to elongate as long as load
is not removed, even though load is not increased. This constant stress region is called Plastic
Range. When further load is applied, the curve rises continuously and becomes flatter until the
maximum stress is reached known as Ultimate Tensile Strength. Throughout the test the
specimen elongates and the cross-sectional area decreases locally. This is due to slippage of
planes formed inside the material and actual strain produced is caused by shear stress, thus
resulting formation of neck gradually in this region. Since the cross-sectional area in this region
decreases continuously. The smaller area can take ever decreasing load. Hence the stress-strain
diagram tends to curve downward until the specimen breaks at breaking point known as
Breaking Stress.

26
Comments/Conclusion:

27
EXPERIMENT No. 11

TORSION TEST

Aim: To determine the modulus of rigidity of a solid circular rod by conducting Torsion Test.
Apparatus: Torsion Testing Machine, Vernier Calipers, Torsion meter etc.
Theory: A solid circular rod is subjected to a torsional moment at one end and gripped to
torsion testing machine at the other end, twisting moment can directly be read from the scale
provided and angle of twist can be measured by torsion meter. The torsion meter is such a
device which is fitted by gripping at two ends of gauge length in the specimen. The dial gauge
is fitted in such a way that the plunger is in contact with the plate. The angle of twist is noted
down from dial gauge in terms of arc length of a circle in mm. The angle of twist is calculated
dividing the dial gauge reading by the distance from the axis of the specimen to the contact
point of the dial gauge plunger.
TL
Thus from formula, G , where T is the twisting moment, Ip is polar moment of inertia,
I p
is angle of twist, L is the gauge length and d the diameter of the specimen.

[Mild Steel specimen]

[Torsion Testing Machine]


Description of Machine: A rigid base supports the load indicating unit and a traveling saddle
which carries the straining unit and gear box.
Indicating Unit: The torque on the specimen is transmitted on to the lever system of the load
indicating unit, the range of capacity is operated by an external hand wheel. A manual reset
pointer is there to set the pointer to zero.
Straining Unit: The torque is applied to the specimen by totally enclosed oil bath. Worm gear
system is coupled to four speed gear box. A single lever operates four sped gar box and three
position switch controls the direction of motion. A hand wheel is fitted for manual control of
straining..

28
Specimen Holder. The specimen holder has been designed to test the prepared specimen of
simple form. The specimen is fitted by semicircular jaws. These are self-centered and driven
in either direction.
Capacity selector: Select the load range required by rotating the selector wheel on the
indicating cabinet. Four ranges of load are available. The loading should be changed only when
the machine is under no load condition, otherwise the system inside the machine may be broken
Specimen: Various standard specimens have been designed and ranked on the basis of section
modulus. The gauge length is taken on the basis of torsion meter gripping.. Generally the gauge
10S
length is five times the diameter of the specimen. The relationship is G , where is the

angle twist in degree, S is the shear stress, G is modulus of rigidity. For shorter gauge length
500S
G .

Straining: Engage the required speed with gear and choose the direction of rotation. When
load is applied the torque is seen in the scale.
Procedure: (i) Grip the specimen in the semi cylindrical jaws.
(ii) Clamp the torsion meter.
(iii) Fix the dial gauge provided and note down the dial gauge reading for zero load or some
positive value
(iv)Select the speed by setting gear in the gear box and rotate the hand wheel provided in the
gear box.
(v) Note down both dial gauge reading and torque in increasing and decreasing order, if the
loading is within elastic limit the readings will be almost equal.

Observation:
Load Dial gauge reading, mm Angle
Sl. No. (Torque, Increasing Decreasing Mean Difference of Twist G
kg cm)

Calculation:

Result:

Precautions:

Comments:

29
Experiment No.-12
TEST ON TILES BREAKING LOAD TEST

AIM - To determine the breaking load of Terrazo flooring tiles .


APPARATUS
The unit consists of an angle iron frame. A double lever system with a ratio 1:12 provided for
applying the load. The lower lever is supported on ball bearing and carries a counter balanced
weight and a receiving pan. The lead shots flow through a supply in to the receiving pan. The
pan can be removed by just taking out a pin for transferring the lead shot to the storage pan.
The storage pan is permanently fixed through the top plate.
The upper lever is connected to the lower lever by means of straps. The upper lever is held by
an adjustable capstan. The adjustable loading yoke is connected to the upper lever through the
vertical rods passing through the top plate. The loading yoke cross head can be locked in
position after mounting the specimen.
Three 40 mm diameter rollers are provided. The self-aligning bearing rollers are mounted on
the metal blocks. The guide pins are fixed to the block and the corresponding holes are drilled
on the top plate to adjust the centre distance of bearing rollers to 250mm and 270mm for
320mm and 345mm long tiles respectively. The third rolling roller, also of 40mm is attached
to the loading yoke. The roller can be adjusted to sit centrally on the specimen while loading.
The load is applied to the specimen by allowing the lead shots to flow into the receiving pan
(loading pan) through a supply pipe with valve. The orifice of the valves is adjusted to load the
specimen at the rate of 45- 55 Kg /min. An L-shaped plate is attached to the lower lever, which
will strike automatically on the shutter of the valve as soon as the specimen fails, there by
cutting the flow of lead shots. Twelve times the weight of lead shot collected in the receiving
pan gives the failure load. The counter balancing weight slides on the screw of the lower lever
and can be locked in position by two nuts after balancing the lever. A stop is provided to restrict
the movement of lower lever when the specimen fails.

MACHINE OPERATION
Put the counter balance weight on the screw attached to the lower lever .Adjust the loading
roller along with the yoke for the specimen thickness. Adjust the counter weight so that the
lower lever is in balance position.

30
Keeping the specimen on the loading rollers start loading the specimen by starting the flow of
the lead shots. For this operate the shutter lever by pressing it down. As soon as the specimen
fails the lever strikes hard on the shutter and close the flow of lead shots.

SPECIMEN
Full size tiles 6 Nos.

PROCEDURE
1. Dry Test for Transverse Strength
(I) Place the tile specimen (air dried) horizontally on bearers with its wearing surface
uppermost and its sides parallel to the bearers.
(II) Place a plywood packing 3mm thick and 25mm wide between the tile and the bearers and
also between the tile and the loading bar.
(III) Apply load to mid-span starting from zero and increase it steadily and uniformly at a rate
not exceeding 200kg per metre width (measured along the bearer) per minute until the
specimen fails.
(IV) Note the breaking load.
(V) Repeat the experiment on the remaining tile specimens also and take the average.
2. Wet Test for Transverse Strength.
1. Immerse the tile specimens in water for 24 hours.
2. Take out the specimen from water and wipe to dryness.
3. Test the specimen as described in the dry test.
Note
Six tiles should be tested for dry strength and six tiles should be tested for wet strength
RESULTS
Breaking load (dry test) =

Breaking load (Wet test) =

31
Experiment No.-13
TEST OF TILES IN WATER ABSORPTION
AIM : -
To determine the percentage of water absorption of roofing tiles.
APPARATUS
A sensitive balance
SPECIMEN
Two tiles shall be used for this test from the sample selected.
PROCEDURE
(I) Dry the tiles selected in an oven at a temperature of 105 TO 110 C till they attain
constant weight and then cool and weigh ( ).
(ii)When cool, immerse the dry specimen completely in clean water at 272C for 24 hours.
Remove each specimen, wipe off the surface water carefully with a damp cloth and weigh the
specimen nearest to a gram ( ) within 3 minutes after removing the specimen from the
tank.

CALCULATION
Percentage of water absorption

Where =wt. of the specimen after 24 hours immersion in clean water


= wt. of the dry specimen.
RESULT
Water absorption of the given roofing tiles= ..%

32
Experiment No.-14

TEST ON BITUMEN DUCTILITY PENETRATION

AIM:
(i) To measure the ductility of a given sample of bitumen
(ii) To determine the suitability of bitumen for its use in road construction.
APPARATUS:
The apparatus as per IS: 1208-1978 consists of
(i) Briquette mould: It is made of brass. Circular holes are provided at ends called clips to grip
the fixed and movable ends of the testing machine. The mould when properly assembled form
a briquette specimen of following dimensions.
Total length 75.0 0.5 mm
Distance between clips 30.0 0.3mm
Width at mount of slip 20.0 0.2mm
Width at minimum cross-section
(half way between clips) 10.0 0.1mm
Thickness throughout 10.0 0.1mm
(ii) Water bath: A bath maintained within 27.0 0.1 C of the specified test temperature
containing not less than 10 litres of water, the specimen being submerged to a depth of not less
than 10 cm and supported on a perforated shell and less than 5 cms from the bottom of the bath.
(iii) Testing machine : For pulling the briquette of bituminous material apart, any apparatus
may be used which is so constructed that the specimen will be continuously submerged in water
while the two clips are being pulled apart horizontally at a uniform speed of 50 2.5 mm per
minute.
(iv)Thermometer. Range 0-44C and readable up to 0.2C
THEORY:
The ductility test gives a measure of adhesive property of bitumen and its ability to stretch. In
flexible pavement design, it is necessary that binder should form a thin ductile film around
aggregates so that physical interlocking of the aggregates is improved. Binder material having
insufficient ductility gets cracked when subjected to repeat traffic loads and it provides
pervious pavement surface. Ductility of a bituminous material is measured by the distance in
centimetres to which it will elongate before breaking when two ends of standard briquette
specimen of material are pulled apart at a specified speed and specified temperature.
PROCEDURE:

33
(i) Melt the bituminous test material completely at a temperature of 75C to 100 C above the
approximate softening point until it becomes thoroughly fluid.
(ii) Strain the fluid through IS sieve 30.
(iii) After stirring the fluid, pour it in the mould assembly and place it on a brass plate. In order
to prevent the material under test from sticking, coat the surface of the plate and interior
surfaces of the sides of the mould with mercury or by a mixture of equal parts of glycerine and
dextrin.
(iv)After about 30-40 minutes, keep the plate assembly along with the sample in a
water bath. Maintain the temperature of the water bath at 27 C for half an hour.
(v) Remove the sample and mould assembly from the water bath and trim the specimen by
levelling the surface using a hot knife.
(vi)Replace the mould assembly in water bath for 80 to 90 minutes.
(vii) Remove the sides of the mould.
(viii)Hook the clips carefully on the machine without causing any initial strain.
(ix) Adjust the pointer to read zero.
(x) Start the machine and pull clips horizontally at a speed of 50 mm per minute.
(xi) Note the distance at which the bitumen thread of specimen breaks.
Mean of two observations rounded to nearest whole number is ductility value.
Note: Machine may have a provision to fix two or more moulds so as to test three specimens
simultaneously.
PRECAUTIONS:
(i) The plate assembly upon which the mould is placed shall be perfectly flat and level so that
the bottom surface of the mould touches it throughout.
(ii) In filling the mould, care should be taken not to distort the briquette and to see that no air
pocket is within the moulded sample.
OBSERVATIONS:
(i) Bitumen Grade =
(ii) Pouring Temperature =
(iii) Test Temperature =
(iv)Period of cooling in minutes
(a) In air =
(b) In water bath before trimming =
(c) In water bath after trimming =

34
1 2 3

(a) Initial Reading

(b) Final Reading

RESULT:
Ductility value =
RECOMMENDED VALUE:
Suitability of bitumen is judged depending on its type and proposed use. Bitumen with low
ductility value may get cracked especially in cold weather. Minimum values of ductility
specified by ISI for various grades are as follows.

Source of paving bitumen and penetration grade Min ductility value (cms)
Assam Petroleum A25 5
A35 10
A45 12
A65, A90 & A200 15
Bitumen from sources other than Assam
50
Petroleum S35
S45, S65 & S90 75

35
Experiment No.-15

TEST ON BITUMEN FLASH AND FIRE POINT

AIM: To determine the flash and fire point of bitumen


APPARATUS:
Pensky-Marten Closed Tester, Thermometer
THEORY:
Bituminous material leave out volatiles at high temperatures depending upon their grade. These
volatile vapours catch fire causing a flash. The flash point is the lowest temperature at which
flash occurs due to ignition of volatile vapours when a small flame is brought in contact with
the vapours of a bituminous product, gradually heated under standardised condition. When
bituminous material is further heated to a higher temperature, the material itself catches and
continues to burn; the lowest temperature causing this is the fire point. Fire point is always
higher than flash point.
The flash point of a material is the lowest temperature at which vapour of a substance
momentarily take fire in the form of flash.
The fire point is the lowest temperature at which the material gets ignited and burns under
specific conditions of test.
PROCEDURE:
All parts of cup are cleaned and dried thoroughly. Material is filled into cup upto filling mark.
Lid is placed to close the cup in a closed system. All accessories including thermometer of
specified range are suitably fixed. Bitumen sample is then heated. Stirring is done at regular
intervals. The test flame is lit and applied at intervals depending upon expected flash and fire
point. First application is made at about 17C below actual flash point and then at every 1C.
Stirring is discontinued during the application of the test flame.
RESULT:
Flash point of bitumen =
Fire point of bitumen =

RECOMMENDED VALUES: The minimum value of flash point by Pensky Martens closed
type apparatus is 175C for all grades of bitumen.

36
Experiment No.-16
TEST ON BITUMEN VISCOSITY AND SOFTINING POINT

AIM: - To determine the softening point of bitumen/ tar.


APPARATUS:
(i) The ring and ball apparatus consisting of
(a) Steel balls-two numbers each of 9.5 mm diameter weighing 3.5 0.05 g.
(b) Brass rings-two numbers each having depth of 6.4 mm. The inside diameter at bottom and
top is 15.9mm and 17.5 mm respectively.
(c) Ball guides to guide the movement of steel balls centrally.
(d) Support -that can hold rings in position and also allows for suspension of a thermometer.
The distance between the bottom of the rings and the top surface of the bottom plate of the
support is 25mm.
(i) Thermometer that can read up to 100 C with an accuracy of 0.2 C.
(ii) Bathheat resistant glass beaker not less than 85 mm in diameter &1220mm deep.
(iii) Stirrer
THEORY:
The Softening Point of bitumen or tar is the temperature at which the substance attains
particular degree of softening. As per IS: 334-1982, it is the temperature in C at which a
standard ball passes through a sample of bitumen in a mould and falls through a height of 2.5
cm, when heated under water or glycerine at specified conditions of test. The binder should
have sufficient fluidity before its applications in road uses. The determination of softening
point helps to know the temperature up to which a bituminous binder should be heated for
various road use applications. Softening point is determined by ring and ball apparatus.
PROCEDURE:
(i) Preparation of test sample: Heat the material to a temperature between 75-100 C above its
softening point; stir until, it is completely fluid and free from air bubbles and water. If
necessary, filter it through IS sieve 30. Place the rings previously heated to a temperature
approximating to that of the molten material, on a metal plate which has been coated with a
mixture of equal parts of glycerine and dextrin. After cooling for 30 minutes in air, level the
material in the ring by removing the excess material with a warmed, sharp knife.
(ii) Assemble the apparatus with the rings; thermometer and ball guides in position
(iii) Fill the bath with distilled water to a height of 50mm above the upper surface of the rings.
The starting temperature should be 5 C.

37
Note: Use glycerine in place of water if the softening point is expected to be above 80 C; the
starting temperature may be kept 35 C.
(iv)Apply heat to the bath and stir the liquid so that the temperature rises at a uniform rate of 5
0.5 C per minute.

(v) As the temperature increases the bituminous material softens and the balls sink through the
rings carrying a portion of the material with it.
(vi)Note the temperature when any of the steel balls with bituminous coating touches the
bottom plate.
(i) Record the temperature when the second ball touches the bottom plate.
The average of the two readings to the nearest 0.5C is reported as softening point.
PRECAUTIONS:
(i) Distilled water should be used as the heating medium.
(ii) During the conduct of test the apparatus should not be subjected to vibrations. (iii)The bulb

Temperature when the ball touches 1 2


bottom, C

of the thermometer should be at about the same level as the rings.


OBSERVATIONS:
RESULT:
Softening point of bitumen / tar = C
RECOMMENDED VALUE:
Softening point indicates the temperature at which binders possess the same viscosity.
Bituminous materials do not have a melting point. Rather, the change of state from solid to
liquid is gradual over a wide range of temperature. Softening point has particular significance
for materials to be used as joint and crack fillers. Higher softening point ensures that they will
not flow during service. Higher the softening point, lesser the temperature susceptibility.
Bitumen with higher softening point is preferred in warmer places.

38
Experiment No.-17

TEST ON BRICK COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH

Aim: - To determine the compressive strength of bricks


Apparatus: - Compression testing machine, the compression plate of which shall have ball
seating in the form of portion of a sphere centre of which coincides with the centre of the
plate.

Fig: Compression Testing Machine

Specimens: - Three numbers of whole bricks from sample collected should be taken .the
dimensions should be measured to the nearest 1mm
Sampling: - Remove unevenness observed the bed faces to provide two smooth parallel faces
by grinding .Immerse in water at room temperature for 24 hours .Remove the specimen and
drain out any surplus moisture at room temperature. Fill the frog and all voids in the bed
faces flush with cement mortar (1 cement,1 clean coarse sand of grade 3mm and down). Store
it under the damp jute bags for 24 hours filled by immersion in clean water for 3 days
.Remove and wipe out any traces of moisture.

Procedure:-
(I) Place the specimen with flat face s horizontal and mortar filled face facing upwards
between plates of the testing machine.

(II) Apply load axially at a uniform rate of 14 ( ) per minute till failure
occurs and note maximum load at failure.

39
(III) The load at failure is maximum load at which the specimen fails to produce any further
increase in the indicator reading on the testing machine.

Calculation

The average of result shall be reported.

Range Calculation
Maximum compressive strength =

Contact area =

Maximum expected load =

The range to be selected is

Result
Average compressive strength of the given bricks =..

IS SPECICATIONS

Speciation of Common Clay Building Bricks


Dimensions: The standard size of clay bricks shall be as follows

Length (mm) Width (mm) Height (mm)

190 90 90
190 90 40

40
Classification: The common burnt clay shall be classified on the basis of average
compressive strength as given in table.

Average compressive strength


Class Designation
Not less than Less than

( ) ( )

350 35 40

300 30 35

250 25 30

200 20 25

175 17.5 20

150 15 17.5

125 12.5 15

100 10 12.5

75 7.5 10

50 5 7.5

35 3.5 5

41
Experiment No.-18

TEST ON BRICK WATER ABSORPTION


Aim:- To determine the percentage of water absorption of bricks
Apparatus:- A sensitive balance capable of weighing within 0.1% of the mass of the
specimen and ventilated oven
Specimen:- Three numbers of whole bricks from samples collected for testing should be
taken.
Procedure :-
(I) Dry the specimen in a ventilated oven at a temperature of 105 C to 115C till it attains
substantially constant mass.
(II) Cool the specimen to room temperature and obtain its weight ( ) specimen too warm
to touch shall not be used for this purpose .
(III) Immerse completely dried specimen in clean water at a temperature of 27+2C for 24
hours.
(IV) Remove the specimen and wipe out any traces of water with damp cloth and weigh the
specimen after it has been removed from water ( ).

CALCULATIONS :-
Water absorption, % by mass, after 24 hours immersion in cold water in given by the
formula,

The average of result shall be reported.


Result :-
Water absorption of the given bricks = .%
Specification :-

42
When tested as above, the average water absorption shall not be more than 20% by weight up
to class 125 and 15% by weight for higher class.

43

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