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Research Methods
for Social Work
Seventh Edition
Allen Rubin
University of Texas at Austin
Earl R. Babbie
Chapman University
Australia Brazil Canada Mexico Singapore Spain United Kingdom United States
Copyright 2009 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.
Research Methods for Social Work, 2011, 2008 Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning
Seventh Edition
Allen Rubin and Earl Babbie
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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 13 12 11 10 09
Dedication
To our wives
CHRISTINA RUBIN
SUZANNE BABBIE
Contents in Brief
PART 1 Chapter 16 Analyzing Existing Data:

An Introduction to Scientific Inquiry Quantitative and
in Social Work 1 Qualitative Methods 407
Chapter 1 Why Study Research? 2

PART 6
Chapter 2 Evidence-Based Practice 25 Qualitative Research Methods 435
Chapter 3 Philosophy and Theory in Social
Work Research 45 Chapter 17 Qualitative Research:
General Principles 436
Chapter 18 Qualitative Research:
PART 2
Specific Methods 456
The Ethical, Political, and Cultural Context
of Social Work Research 73 Chapter 19 Qualitative Data Analysis 477
Chapter 4 The Ethics and Politics of

PART 7
Social Work Research 74
Analysis of Quantitative Data 499
Chapter 5 Culturally Competent Research 106
Chapter 20 Quantitative Data Analysis 500
PART 3 Chapter 21 Inferential Data Analysis: Part 1 527
Problem Formulation and Measurement 131 Chapter 22 Inferential Data Analysis: Part 2 549
Chapter 6 Problem Formulation 132
PART 8
Chapter 7 Conceptualization and
Operationalization 164 Writing Research Proposals and Reports 573
Chapter 8 Measurement 187 Chapter 23 Writing Research Proposals
and Reports 574
Chapter 9 Constructing Measurement
Instruments 214
Appendix A Using the Library 599
PART 4 Appendix B Statistics for Estimating
Designs for Evaluating Programs and Practice 243 Sampling Error 607
Chapter 10 Causal Inference and Experimental Glossary 617
Designs 244 Bibliography 631
Chapter 11 Quasi-Experimental Designs 271 Index 643
Chapter 12 Single-Case Evaluation Designs 291
Chapter 13 Program Evaluation 318
PART 5
Data-Collection Methods
with Large Sources of Data 349
Chapter 14 Sampling 350
Chapter 15 Survey Research 381
iv
Contents in Detail
Preface XV Other Ways of Knowing 13

Tradition 13
Authority 14
PART 1 Common Sense 14
An Introduction to Scientific Popular Media 14
Inquiry in Social Work 1 Recognizing Flaws in Unscientific Sources of Social
Work Practice Knowledge 16
Chapter 1
Inaccurate Observation 16
WHY STUDY RESEARCH? 2
Overgeneralization 17
Introduction 3
Selective Observation 17
Agreement Reality 3
Ex Post Facto Hypothesizing 18
Experiential Reality 3
Ego Involvement in Understanding 19
Science 4
Other Forms of Illogical Reasoning 19
The Utility of Scientific Inquiry in Social Work 4
The Premature Closure of Inquiry 20
Will You Ever Do Research? 5
Pseudoscience 21
Reviews of Social Work Effectiveness 5
Main Points 21
Early Reviews 5
Review Questions and Exercises 23
Studies of Specific Interventions 6
Internet Exercises 23
The Need to Critique Research Quality 7
Additional Readings 24
Publication Does Not Guarantee Quality 7
Separating the Wheat from the Chaff 7
Answering Critics of Social Work 8
Chapter 2
EVIDENCE-BASED PRACTICE 25
Compassion and Professional Ethics 8
Introduction 26
A Mental Health Example 9
Historical Background 26
Utility of Research in Applied Social
Work Settings 10 The Nature of Evidence-Based Practice 27
Research Methods You May Someday Use in Steps in Evidence-Based Practice 28
Your Practice 10 Step 1. Formulate a Question to Answer
NASW Code of Ethics 11 Practice Needs 28
The Scientific Method 11 Step 2. Search for the Evidence 30
Keep an Open Mind 12 Step 3. Critically Appraise the Relevant
Studies You Find 34
Observation 12
Step 4. Determine Which Evidence-Based
Objectivity 12 Intervention Is Most Appropriate for Your
Replication 13 Particular Client(s) 36
vi C O N T E N T S I N D E TA I L
Step 5. Apply the Evidence-Based Intervention 37 Main Points 70

Step 6. Evaluation and Feedback 38 Review Questions and Exercises 71
Distinguishing the EBP Process from Internet Exercises 72
Evidence-Based Practices 38 Additional Readings 72
Controversies and Misconceptions
about EBP 40
Main Points 42
PART 2
The Ethical, Political, and Cultural
Context of Social Work Research 73
Chapter 4
THE ETHICS AND POLITICS OF
SOCIAL WORK RESEARCH 74
Chapter 3
Introduction 75
PHILOSOPHY AND THEORY IN
SOCIAL WORK RESEARCH 45 Institutional Review Boards 75
Introduction 46 Voluntary Participation and Informed Consent 76
Ideology 46 No Harm to the Participants 78
Paradigms 47 Anonymity and Confidentiality 82
Postmodernism 47 Deceiving Participants 83
Contemporary Positivism 49 Analysis and Reporting 84
Interpretivism 50 Weighing Benefits and Costs 85
Critical Social Science 51 Right to Receive Services versus Responsibility to
Evaluate Service Effectiveness 86
Paradigmatic Flexibility in Research 52
NASW Code of Ethics 88
Theory 53
IRB Procedures and Forms 89
Theory and Values 53
Training Requirement 89
Utility of Theory in Social Work Practice
and Research 54 Expedited Reviews 89
Social Work Practice Models 55 Overzealous Reviewers 92
Atheoretical Research Studies 56 Four Ethical Controversies 92
Prediction and Explanation 56 Observing Human Obedience 93
The Components of Theory 57 Trouble in the Tearoom 94
The Relationship between Attributes Welfare Study Withholds Benefits from
and Variables 57 800 Texans 94
Two Logical Systems 60 Social Worker Submits Bogus Article to
Test Journal Bias 96
Comparing Deduction and Induction 60
Bias and Insensitivity Regarding Gender
Probabilistic Knowledge 63 and Culture 98
Two Causal Models of Explanation 64 The Politics of Social Work Research 99
Use of Nomothetic and Idiographic Research in
Objectivity and Ideology 100
Social Work Practice 64
Social Research and Race 101
Quantitative and Qualitative Methods
of Inquiry 66 Main Points 103
Mixed Methods 67 Review Questions and Exercises 104
Objectivity and Subjectivity in Scientific Internet Exercises 104
Inquiry 68 Additional Readings 105
C O N T E N T S I N D E TA I L vii
Chapter 5 Main Points 128

CULTURALLY COMPETENT Review Questions and Exercises 129
RESEARCH 106 Internet Exercises 129
Introduction 107 Additional Readings 129
Research Participants 107
Measurement 107
Data Analysis and Interpretation 107 PART 3
Acculturation 108 Problem Formulation and
Impact of Cultural Insensitivity on Measurement 131
Research Climate 108 Chapter 6
Developing Cultural Competence 109 PROBLEM FORMULATION 132
Recruiting and Retaining the Participation of Minority Introduction 133
and Oppressed Populations in Research Studies 111 Purposes of Social Work Research 133
Obtain Endorsement from Community Exploration 133
Leaders 111
Description 134
Use Culturally Sensitive Approaches Regarding
Confidentiality 112 Explanation 135
Employ Local Community Members as Evaluation 135
Research Staff 112 Constructing Measurement Instruments 135
Provide Adequate Compensation 112 Multiple Purposes 136
Alleviate Transportation and Child-Care Selecting Topics and Research Questions 136
Barriers 113 Narrowing Research Topics into Research
Choose a Sensitive and Accessible Setting 113 Questions 138
Use and Train Culturally Competent Attributes of Good Research Questions 139
Interviewers 113 Feasibility 140
Use Bilingual Staff 114 Involving Others in Problem Formulation 142
Understand Cultural Factors Influencing Literature Review 143
Participation 114
Why and When to Review the Literature 143
Use Anonymous Enrollment with Stigmatized
Populations 114 How to Review the Literature 144
Searching the Web 144
Utilize Special Sampling Techniques 115
Be Thorough 145
Learn Where to Look 115
The Time Dimension 147
Connect with and Nurture Referral Sources 116
Cross-Sectional Studies 148
Use Frequent and Individualized Contacts and
Personal Touches 116 Longitudinal Studies 149
Use Anchor Points 117 Units of Analysis 151
Use Tracking Methods 117 Individuals 152
Culturally Competent Measurement 118 Groups 153
Culturally Competent Interviewing 118 Social Artifacts 154
Language Problems 120 Units of Analysis in Review 154
Cultural Bias 121 The Ecological Fallacy 155
Measurement Equivalence 122 Reductionism 157
Assessing Measurement Equivalence 124 Overview of the Research Process 158
Problematic Issues in Making Research More Diagramming the Research Process 159
Culturally Competent 127 The Research Proposal 162
viii C O N T E N T S I N D E TA I L
Main Points 162 Chapter 8

Review Questions and Exercises 162 MEASUREMENT 187
Internet Exercises 163 Introduction 188
Additional Readings 163 Common Sources of Measurement Error 188
Systematic Error 188
Random Error 191
Chapter 7 Errors in Alternate Forms of Measurement 191
CONCEPTUALIZATION AND Avoiding Measurement Error 193
OPERATIONALIZATION 164
Reliability 194
Introduction 165
Types of Reliability 196
Conceptual Explication 165
Interobserver and Interrater Reliability 196
Developing a Proper Hypothesis 166
TestRetest Reliability 196
Differences between Hypotheses and
Internal Consistency Reliability 197
Research Questions 166
Validity 198
Types of Relationships between
Variables 166 Face Validity 198
Extraneous Variables 168 Content Validity 200
Mediating Variables 169 Criterion-Related Validity 200
Operational Defi nitions 170 Construct Validity 201
Operationally Defi ning Anything Factorial Validity 202
That Exists 170 An Illustration of Reliable and Valid
Conceptualization 172 Measurement in Social Work:
Indicators and Dimensions 172 The Clinical Measurement Package 203
Conceptions and Reality 174 Relationship between Reliability and Validity 208
Creating Conceptual Order 174 Reliability and Validity in Qualitative
Research 209
The Influence of Operational
Defi nitions 175 Who Decides Whats Valid? 209
Gender and Cultural Bias in Operational Qualitative Approaches to Reliability
Defi nitions 176 and Validity 209
Operationalization Choices 176 Main Points 212
Range of Variation 176 Review Questions and Exercises 213
Variations between the Extremes 177 Internet Exercises 213
A Note on Dimensions 178 Additional Readings 213
Examples of Operationalization in
Social Work 178
Existing Scales 179 Chapter 9
Operationalization Goes On and On 183 CONSTRUCTING MEASUREMENT
A Qualitative Perspective on Operational INSTRUMENTS 214
Defi nitions 183 Introduction 215
Main Points 185 Guidelines for Asking Questions 215
Review Questions and Exercises 186 Questions and Statements 215
Internet Exercises 186 Open-Ended and Closed-Ended Questions 216
Additional Readings 186 Make Items Clear 216
C O N T E N T S I N D E TA I L ix
Avoid Double-Barreled Questions 216 Pre-experimental Pilot Studies 250

Respondents Must Be Competent to Answer 218 One-Shot Case Study 251
Respondents Must Be Willing to Answer 218 One-Group PretestPosttest Design 251
Questions Should Be Relevant 218 Posttest-Only Design with Nonequivalent
Short Items Are Best 219 Groups (Static-Group Comparison
Design) 252
Avoid Words Like No or Not 219
Experimental Designs 253
Avoid Biased Items and Terms 219
Randomization 258
Questions Should Be Culturally Sensitive 220
Matching 260
Questionnaire Construction 221
Providing Services to Control Groups 260
General Questionnaire Format 221
Additional Threats to the Validity of
Formats for Respondents 222 Experimental Findings 261
Contingency Questions 222 Measurement Bias 261
Matrix Questions 223 Research Reactivity 262
Ordering Questions in a Questionnaire 224 Diffusion or Imitation of Treatments 263
Questionnaire Instructions 225 Compensatory Equalization, Compensatory Rivalry,
Pretesting the Questionnaire 226 or Resentful Demoralization 265
A Composite Illustration 226 Attrition (Experimental Mortality) 265
Constructing Composite Measures 229 External Validity 267
Levels of Measurement 229 Main Points 268
Item Selection 230 Review Questions and Exercises 269
Handling Missing Data 230 Internet Exercises 270
Some Prominent Scaling Procedures 231 Additional Readings 270
Likert Scaling 231
Semantic Differential 232 Chapter 11
Constructing Qualitative Measures 232 QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS 271
Main Points 239 Introduction 272
Review Questions and Exercises 240 Nonequivalent Comparison Groups
Design 272
Ways to Strengthen the Internal Validity
of the Nonequivalent Comparison
Groups Design 273
Multiple Pretests 273
Switching Replication 274
PART 4 Simple Time-Series Designs 275
Designs for Evaluating Programs Multiple Time-Series Designs 278
and Practice 243 Cross-Sectional Studies 281
Chapter 10 Case-Control Studies 282
CAUSAL INFERENCE AND Practical Pitfalls in Carrying Out Experiments
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS 244 and Quasi-Experiments in Social Work
Introduction 245 Agencies 284
Criteria for Inferring Causality 245 Fidelity of the Intervention 284
Internal Validity 247 Contamination of the Control Condition 285
x C O N T E N T S I N D E TA I L
Resistance to the Case Assignment Protocol 285 Main Points 316

Client Recruitment and Retention 285 Review Questions and Exercises 316
Mechanisms for Avoiding or Alleviating Internet Exercises 316
Practical Pitfalls 286 Additional Readings 317
Qualitative Techniques for Avoiding or Alleviating
Practical Pitfalls 287
Chapter 13
Main Points 289
PROGRAM EVALUATION 318
Introduction 319
Purposes of Program Evaluation 319
Historical Overview 319
The Impact of Managed Care 320
Chapter 12 The Politics of Program Evaluation 323
SINGLE-CASE EVALUATION DESIGNS 291 In-House versus External Evaluators 323
Introduction 292 Utilization of Program Evaluation Findings 325
Overview of the Logic of Single-Case Designs 292 Logistical and Administrative Problems 326
Single-Case Designs in Social Work 294 Planning an Evaluation and Fostering
Use of Single-Case Designs as Part of Its Utilization 327
Evidence-Based Practice 295 Types of Program Evaluation 329
Measurement Issues 296 Evaluating Outcome and Efficiency 329
Operationally Defi ning Target Problems Cost-Effectiveness and CostBenefit Analyses 330
and Goals 297
Problems and Issues in Evaluating Goal
What to Measure 298 Attainment 331
Triangulation 298 Monitoring Program Implementation 335
Data Gathering 298 Process Evaluation 336
Who Should Measure? 299 Evaluation for Program Planning: Needs
Sources of Data 299 Assessment 337
Reliability and Validity 299 Focus Groups 340
Direct Behavioral Observation 300 Logic Models 341
Unobtrusive versus Obtrusive Observation 300 An Illustration of a Qualitative Approach
to Evaluation Research 342
Data Quantification Procedures 301
Main Points 346
The Baseline Phase 302
Alternative Single-Case Designs 304
AB: The Basic Single-Case Design 304
ABAB: Withdrawal/Reversal Design 305
Multiple-Baseline Designs 307
Multiple-Component Designs 309
PART 5
Data Analysis 311
Data-Collection Methods with
Interpreting Ambiguous Results 311
Large Sources of Data 349
Aggregating the Results of Single-Case
Research Studies 313 Chapter 14
B Designs 313 SAMPLING 350
The Role of Qualitative Research Methods in Introduction 351
Single-Case Evaluation 315 President Alf Landon 352
C O N T E N T S I N D E TA I L xi
President Thomas E. Dewey 353 Chapter 15

President John Kerry 354 SURVEY RESEARCH 381
Nonprobability Sampling 355 Introduction 382
Reliance on Available Subjects 355 Topics Appropriate to Survey Research 383
Purposive or Judgmental Sampling 357 Self-Administered Questionnaires 384
Quota Sampling 357 Mail Distribution and Return 384
Snowball Sampling 358 Cover Letter 385
Selecting Informants in Qualitative Research 358 Monitoring Returns 385
The Logic of Probability Sampling 359 Follow-up Mailings 387
Conscious and Unconscious Sampling Bias 359 Acceptable Response Rates 388
Representativeness and Probability A Case Study 388
of Selection 360 Interview Surveys 389
Random Selection 361 The Role of the Survey Interviewer 390
Can Some Randomly Selected Samples General Guidelines for Survey Interviewing 391
Be Biased? 362
Coordination and Control 392
Sampling Frames and Populations 362
Telephone Surveys 394
Nonresponse Bias 363
Computer-Assisted Telephone Interviewing 395
Review of Populations and Sampling Frames 364
Response Rates in Interview Surveys 396
Sample Size and Sampling Error 365
Online Surveys 397
Estimating the Margin of Sampling Error 365
Advantages and Disadvantages of Online
Other Considerations in Determining Surveys 397
Sample Size 367
Tips for Conducting Online Surveys 398
Types of Probability Sampling Designs 367
Survey Monkey 399
Simple Random Sampling 368
Comparison of Different Survey Methods 399
Systematic Sampling 368
Strengths and Weaknesses of Survey Research 402
Stratified Sampling 369
Main Points 405
Implicit Stratification in Systematic Sampling 371
Proportionate and Disproportionate
Stratified Samples 372 Internet Exercises 406
Multistage Cluster Sampling 373 Additional Readings 406
Multistage Designs and Sampling Error 373
Chapter 16
Stratification in Multistage Cluster Sampling 374
ANALYZING EXISTING DATA: QUANTITATIVE
Probability Proportionate to Size (PPS) AND QUALITATIVE METHODS 407
Sampling 375
Introduction 408
Illustration: Sampling Social Work Students 376
A Comment on Unobtrusive Measures 408
Selecting the Programs 376
Secondary Analysis 408
Selecting the Students 377
The Growth of Secondary Analysis 409
Probability Sampling in Review 377
Types and Sources of Data Archives 410
Avoiding Gender Bias in Sampling 377
Sources of Existing Statistics 410
Main Points 378
Advantages of Secondary Analysis 412
Review Questions and Exercises 379 Limitations of Secondary Analysis 413
Internet Exercises 379 Illustrations of the Secondary Analysis of Existing
Additional Readings 380 Statistics in Research on Social Welfare Policy 416
xii C O N T E N T S I N D E TA I L
Distinguishing Secondary Analysis from Other Standards for Evaluating Qualitative

Forms of Analyzing Available Records 417 Studies 451
Content Analysis 419 Contemporary Positivist Standards 451
Sampling in Content Analysis 420 Social Constructivist Standards 452
Sampling Techniques 420 Empowerment Standards 453
Coding in Content Analysis 421 Research Ethics in Qualitative Research 453
Manifest and Latent Content 421 Main Points 453
Conceptualization and the Creation of Review Questions and Exercises 454
Code Categories 422
Counting and Record Keeping 423
Qualitative Data Analysis 424
Quantitative and Qualitative Examples of
Content Analysis 424 Chapter 18
Strengths and Weaknesses of QUALITATIVE RESEARCH:
Content Analysis 426 SPECIFIC METHODS 456
Historical and Comparative Analysis 427 Introduction 457
Sources of Historical and Comparative Data 428 Preparing for the Field 457
Analytic Techniques 429 The Various Roles of the Observer 458
Main Points 431 Relations to Participants: Emic and Etic
Review Questions and Exercises 432 Perspectives 461
Internet Exercises 432 Qualitative Interviewing 463
Additional Readings 433 Informal Conversational Interviews 464
Interview Guide Approach 465
Standardized Open-Ended Interviews 467
PART 6 Life History 468
Qualitative Research Methods 435 Feminist Methods 468
Chapter 17 Focus Groups 468
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH: Recording Observations 470
GENERAL PRINCIPLES 436
Main Points 474
Introduction 437
Topics Appropriate for Qualitative Research 437
Prominent Qualitative Research Paradigms 438
Naturalism 438
Grounded Theory 438
Participatory Action Research 442 Chapter 19
Case Studies 443 QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS 477
Qualitative Sampling Methods 445 Introduction 478
Strengths and Weaknesses of Qualitative Linking Theory and Analysis 478
Research 448 Discovering Patterns 478
Depth of Understanding 448 Grounded Theory Method 479
Flexibility 449 Semiotics 480
Cost 449 Conversation Analysis 482
Subjectivity and Generalizability 449 Qualitative Data Processing 482
C O N T E N T S I N D E TA I L xiii
Coding 482 Multivariate Tables 519

Memoing 485 Descriptive Statistics and Qualitative
Concept Mapping 486 Research 520
Computer Programs for Qualitative Data 487 Main Points 523
Leviticus as Seen through NUD*IST 488 Review Questions and Exercises 524
Sandrine Zerbib: Understanding Women Internet Exercises 526
Film Directors 490 Additional Readings 526
Main Points 497
Review Questions and Exercises 497 Chapter 21
Internet Exercises 497 INFERENTIAL DATA ANALYSIS: PART 1 527
Additional Readings 497 Introduction 528
Chance as a Rival Hypothesis 528
Refuting Chance 529
Statistical Significance 529
PART 7
Theoretical Sampling Distributions 530
Analysis of Quantitative Data 499
Significance Levels 532
Chapter 20 One-Tailed and Two-Tailed Tests 533
QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS 500
The Null Hypothesis 536
Introduction 501
Type I and Type II Errors 536
Levels of Measurement 501
The Influence of Sample Size 538
Nominal Measures 501
Measures of Association 538
Ordinal Measures 502
Effect Size 540
Interval Measures 503
Strong, Medium, and Weak Effect Sizes 544
Ratio Measures 503
Substantive Significance 545
Implications of Levels of Measurement 503
Main Points 546
Coding 504
Developing Code Categories 505
Codebook Construction 507
Data Entry 508
Data Cleaning 508 Chapter 22
Univariate Analysis 509 INFERENTIAL DATA ANALYSIS:
Distributions 509 PART 2 549
Central Tendency 509 Introduction 550
Dispersion 512 Meta-Analysis 550
Continuous and Discrete Variables 513 Biased Meta-Analyses 551
Detail versus Manageability 514 Critically Appraising Meta-Analyses 552
Collapsing Response Categories 514 Statistical Power Analysis 553
Handling Dont Knows 515 Selecting a Test of Statistical Significance 556
Bivariate Analysis 516 A Common Nonparametric Test: Chi-Square 557
Percentaging a Table 516 Additional Nonparametric Tests 557
Constructing and Reading Bivariate Tables 517 Common Bivariate Parametric Tests 558
Bivariate Table Formats 517 Multivariate Analyses 559
x iv C O N T E N T S I N D E TA I L
How the Results of Significance Tests Are Presented Organization of the Report 591
in Reports and Journal Articles 562 Title 591
Common Misuses and Misinterpretations of Abstract 591
Inferential Statistics 562
Introduction and Literature Review 592
Controversies in the Use of Inferential
Statistics 566 Methods 592
Main Points 569 Results 593
Review Questions and Exercises 569 Discussion and Conclusions 593
Internet Exercises 570 References and Appendices 594
Additional Readings 570 Additional Considerations When

Writing Qualitative Reports 594
Main Points 595
PART 8 Review Questions and Exercises 596
Writing Research Proposals Internet Exercises 596
and Reports 573 Additional Readings 597
Chapter 23
WRITING RESEARCH PROPOSALS Appendix A
AND REPORTS 574 USING THE LIBRARY 599
Introduction 575 Introduction 599
Writing Research Proposals 575 Getting Help 599
Finding a Funding Source 575 Reference Sources 599
Grants and Contracts 576 Using the Stacks 599
Before You Start Writing the Proposal 577 The Card Catalog 600
Research Proposal Components 578 Library of Congress Classification 600
Cover Materials 578 Abstracts 600
Problem and Objectives 578 Electronically Accessing Library Materials 602
Literature Review 579 Professional Journals 602
Conceptual Framework 580
Measurement 580 Appendix B
Study Participants (Sampling) 584 STATISTICS FOR ESTIMATING
Design and Data-Collection Methods 584 SAMPLING ERROR 607
Data Analysis 585 The Sampling Distribution of 10 Cases 607
Schedule 585 Sampling Distribution and Estimates of
Sampling Error 608
Budget 585
Using a Table of Random Numbers 610
Additional Components 585
Table B-1: Random Numbers 611
Writing Social Work Research Reports 587
Confidence Levels and Confidence Intervals 614
Some Basic Considerations 588
Audience 588
Form and Length of the Report 589 Glossary 617
Aim of the Report 589 Bibliography 631
Avoiding Plagiarism 590 Index 643
Preface
After six successful editions of this text, we were the chosen interventionwhich has already had its
surprised at how many excellent suggestions for im- effectiveness empirically supported in prior research
proving it were made by colleagues who use this text may or may not be the best fit for a particular client.
or reviewed prior editions. Some of their suggestions
Clarified differences in sampling between the level
pertained to improving the current content. Others
of confidence and the margin of error and between
indicated ways to expand certain areas, while trim-
quota sampling and stratified sampling.
ming other areas to prevent the book from becom-
ing too lengthy and expensive. We have implemented Clarified how a scale can be incorporated as part
most of their suggestions, while also making some of a survey questionnaire.
other changes to keep up with advances in the field. In
Elaborated upon the use of random digit dialing
our most noteworthy changes we did the following:
and the problem of cell phones in telephone surveys.
Added quite a few graphics, photos, figures, and
tables to many chapters for visual learners. Increased our coverage of online surveys.
In many chapters, to make lengthy parts of the Moved the material on the proportion under the
narrative more readable, we added more transitional normal curve exceeded by effect-size values from an
headings. appendix to the section in Chapter 21 on effect size.
To address concerns about the books length and Expanded our coverage of meta-analysis.
cost, we moved the appendix A Learners Guide Discussed the disparate ways in which significance
to SPSS to a separate booklet that instructors can test results are presented in reports and journal articles.
choose whether or not to have bundled with the text
for student purchase. That SPSS guide has been up- The most significant new graphics we added are as
dated to SPSS 17.0. follows:
Expanded coverage of IRBs. A figure showing the connections between para-

digms, research questions, and research designs.
Expanded coverage of the literature review, par-
ticularly regarding how to do it. A figure contrasting the emphases in quantitative
and qualitative methods of inquiry.
Reorganized coverage of the two chapters on causal
inference and experimental and quasi-experimental A figure depicting quantitative and qualitative
designs, and deleted coverage of the elaboration examples for different research purposes.
model. (Adding content on spurious relationships in A figure showing how different research questions
Chapter 7 reduced the need for covering the elabora- and designs would fit different research purposes.
tion model in Chapter 10.)
A box to illustrate the end product of conceptualiza-
Added content clarifying the value of pilot studies tion, showing the various indicators of the construct of
using pre-experimental designs. PTSD and how clusters of indicators form dimensions.
Added a section on B designs in Chapter 12 in
A figure illustrating a spurious relationship.
light of the potential utility of these designs for prac-
titioners engaged in the EBP process, whose aim is Boxes summarizing actual published social work
not to make causal inferences but instead to monitor studies that illustrate the various experimental and
client progress in achieving treatment goals to see if quasi-experimental designs.
xv
xvi P R E FAC E
Two new figures to help students comprehend the of t he t ex t m at er i a l a nd it s appl ic at ion to

logic of quasi-experimental designs using multiple the problems that students are likely to encounter in
pretests or switching replications to better control for social work practice. Each chapter of the Practice-
selection biases. Oriented Study Guide lists behavioral objectives for
applying the chapter content to practice, a summary
Although the above changes are the most notewor-
that focuses on the chapters practice applications,
thy ones, most chapters were revised in additional
multiple-choice review questions that are generally
ways (many of which reflect reviewer suggestions) that
asked in the context of practice applications (answers
we hope instructors and students will find helpful. We
appear in an appendix along with cross-references to
believe and have been told by instructors that among
the relevant text material), exercises that involve prac-
this texts most important features have always been
tice applications that can be done in class (usually in
its comprehensive and deep coverage, and with each
small groups) or as homework, and practice-relevant
new edition we have sought to strengthen both. Re-
discussion questions. A crossword puzzle appears at
search content can be difficult for students to grasp.
the end of each chapter of the Study Guide to pro-
We think student comprehension is not aided by a sim-
vide students with an enjoyable way to test out and
plistic approach, so we explain things in depth and use
strengthen their mastery of the important terminology
multiple examples to illustrate the complex material
in each chapter. Solutions to each puzzle appear in an
and its relevance for practice. Moreover, taking this
appendix.
approach enhances the books value to students in the
In addition to enhancing student learning of re-
long run. They seem to agree, and many students keep
search content, we hope that this Study Guide will
the book for their professional libraries rather than re-
significantly enhance the efforts we have made in the
sell it at the end of the semester. This texts comprehen-
main text to foster student understanding of the rel-
sive coverage of the range of research methodologies
evance of research to practice and their consequent
and all phases in the research processparticularly its
enthusiasm for research. We also expect that this
extensive coverage of qualitative methods, culturally
Study Guide will be helpful to instructors by provid-
competent research, evidence-based practice, program
ing practice-relevant exercises that can be done in
and practice evaluation, and illustrations of practice
class or as homework.
applicationsrepresent our effort to help courses re-
flect current curriculum policy statements guiding the
accreditation standards of the Council on Social Work
SPSS 17.0 Booklet
Education.
We are excited about this new edition of Research Instructors also can opt to bundle our Learners Guide
Methods for Social Work and think the new mate- to SPSS with the text. That SPSS guide been updated
rial weve added, along with the other modifications, to SPSS 17.0.
will meet the needs of instructors and students who
seek to keep up with advances in the field. We hope Instructors Manual
youll fi nd this new edition useful. We would like to
As with previous editions, an Instructors Manual
receive any suggestions you might have for improv-
mirrors the organization of the main text, offering
ing this book even more. Please write to us in care of
our suggestions of teaching methods. Each chapter
academic.cengage.com, or e-mail us at arubin@mail
of the manual lists an outline of relevant discussion,
.utexas.edu.
behavioral objectives, teaching suggestions and re-
sources, and test items. This Instructors Manual is
set up to allow instructors the freedom and flexibility
ANCILLARY PACKAGE needed to teach research methods courses.
The test questions for each chapter include approxi-
Practice-Oriented Study Guide
mately 15 to 20 multiple-choice items, 10 to 12 true/
Instructors have the option of bundling this edition false items, and several essay questions that may
with the 7th edition of a Practice-Oriented Study be used for exams or to stimulate class discussion. Page
Guide that parallels the organization of the main references to the text are given for the multiple-choice
text but emphasizes its application to practice. The and true/false questions. Test items are also available
guide is designed to enhance student comprehension on disk in DOS, Macintosh, and Windows formats.
P R E FAC E xvii
GSS Data ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We have sought to provide up-to-date computer We owe special thanks to the following colleagues
and particularly microcomputersupport for stu- who reviewed this edition and made valuable sugges-
dents and instructors. Because many excellent tions for improving it: Kimberly Kotrla, Assistant Pro-
programs are now available for analyzing data, we fessor, Baylor University; Humberto Fabelo, Director
have provided data to be used with those programs. of BSW Program and Associate Professor, Virginia
Specifically, we are providing data from the National Commonwealth University; Yoshie Sano, Assistant
Opinion Research Centers General Social Survey, Professor, Washington State University, Vancouver;
thus offering students a variety of data gathered from Robert J. Wolf, Associate Professor, Eastern Con-
respondents around the country in 1975, 1980, 1985, necticut State University; Eileen M. Abel, Associate
1990, 1994 (no survey was done in 1995), and 2000. Professor, University of Central Florida; Amanda
The data are accessible through our Book Compan- C. Healey, Old Dominion University; Needha M.
ion website, described below. Boutte-Queen, Chair, Texas Southern University.
Edward Mullen, Professor, Columbia University also
made a helpful suggestion.
Book Companion Website
Thanks also go to the following staff members
Accessible through http://www.cengage.com/social at Cengage who helped with this edition: Rachel
work/rubin, the text-specific Companion Site offers McDonald, Editorial Assistant; Arwen Petty, Assistant
chapter-by-chapter online quizzes, chapter outlines, Editor; Trent Whatcott, Senior Marketing Manager;
crossword puzzles, fl ashcards (from the texts glos- Seth Dobrin, Acquisitions Editor; Tami Strang,
sary), web links, and review questions and exercises Marketing Communications Manager; and Michelle
(from the ends of chapters in the text) that provide Cole, Content Project Manager.
students with an opportunity to apply concepts pre-
sented in the text. Students can go to the Companion Allen Rubin
Site to access a primer for SPSS 17.0, as well as data Earl Babbie
from the GSS. The Instructor Companion Site fea-
tures downloadable Microsoft PowerPoint slides.
A PPENDI X A
Using the Library
INTRODUCTION Readers Guide to Periodical Literature: This annual

volume with monthly updates lists articles published in
We live in a world filled with social science research re-
many journals and magazines. Because the entries are
ports. Our daily newspapers, magazines, professional
organized by subject matter, this is an excellent source
journals, alumni bulletins, and club newsletters
for organizing your reading on a particular topic.
virtually everything you pick up to readcan carry
reports that deal with a particular topic. For formal In addition to these general reference volumes, youll
explorations of a topic, of course, the best place to start find a great variety of specialized references. Here are
is still a good college or university library. Today, there a few examples:
are two major approaches to finding library materials:
Social Work Abstracts
the traditional paper system and the electronic route.
Lets begin with the traditional method and then ex- Sociological Abstracts
amine the electronic option.
Psychological Abstracts
Social Science Index
GETTING HELP Social Science Citation Index
When you want to find something in the library, your Popular Guide to Government Publications
best friends are the reference librarians, who are spe-
New York Times Index
cially trained to find things in the library. Some librar-
ies have specialized reference librariansfor the social Facts on File
sciences, humanities, government documents, and so
Editorial Research Reports
forth. Find the librarian who specializes in your field.
Make an appointment. Tell the librarian what youre Monthly Catalog of Government Publications
interested in. He or she will probably put you in touch
Public Affairs Information Service Bulletin
with some of the many available reference sources.
Biography Index
Congressional Quarterly Weekly Report
REFERENCE SOURCES Library Literature
Youve probably heard the expression information
Bibliographic Index
explosion. Your library is one of the main battlefields.
Fortunately, a large number of reference volumes offer
a guide to the information thats available.
USING THE STACKS
Books in Print: This volume lists all of the books
currently in print in the United States, listed sepa- Serious research usually involves using the stacks,
rately by author and by title. Out-of-print books of- where most of the librarys books are stored. This sec-
ten can be found in older editions of Books in Print. tion provides information about finding books there.
599
600 A P P E N D I X A / U S I N G T H E L I B R A RY
The Card Catalog BF Psychology

BLBX Religion
In the traditional paper system, the card catalog is
the main reference system for finding out where C HISTORYAUXILIARY SCIENCES
books are stored. Each book is described on three D HISTORY (EXCEPT AMERICA)
separate 3 3 5 cards. The cards are then fi led in three
alphabetic sets: one by author, another by title, and EF HISTORY (AMERICA)
the third by subject matter. E United States
If you want to fi nd a particular book, you can look E5199 Indians of North America
it up in either the author fi le or the title fi le. If you G GEOGRAPHYANTHROPOLOGY
only have a general subject area of interest, thumb GN Anthropology
through the subject catalog. Subject catalog cards
typically have the following elements: H SOCIAL SCIENCES
HBHJ Economics and Business
1. Subject heading (always in capital letters) HMHX Sociology
2. Authors name (last name, fi rst name) J POLITICAL SCIENCE
3. Title of the book K LAW
4. Publisher L EDUCATION
5. Date of publication M MUSIC
6. Number of pages in the book plus other information. N FINE ARTS
7. Call number (This is needed to fi nd a nonfi ction P LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE
book on the library shelves. A book of fiction gener-
ally carries no number and is found in alphabetical Q SCIENCE
order by the authors name.) R MEDICINE
RT Nursing
Library of Congress Classification
S AGRICULTUREPLANT AND ANIMAL
Heres a useful strategy to use when youre research- INDUSTRY
ing a topic. Once youve identified the call number
for a particular book in your subject area, go to the T TECHNOLOGY
stacks, fi nd that book, and look over the other books U MILITARY SCIENCE
on the shelves near it. Because the books are arranged
by subject matter, this method will help you locate V NAVAL SCIENCE
relevant books you didnt know about. Z BIBLIOGRAPHY AND LIBRARY SCIENCE
Alternatively, you may want to go directly to the
stacks and look at books in your subject area. In
most libraries, books are arranged and numbered ABSTRACTS
according to a subject matter classification sys-
tem developed by the Library of Congress. (Some Some publications present summaries of books and
follow the Dewey decimal system.) The following articles that help you locate a great many references
is a shortened list of some Library of Congress easily and effectively. These summaries, called ab-
categories. stracts, are often prepared by the original authors.
As you fi nd relevant references, you can track down
the original works and see the full details. In social
Library of Congress Classifications (partial)
work, the most relevant publication of these abstracts
is Social Work Abstracts (formerly Social Work
A GENERAL WORKS
Research & Abstracts).
B PHILOSOPHY, PSYCHOLOGY, RELIGION The first step in using Social Work Abstracts is
BBD Philosophy to look at the subject index to fi nd general subject
A B S T R AC T S 601
headings related to your specific topic of interest. Ex- Childrens services and Citizen participation,
amine the subtopics listed under the relevant general as follows:
headings and look for topics that appear to be most
Childrens services
directly related to your specific topic of interest. Be-
side each will be one or more numbers. Because the vouchers for, 1003
abstracts are presented in numerical order, you can Chinese Americans
use the listed numbers to locate the abstracts of po-
and acculturation, 1081
tential interest to you. When you read the abstract,
you will learn whether the study it summarizes is psychosocial issues in working with, 1426
of sufficient likely relevance to warrant fi nding and Citizen participation
reading the report in its entirety. If it is worth read-
in advocacy for persons with disabilities,
ing, then the abstract will provide the reference infor-
1219
mation youll need to fi nd the full report, as well as
where you can contact its author. Under the heading Chinese Americans, you would
Lets walk through this process. Suppose you are fi nd two subheadings. The first subheading, and ac-
searching the literature for a valid scale to assess culturation, is the one youd want, and again you
the degree of acculturation of foreign-born Chinese would be referred to abstract number 1081.
Americans. In using Social Work Abstracts, your You can see the names of the articles coauthors,
fi rst step would be to fi nd a subject heading in the the title of the article, the journal in which it appeared,
Subject Index that fits the focus of your search. If the volume and issue numbers of that journal, what
you looked for the heading acculturation of foreign- pages the article appeared on, the date the article was
born Chinese Americans, you wouldnt fi nd it. Its published, a publication code number for that journal,
too specific. But if you looked for the broader head- an address for contacting the articles lead author, and
ing Acculturation, you would fi nd it in the alpha- a summary of the article.
betized Subject Index between the two headings Social Work Abstracts also provides an Author
Accountability and Activism, as follows: Index. Suppose you learn the name of an author who
Accountability had studied the assessment of acculturation of foreign-
born Chinese Americans. You could look up her name
and Joint Reviews in England, 1083 in the alphabetized Author Index and fi nd the num-
and school choice, 1243 bers of the abstracts of works written by that author
Acculturation appearing in the volume of Social Work Abstracts you
of Chinese Americans, 1081 happen to be examining. For example, if the authors
of Hispanic middle school students, 1231 name were R. Gupta, you would find abstract 1081 by
of Russian immigrants, 1430 examining the following section of the Author Index of
of West Indians, 1387 the September 2002 issue of Social Work Abstracts:
Activism Gumport, P. J., 1231

judicial, 1366 Gunther-Kellar, Y., 1003
Under the heading Acculturation, you would find four Gupta, R., 1081
subheadings. The first, of Chinese Americans, is the
Gupta, R., 1398
one youd want. The number beside it refers to the num-
ber of the abstract youd want to examine. Because each Gurnack, A. M., 1122
issue of Social Work Abstracts lists the abstracts it con- Guzley, R. M., 1080
tains in numerical order, you could just flip pages until
you found the page that contains abstract number 1081. H
Many of the abstracts in Social Work Abstracts are Hackworth, J., 1359
referenced under multiple subject headings. Suppose
instead of the heading Acculturation you looked Guptas name is listed twice. Thats because Gupta
for the heading Chinese Americans. You would authored two of the works abstracted in that issue
find it in the Subject Index between the headings: of Social Work Abstracts. Youd want to look at all
of the abstracts listed for the person you look up in most relevant to your particular interest. For example,
the Authors Index; perhaps all of them would be of if you are searching for studies on interventions for
interest to you. abused children, two of the various journals you may
want to examine are Child Welfare and Children and
Youth Services Review.
ELECTRONICALLY ACCESSING Examining recent issues of journals is less time-
LIBRARY MATERIALS consuming than you might imagine. These issues
ought to be available in the section of your library
In Chapters 2 and 6 we discussed how to use your that contains unbound current periodicals. Once you
computer to search online for literature. Instead of locate the recent issues of the relevant journals (the
repeating that material here, well just briefly remind last two years or so ought to suffi ce), it should take
you that library materials often can be accessed elec- only a few minutes to thumb through the tables of
tronically. Although there are different types of com- contents looking for titles that have some potential
puterized library systems, heres a typical example of bearing on your topic. Once you spot a relevant title,
how they work. turn to the page on which the article begins. There
As you sit at a computer terminal in the library, at you will fi nd an abstract of the article; just like the
a computer lab, or at home, you can type the title of abstracts that appear in publications of abstracts,
a book and in seconds see a video display of a catalog this one should take only seconds to read and will
card. If you want to explore the book further, you help you determine if the article is pertinent enough
can type an instruction at the terminal and see an to warrant reading in greater detail.
abstract of the book. Alternatively, you might type a Your examination of relevant journals can be
subject name and see a listing of all the books and ar- expedited if your librarys computerized system of-
ticles written on that topic. You could skim through fers an online service listing the tables of contents
the list and indicate which ones you want to see. of thousands of journals. It might also provide a list
Most college libraries today provide online access of online journalsjournals whose entire contents
to periodicals, books, and other library materials. can be downloaded and read online.
Your librarys computerized system should allow If you are uncertain about the professional jour-
you to see which materials are available online and nals that are pertinent to your topic, you might want
whether paper copies of the materials you seek are to examine the list of journals reviewed in several is-
available in your library. If your library holds those sues of Social Work Abstracts. Each issue contains a
materials, the system may indicate their call num- list of the journals that have been reviewed for that
bers, whether the books you seek have been checked issue. You might also want to get help with this from
out and, if so, the due date for their return. As dis- your reference librarian. Just to start you thinking
cussed in Chapters 2 and 6, your library may also about some of the journals you might review, heres
provide a variety of Internet professional literature a beginning list of some of the major journals related
database services to help you search for literature to social work, by subject area:
online. (How to use them was discussed in Chapters
2 and 6.) Aging and the Aged
Abstracts in Social Gerontology
Canadian Journal of Aging
Clinical Gerontologist
PROFESSIONAL JOURNALS
International Journal of Aging and Human
Despite the exciting advances occurring in computer- Development
based systems and the great practical value of online Journal of Aging & Physical Activity
database services and publications containing ab- Journal of Aging & Social Policy
stracts, you should not rely exclusively on them to Journal of Aging Studies
locate journal articles that are pertinent to your in- Journal of Applied Gerontology
terests. There is no guarantee that every reference of Journal of Elder Abuse & Neglect
value to you will be identified in a computer search or Journal of Gerontological Social Work
a publication of abstracts. You should therefore aug- Journal of Gerontology
ment your search by examining the tables of contents Journal of Hosing for the Elderly
in recent issues of professional journals that are the Journal of Nutrition for the Elderly
P RO F E S S I O N A L J O U R N A L S 603
Journal of Nutrition, Health and Aging Journal of Prevention & Intervention in the
Journal of Social Work in Long-Term Care Community
Journal of Women and Aging Journal of Social Development in Africa
Psychology & Aging
Quality in Aging: Policy, Practice, & Research in Crime and Delinquency
Social Work Canadian Journal of Criminology
The Gerontologist Crime and Delinquency
Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency
Children and Adolescents Journal of Offender Rehabilitation
Adolescence Journal of Research in Crime & Delinquency
Child & Adolescent Social Work Journal Youth and Society
Children & Society Youth Violence & Juvenile Justice
Child & Youth Services
Children and Youth Services Review Cultural Diversity
Children Today Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority
International Journal of Adolescence & Youth Psychology
Journal of Adolescence Hispanic Journal of the Behavioral Sciences
Journal of Adolescent & Interpersonal Journal of Black Studies
Violence &Trauma Journal of Ethnic & Cultural Diversity in
Journal of Child & Adolescent Trauma Social Work
Journal of Children & Poverty Journal of Ethnicity in Substance Abuse
Journal of Youth & Adolescence Journal of Immigrant & Refugee Studies
Residential Treatment for Children & Youth Domestic Violence or Trauma
Child Welfare Family Violence & Sexual Assault Bulletin
Adoption and Fostering Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment &
Adoption Quarterly Trauma
Child Abuse & Neglect Journal of Emotional Abuse
Child Care Quarterly Journal of Family Violence
Child Maltreatment Journal of Interpersonal Violence
Child Survivor of Traumatic Stress Journal of Threat Assessment
Child Welfare Journal of Trauma & Dissociation
Family Preservation Journal Journal of Traumatic Stress
Journal of Child Abuse & the Law Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research &
Journal of Child Custody Treatment
Journal of Child Sexual Abuse Stress, Trauma & Crisis
Trauma, Violence & Abuse
Cognitive or Behavioral Interventions Traumatology
Behavior Modification Violence Against Women
Behavior Research & Therapy Violence & Victims
Behavior Therapy
Behavioural & Cognitive Psychotherapy Families
Child & Family Behavior Therapy American Journal of Family Therapy
Cognitive & Behavioral Practice Child & Family Social Work
Cognitive Therapy and Research Conflict Resolution Quarterly
Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis Contemporary Family Therapy
Families in Society
Communities Family Process
Community Development Journal Family Relations
Journal of Community and Applied Social Family Therapy
Psychology Family Therapy Networker
Journal of Community Practice Journal of Child & Family Studies
Journal of Jewish Communal Service Journal of Divorce & Remarriage
Journal of Family Issues Journal of Psychotherapy Practice and

Journal of Family Psychotherapy Research
Journal of Family Psychology Mental Health Services Research
Journal of Family Therapy NAMI Advocate
Journal of Family Social Work Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal
Journal of Marital and Family Therapy Psychoanalytic Social Work
Journal of Marriage & the Family Psychotherapy Networker
Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy Psychotherapy Research
Marriage & Family Review Schizophrenia Bulletin
Social Work in Mental Health
Gay, Lesbian, and Transgender Issues and Sexuality
Journal of Bisexuality Mental Retardation
Journal of Gay & Lesbian Social Services American Journal of Mental Deficiency
Journal of Gay & Lesbian Psychotherapy Journal of Mental Deficiency Research
Journal of Homosexuality Mental Retardation & Developmental
Journal of Lesbian Studies Disabilities Research Reviews
Journal of Psychology & Human Sexuality Retardation
Sexuality Research & Social Policy Program Evaluation
Group Work Canadian Journal of Program Evaluation
Group DynamicsTheory, Research, and Evaluation
Practice Evaluation Review
Journal for Specialists in Group Work New Directions for Evaluation
Social Work with Groups The American Journal of Evaluation
Health Qualitative Research

AIDS & Public Policy Journal Grounded Theory Review
Health and Social Work Qualitative Health Research
Home Health Care Services Quarterly Qualitative Inquiry
Hospice Journal Qualitative Research
Journal of Behavioral Health Services & Qualitative Social Work: Research and Practice
Research Qualitative Sociology
Journal of Health and Social Behavior School Social Work
Journal of Health & Social Policy Children & Schools
Journal of HIV/AIDS Prevention & Education Journal of School Violence
Journal of HIV/AIDS & Social Services School Social Work Journal
Journal of Home Health Care Practice Social Work in Education
Journal of Nephrology Social Work
Social Policy
Journal of Occupational Health Psychology
Analyses of Social Issues & Public Policy
Journal of Psychosocial Oncology
Australian Social Policy
Journal of Social Work in Disability &
Critical Social Policy
Rehabilitation
Global Social Policy
Journal of Social Work in Hospice & Palliative Care
International Journal of Social Welfare
Journal of Workplace & Behavioral Health
Journal of Aging & Social Policy
Social Work in Health Care
Journal of Children and Poverty
Social Work in Public Health Journal of European Social Policy
Mental Health Journal of Health & Social Policy
American Journal of Orthopsychiatry Journal of Mental Health Policy and
American Journal of Psychotherapy Economics
Archives of General Psychiatry Journal of Policy Analysis & Management
Clinical Social Work Journal Journal of Policy Practice
Community Mental Health Journal of Poverty
Journal Evidence-Based Mental Health Journal of Social Distress and the Homeless
P RO F E S S I O N A L J O U R N A L S 605
Journal of Sociology and Social Welfare Journal of Drug Education

Policy & Practice of Public Human Service Journal of Drug Issues
Public Welfare Journal of Ethnicity in Substance Abuse
Social Policy Journal of Psychoactive Drugs
Social Policy & Society Journal of Social Work Practice in the
Social Policy and Social Work Addictions
Social Policy Review Journal of Studies on Alcohol
Social Work & Society Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment
Urban Policy and Research Substance Abuse
Social Work Research Womens Issues
Journal of Social Service Research Affilia
Journal of Social Work Research and Evaluation Archives of Womens Mental Health
Journal of the Society for Social Work & Australian Feminist Studies
Research European Journal of Womens Studies
Research on Social Work Practice Feminism & Psychology
Social Work Research Feminist Theory
Gender & Society
Social Work (General) Indian Journal of Gender studies
Advances in Social Work Journal of Feminist Family Therapy
Australian Social Work Violence Against Women
British Journal of Social Work Women & Criminal Justice
Canadian Social Work Review Women & Trauma
Electronic Journal of Social Work
International Social Work Other
Irish Social Work Administration in Social Work
Journal of Baccalaureate Social Work Journal of Applied Behavioral Science
Journal of Evidence-Based Social Work Journal of Forensic Social Work
Journal of Social Work Practice Journal of Human Behavior in the Social
Smith College Studies in Social Work Environment
Social Service Review Journal of Progressive Human Services
Social Work Journal of Technology in Human Services
Social Work Abstracts Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly
The European Journal of Social Work Rural Social Work
The Hong Kong Journal of Social Work Social Work & Social Sciences Review
Spirituality & Religion No matter what approach you take to fi nding library
Journal of Religion & Abuse materials, chances are there will be some documents
Journal of Religion & Spirituality in Social Work you miss or that are not available in your library or on-
Social Work & Christianity line. If a document is not available at your particular
library or via the web, then you can request an inter-
Substance Abuse library loan, which is often free. Many libraries have
Advances in Alcohol and Substance Abuse loan agreements, but it might take some time before the
Alcoholism Treatment Quarterly document you need arrives at your library. If the docu-
American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse ment is located at another library nearby, then you may
International Journal of the Addictions want to go there yourself to get it directly. The key to
Journal of Addictions & Offender Counseling a good library search is to become well informed; so
Journal of Addictive Diseases remember what we said earlier: When you want to find
Journal of Chemical Dependency Treatment something in the library, your best friends are the refer-
Journal of Child & Adolescent Substance ence librarians. Dont be shy about seeking their assis-
Abuse tance at various points in your search.
A PPENDI X B
Statistics for Estimating
Sampling Error
In Chapter 14 we noted that probability theory pro- which person we selected, wed estimate the groups
vides a statistical basis for estimating sampling error mean as anywhere from $0 to $9. Figure B-2 displays
and selecting a sample size with an acceptable amount those 10 possible samples. The 10 dots shown on the
of likely sampling error. We also referred you to this graph represent the 10 sample means we would get
appendix if you wished to examine the more math- as estimates of the population. The dots distribution
ematical aspects of how probability theory works. on the graph is called the sampling distribution. Ob-
Probability theory enables us to estimate sampling er- viously, selecting a sample of only one would not be a
ror by way of the concept of sampling distributions. A good idea, because we stand a strong chance of miss-
single sample selected from a population will give an ing the true mean of $4.50 by quite a bit.
estimate of the population parameter. Other samples
would give the same or slightly different estimates.
Probability theory tells us about the distribution of es-
8 8 1 1
timates that would be produced by a large number of $8 $1
such samples. To see how this works, well look at two 8 8 1 1
examples of sampling distributions, beginning with a
simple example in which our population consists of 7 7
just 10 cases. $7
7 7
2
THE SAMPLING DISTRIBUTION 0
$0
0
$2
2
OF 10 CASES 0 0 2 2
Suppose 10 people are in a group, and each person has

a certain amount of money in his or her pocket. To
simplify, lets assume that one person has no money, 6 6 4 4
another has one dollar, another has two dollars, and $6 $4
so forth up to the person with nine dollars. Figure B-1 6 6 4 4
presents the population of 10 people.

Our task is to determine the average amount of 9 9
money one person hasspecifically, the mean number $9
of dollars. If you simply add the money in Figure B-1, 9 9
youll fi nd that the total is $45, so the mean is $4.50.

Our purpose in the rest of this exercise is to estimate 3 3 5 5
that mean without actually observing all 10 individu- $3 $5

3 3 5 5
als. Well do that by selecting random samples from
the population and using the means of those samples
to estimate the mean of the whole population.
To start, suppose we were to selectat randoma
sample of only one person from the 10. Depending on Figure B-1 A Population of 10 People with $0$9
607
608 A P P E N D I X B / S TAT I S T I C S F O R E S T I M AT I N G S A M P L I N G E R RO R
10 mean? Figure B-4 presents the sampling distributions

Number of samples (Total = 10)
9 of samples of 3, 4, 5, and 6.
8 The progression of sampling distributions is clear.
7 True mean = $4.50 Every increase in sample size improves the distribu-
6 tion of estimates of the mean. The limiting case in this
5 procedure, of course, is to select a sample of 10: Only
4
one sample of that size is possibleeveryoneand
3
it would give us the true mean of $4.50. As we will
see shortly, this principle applies to actual sampling
2
of meaningful populations. The larger the sample se-
1
0 lected, the more accurate it is as an estimation of the
$0 $1 $2 $3 $4 $5 $6 $7 $8 $9 population from which it was drawn.
Estimate of mean (Sample size = 1)
Figure B-2 The Sampling Distribution of Samples of 1 SAMPLING DISTRIBUTION AND

ESTIMATES OF SAMPLING ERROR
Lets turn now to a more realistic sampling situation
10 True mean = $4.50 and see how the notion of sampling distribution ap-
9
plies, using a simple example that involves a popula-
8
tion much larger than 10. Lets assume for the mo-
7 ment that we wish to study the adult population of a
6 small town in a rural region. We want to determine
5 whether residents would approve or disapprove of the
4 establishment there of a community-based residen-
3 tial facility for formerly institutionalized, chronically
2 mentally disabled individuals. The study population
1 will be that aggregation of, say, 20,000 adults as iden-
0 tified in the city directory: the sampling frame. (As we
$0 $1 $2 $3 $4 $5 $6 $7 $8 $9
discuss in Chapter 14, sampling frames are the lists
Estimate of mean (Sample size = 2)
of elements from which a sample is selected.) The el-
ements will be the towns adult residents. The vari-
Figure B-3 The Sampling Distribution of Samples of 2 able under consideration will be attitudes toward the
facility; it is a binomial variableapprove and dis-
approve. (The logic of probability sampling applies
But what if we take samples of two each? As you to the examination of other types of variables, such
can see from Figure B-3, increasing the sample size as mean income, but the computations are somewhat
improves our estimations. We now have 45 possible more complicated. Consequently, this introduction
samples: [$0 $1], [$0 $2], . . . [$7 $8], [$8 $9]. More- focuses on binomials.) Well select a random sample
over, some of those samples produce the same means. of, say, 100 residents to estimate the entire population
For example, [$0 $6], [$1 $5], and [$2 $4] all pro- of the town.
duce means of $3. In Figure B-3, the three dots shown The horizontal axis of Figure B-5 presents all pos-
above the $3 mean represent those three samples. sible values of this parameter in the population
The 45 sample means are not evenly distributed, from zero percent approval to 100 percent approval.
as you can see. Rather, they are somewhat clustered The midpoint of the axis50 percentrepresents
around the true value of $4.50. Only two samples devi- one-half the residents approving the facility and the
ate by as much as four dollars from the true value ([$0 other half disapproving.
$1] and [$8 $9]), whereas five of the samples would To choose our sample, we give each resident in the
give the true estimate of $4.50; another eight samples directory a number and select 100 random numbers
miss the mark by only 50 cents (plus or minus). from a table of random numbers. (How to use a ta-
Now suppose we select even larger samples. What ble of random numbers, such as the one in Table B-1,
do you suppose that will do to our estimates of the is explained in the box Using a Table of Random
S A M P L I N G D I S T R I B U T I O N A N D E S T I M AT E S O F S A M P L I N G E R RO R 609
20 20 True mean = $4.50

19 19
18 18
17 A. Samples of 3 17 B. Samples of 4

16 16
15 15
14 True mean = $4.50 14
13 13
12 12
11 11
10 10
9 9
8 8
7 7
6 6
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
$0 $1 $2 $3 $4 $5 $6 $7 $8 $9 $0 $1 $2 $3 $4 $5 $6 $7 $8 $9
Estimate of mean (Sample size = 3) Estimate of mean (Sample size = 4)
True mean = $4.50

True mean = $4.50
20 20
19 19
18 C. Samples of 5 18 D. Samples of 6
17 17

16 16
15 15
14 14
13 13
12 12
11 11
10 10
9 9
8 8
7 7
6 6
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
$0 $1 $2 $3 $4 $5 $6 $7 $8 $9 $0 $1 $2 $3 $4 $5 $6 $7 $8 $9
Estimate of mean (Sample size = 5) Estimate of mean (Sample size = 6)
Figure B-4 The Sampling Distributions of Samples of 3, 4, 5, and 6
Suppose this operation gives us 48 residents who ap-

0 50 100 prove of the facility and 52 who disapprove. This sum-
Percent of residents approving of the facility mary description of a variable in a sample is called a
statistic. We present this statistic by placing a dot on
Figure B-5 Range of Possible Sample Study Results the x-axis at the point that represents 48 percent.
Now lets suppose we select another sample of 100
Numbers. A speedier alternative is to use a computer residents in exactly the same fashion and measure
software program that can select cases randomly.) their approval or disapproval of the facility. Perhaps
Then we interview the 100 residents whose num- 51 residents in the second sample approve of the facil-
bers have been selected and ask for their attitudes to- ity. We place another dot in the appropriate place on
ward the facility: whether they approve or disapprove. the x-axis. Repeating this process once more, we may
U S I N G A TA B L E O F R A N D O M N U M B E R S
Suppose you want to select a simple random sam- 5. We can also choose to progress through the ta-
ple of 100 people (or other units) out of a popula- ble any way we want: down the columns, up them,
tion totaling 980. across to the right or to the left, or diagonally.
1. To begin, number the members of the popula- Again, any of these plans will work just fi ne so
tion in this case, from 1 to 980. Now the problem long as we stick to it. For convenience, lets agree
is to select 100 random numbers. Once youve to move down the columns. When we get to the
done that, your sample will consist of the people bottom of one column, well go to the top of the
having the numbers youve selected. (Note: Its next; when we exhaust a given page, well start at
not essential to actually number them, as long as the top of the fi rst column of the next page.
youre sure of the total. If you have them in a list, 6. Now, where do we start? You can close your
for example, you can always count through the eyes and stick a pencil into the table and start
list after youve selected the numbers.) wherever the pencil point lands. (We know it
2. The next step is to determine the number of doesnt sound scientific, but it works.) Or, if youre
digits you will need in the random numbers you afraid youll hurt the book or miss it altogether,
select. In our example, there are 980 members close your eyes and make up a column number
of the population, so you will need three-digit and a row number. (Ill pick the number in the
numbers to give everyone a chance of selection. fi fth row of column 2.) Start with that number.
(If there were 11,825 members of the population, If you prefer more methodological purity, you
youd need to select five-digit numbers.) Thus, we might use the fi rst two numbers on a dollar bill,
want to select 100 random numbers in the range which are randomly distributed, to determine the
from 001 to 980. row and column on which to start.
3. Now turn to the fi rst page of Table B-1, the 7. Lets suppose we decide to start with the fifth
table of random numbers. Notice there are sev- number in column 2. If you look on the fi rst page
eral rows and columns of five-digit numbers, and of the table, youll see that the starting number is
there are two pages. The table represents a se- 39975. We have selected 399 as our fi rst random
ries of random numbers in the range from 00001 number, and we have 99 more to go. Moving
to 99999. To use the table for your hypothetical down the second column, we select 069, 729, 919,
sample, you have to answer these questions: 143, 368, 695, 409, 939, and so forth. At the bot-
a. How will you create three-digit numbers out tom of column 2, we select number 649 and con-
of five-digit numbers? tinue to the top of column 3: 015, 255, and so on.
b. What pattern will you follow in moving 8. See how easy it is? But trouble lies ahead. When
through the table to select your numbers? we reach column 5, we are speeding along, select-
c. Where will you start? ing 816, 309, 763, 078, 061, 277, 988. . . . Wait a
Each of these questions has several satisfactory minute! There are only 980 students in the senior
answers. The key is to create a plan and follow it. class. How can we pick number 988? The solu-
Heres an example. tion is simple: Ignore it. Any time you come across
a number that lies outside your range, skip it and
4. To create three-digit numbers from five-digit continue on your way: 188, 174, and so forth. The
numbers, lets agree to select five-digit numbers same solution applies if the same number comes
from the table but consider only the left-most up more than once. If you select 399 again, for
three digits in each case. If we picked the fi rst example, just ignore it the second time.
number on the fi rst page10480we would only
consider the 104. (We could agree to take the dig- 9. Thats it. You keep up the procedure until
its furthest to the right, 480, or the middle three youve selected 100 random numbers. Returning
digits, 048, and any of these plans would work.) to your list, your sample consists of person num-
The key is to make a plan and stick with it. For ber 399, person number 69, person number 729,
convenience, lets use the left-most three digits. and so forth.
Table B-1 Random Numbers
10480 15011 01536 02011 81647 91646 69179 14194 62590 36207 20969 99570 91291 90700
22368 46573 25595 85393 30995 89198 27982 53402 93965 34095 52666 19174 39615 99505
24130 48360 22527 97265 76393 64809 15179 24830 49340 32081 30680 19655 63348 58629
42167 93093 06243 61680 07856 16376 39440 53537 71341 57004 00849 74917 97758 16379
37570 39975 81837 16656 06121 91782 60468 81305 49684 60672 14110 06927 01263 54613
77921 06907 11008 42751 27756 53498 18602 70659 90655 15053 21916 81825 44394 42880
99562 72905 56420 69994 98872 31016 71194 18738 44013 48840 63213 21069 10634 12952
96301 91977 05463 07972 18876 20922 94595 56869 69014 60045 18425 84903 42508 32307
89579 14342 63661 10281 17453 18103 57740 84378 25331 12566 58678 44947 05585 56941
85475 36857 53342 53988 53060 59533 38867 62300 08158 17983 16439 11458 18593 64952
28918 69578 88231 33276 70997 79936 56865 05859 90106 31595 01547 85590 91610 78188
63553 40961 48235 03427 49626 69445 18663 72695 52180 20847 12234 90511 33703 90322
09429 93969 52636 92737 88974 33488 36320 17617 30015 08272 84115 27156 30613 74952
10365 61129 87529 85689 48237 52267 67689 93394 01511 26358 85104 20285 29975 89868
07119 97336 71048 08178 77233 13916 47564 81056 97735 85977 29372 74461 28551 90707
51085 12765 51821 51259 77452 16308 60756 92144 49442 53900 70960 63990 75601 40719
02368 21382 52404 60268 89368 19885 55322 44819 01188 65255 64835 44919 05944 55157
01011 54092 33362 94904 31273 04146 18594 29852 71585 85030 51132 01915 92747 64951
52162 53916 46369 58586 23216 14513 83149 98736 23495 64350 94738 17752 35156 35749
07056 97628 33787 09998 42698 06691 76988 13602 51851 46104 88916 19509 25625 58104
48663 91245 85828 14346 09172 30168 90229 04734 59193 22178 30421 61666 99904 32812
54164 58492 22421 74103 47070 25306 76468 26384 58151 06646 21524 15227 96909 44592
32639 32363 05597 24200 13363 38005 94342 28728 35806 06912 17012 64161 18296 22851
29334 27001 87637 87308 58731 00256 45834 15398 46557 41135 10367 07684 36188 18510
02488 33062 28834 07351 19731 92420 60952 61280 50001 67658 32586 86679 50720 94953
81525 72295 04839 96423 24878 82651 66566 14778 76797 14780 13300 87074 79666 95725
29676 20591 68086 26432 46901 20849 89768 81536 86645 12659 92259 57102 80428 25280
00742 57392 39064 66432 84673 40027 32832 61362 98947 96067 64760 64584 96096 98253
05366 04213 25669 26422 44407 44048 37937 63904 45766 66134 75470 66520 34693 90449
91921 26418 64117 94305 26766 25940 39972 22209 71500 64568 91402 42416 07844 69618
00582 04711 87917 77341 42206 35126 74087 99547 81817 42607 43808 76655 62028 76630
00725 69884 62797 56170 86324 88072 76222 36086 84637 93161 76038 65855 77919 88006
69011 65795 95876 55293 18988 27354 26575 08625 40801 59920 29841 80150 12777 48501
25976 57948 29888 88604 67917 48708 18912 82271 65424 69774 33611 54262 85963 03547
09763 83473 73577 12908 30883 18317 28290 35797 05998 41688 34952 37888 38917 88050
91567 42595 27958 30134 04024 86385 29880 99730 55536 84855 29080 09250 79656 73211
17955 56349 90999 49127 20044 59931 06115 20542 18059 02008 73708 83517 36103 42791
46503 18584 18845 49618 02304 51038 20655 58727 28168 15475 56942 53389 20562 87338
92157 89634 94824 78171 84610 82834 09922 25417 44137 48413 25555 21246 35509 20468
14577 62765 35605 81263 39667 47358 56873 56307 61607 49518 89656 20103 77490 18062
98427 07523 33362 64270 01638 92477 66969 98420 04880 45585 46565 04102 46880 45709
34914 63976 88720 82765 34476 17032 87589 40836 32427 70002 70663 88863 77775 69348
70060 28277 39475 46473 23219 53416 94970 25832 69975 94884 19661 72828 00102 66794
53976 54914 06990 67245 68350 82948 11398 42878 80287 88267 47363 46634 06541 97809
76072 29515 40980 07391 58745 25774 22987 80059 39911 96189 41151 14222 60697 59583
90725 52210 83974 29992 65831 38857 50490 83765 55657 14361 31720 57375 56228 41546
64364 67412 33339 31926 14883 24413 59744 92351 97473 89286 35931 04110 23726 51900
08962 00358 31662 25388 61642 34072 81249 35648 56891 69352 48373 45578 78547 81788
95012 68379 93526 70765 10592 04542 76463 54328 02349 17247 28865 14777 62730 92277
15664 10493 20492 38391 91132 21999 59516 81652 27195 48223 46751 22923 32261 85653
16408 81899 04153 53381 79401 21438 83035 92350 36693 31238 59649 91754 72772 02338
18629 81953 05520 91962 04739 13092 97662 24822 94730 06496 35090 04822 86774 98289
73115 35101 47498 87637 99016 71060 88824 71013 18735 20286 23153 72924 35165 43040
57491 16703 23167 49323 45021 33132 12544 41035 80780 45393 44812 12515 98931 91202
30405 83946 23792 14422 15059 45799 22716 19792 09983 74353 68668 30429 70735 25499
16631 35006 85900 98275 32388 52390 16815 69298 82732 38480 73817 32523 41961 44437
96773 20206 42559 78985 05300 22164 24369 54224 35083 19687 11052 91491 60383 19746
38935 64202 14349 82674 66523 44133 00697 35552 35970 19124 63318 29686 03387 59846
31624 76384 17403 53363 44167 64486 64758 75366 76554 31601 12614 33072 60332 92325
78919 19474 23632 27889 47914 02584 37680 20801 72152 39339 34806 08930 85001 87820
03931 33309 57047 74211 63445 17361 62825 39908 05607 91284 68833 25570 38818 46920
74426 33278 43972 10119 89917 15665 52872 73823 73144 88662 88970 74492 51805 99378
09066 00903 20795 95452 92648 45454 09552 88815 16553 51125 79375 97596 16296 66092
42238 12426 87025 14267 20979 04508 64535 31355 86064 29472 47689 05974 52468 16834
16153 08002 26504 41744 81959 65642 74240 56302 00033 67107 77510 70625 28725 34191
21457 40742 29820 96783 29400 21840 15035 34537 33310 06116 95240 15957 16572 06004
21581 57802 02050 89728 17937 37621 47075 42080 97403 48626 68995 43805 33386 21597
55612 78095 83197 33732 05810 24813 86902 60397 16489 03264 88525 42786 05269 92532
44657 66999 99324 51281 84463 60563 79312 93454 68876 25471 93911 25650 12682 73572
91340 84979 46949 81973 37949 61023 43997 15263 80644 43942 89203 71795 99533 50501
91227 21199 31935 27022 84067 05462 35216 14486 29891 68607 41867 14951 91696 85065
50001 38140 66321 19924 72163 09538 12151 06878 91903 18749 34405 56087 82790 70925
65390 05224 72958 28609 81406 39147 25549 48542 42627 45233 57202 94617 23772 07896
27504 96131 83944 41575 10573 08619 64482 73923 36152 05184 94142 25299 84387 34925
37169 94851 39117 89632 00959 16487 65536 49071 39782 17095 02330 74301 00275 48280
11508 70225 51111 38351 19444 66499 71945 05422 13442 78675 84081 66938 93654 59894
37449 30362 06694 54690 04052 53115 62757 95348 78662 11163 81651 50245 34971 52924
46515 70331 85922 38329 57015 15765 97161 17869 45349 61796 66345 81073 49106 79860
30986 81223 42416 58353 21532 30502 32305 86482 05174 07901 54339 58861 74818 46942
63798 64995 46583 09785 44160 78128 83991 42865 92520 83531 80377 35909 81250 54238
(continued)
Table B-1 (continued)
82486 84846 99254 67632 43218 50076 21361 64816 51202 88124 41870 52689 51275 83556
21885 32906 92431 09060 64297 51674 64126 62570 26123 05155 59194 52799 28225 85762
60336 98782 07408 53458 13564 59089 26445 29789 85205 41001 12535 12133 14645 23541
43937 46891 24010 25560 86355 33941 25786 54990 71899 15475 95434 98227 21824 19585
97656 63175 89303 16275 07100 92063 21942 18611 47348 20203 18534 03862 78095 50136
03299 01221 05418 38982 55758 92237 26759 86367 21216 98442 08303 56613 91511 75928
79626 06486 03574 17668 07785 76020 79924 25651 83325 88428 85076 72811 22717 50585
85636 68335 47539 03129 65651 11977 02510 26113 99447 68645 34327 15152 55230 93448
18039 14367 61337 06177 12143 46609 32989 74014 64708 00533 35398 58408 13261 47908
08362 15656 60627 36478 65648 16764 53412 09013 07832 41574 17639 82163 60859 75567
79556 29068 04142 16268 15387 12856 66227 38358 22478 73373 88732 09443 82558 05250
92608 82674 27072 32534 17075 27698 98204 63863 11951 34648 88022 56148 34925 57031
23982 25835 40055 67006 12293 02753 14827 23235 35071 99704 37543 11601 35503 85171
09915 96306 05908 97901 28395 14186 00821 80703 70426 75647 76310 88717 37890 40129
59037 33300 26695 62247 69927 76123 50842 43834 86654 70959 79725 93872 28117 19233
42488 78077 69882 61657 34136 79180 97526 43092 04098 73571 80799 76536 71255 64239
46764 86273 63003 93017 31204 36692 40202 35275 57306 55543 53203 18098 47625 88684
03237 45430 55417 63282 90816 17349 88298 90183 36600 78406 06216 95787 42579 90730
86591 81482 52667 61582 14972 90053 89534 76036 49199 43716 97548 04379 46370 28672
38534 01715 94964 87288 65680 43772 39560 12918 86537 62738 19636 51132 25739 56947
Abridged from Handbook of Tables for Probability and Statistics, Second Edition, edited by William H. Beyer (Cleveland: The Chemi-
cal Rubber Company, 1968). Used by permission of The Chemical Rubber Company.
Sample 2 (51%) Number of samples

Sample 1 (48%)
Sample 3 (52%)
0 50 100
Percent of residents approving of the facility 90
60
30
Figure B-6 Results Produced by Three Hypothetical 0
Studies 0 50 100
Percent of students approving of the facility
discover that 52 residents in the third sample approve Figure B-7 The Sampling Distribution
of the facility.
Figure B-6 presents the three different sample sta-
tistics that represent the percentages of residents in Note that by increasing the number of samples
each of the three random samples who approved of selected and interviewed, we have also increased the
the facility. The basic rule of random sampling is that range of estimates that are provided by the sampling
such samples drawn from a population give estimates operation. In one sense, we have increased our di-
of the parameter that pertains in the total population. lemma in attempting to guess the parameter in the
Each random sample, then, gives us an estimate of the population. Probability theory, however, provides
percentage of residents in the town population who certain important rules about the sampling distribu-
approve of the facility. Unhappily, however, we have tion in Figure B-7.
selected three samples and now have three separate First, if many independent random samples are
estimates. selected from a population, then the sample statis-
To resolve this dilemma, lets draw more and more tics provided by those samples will be distributed
samples of 100 residents each, question each sample around the population parameter in a known way.
about its approval or disapproval of the facility, and Thus, although Figure B-7 shows a wide range of es-
plot the new sample statistics on our summary graph. timates, more of them are in the vicinity of 50 per-
In drawing many such samples, we discover that some cent than elsewhere in the graph. Probability theory
of the new samples provide duplicate estimates, as in tells us, then, that the true value is in the vicinity of
Figures B-3 and B-4 for the previous example with 50 percent.
a population of 10 cases. Figure B-7 shows the sam- Second, probability theory gives us a formula for
pling distribution of, say, hundreds of samples. This estimating how closely the sample statistics are clus-
is often referred to as a normal curve. tered around the true value. To put it another way,
probability theory enables us to estimate the sampling

errorthe degree of error to be expected for a given
sample design. This formula contains three factors:
the parameter, the sample size, and the standard error
(a measure of sampling error):
P3Q
s5
n
The symbols P and Q in the formula equal the popu- .0013 .0215 .1359 .3413 .3413 .1359 .0215 .0013
lation parameters for the binomial: If 60 percent of 3 SD 2 SD 1 SD MEAN +1 SD +2 SD +3 SD
the residents approve of the facility and 40 percent 68.26%
disapprove, then P and Q are 60 percent and 40 per- 95.44%
cent, respectively, or .6 and .4. Note that Q 5 1 2 P 99.74%
and P 5 1 2 Q. The symbol n equals the number of 47.2%
cases in each sample, and s is the standard error. 50% 49.87%
Lets assume that the population parameter in the SD = Standard deviation
hypothetical small town is 50 percent approving of

the facility and 50 percent disapproving. Recall that Figure B-8 Standard Deviation Proportions of the
we have been selecting samples of 100 cases each. Normal Curve
When these numbers are put into the formula, we fi nd
that the standard error equals .05, or 5 percent. In
probability theory, the standard error is a valuable 99.9 percent of the samples will fall within plus or
piece of information because it indicates the extent to minus three standard errors. In our current example,
which the sample estimates will be distributed around then, we know that only one sample out of a thou-
the population parameter. If you are familiar with the sand would give an estimate lower than 35 percent
standard deviation in statistics, you may recognize approval or higher than 65 percent. Figure B-8 graph-
that the standard error in this case is the standard de- ically illustrates a normal (bell-shaped) curve with the
viation of the sampling distribution. (We discuss the standard deviation proportions that apply to any nor-
meaning of the standard deviation in Chapter 20.) mal curve. The normal curve represents the sampling
Specifically, probability theory indicates that cer- distributionhow an infi nite number of randomly
tain proportions of the sample estimates will fall drawn samples would be distributed. The mean of the
within specified incrementseach equal to one stan- curve is the true population parameter.
dard errorfrom the population parameter. Approx- The proportion of samples that fall within one,
imately 34 percent (.3413) of the sample estimates two, or three standard errors of the population pa-
will fall within one standard error increment above rameter is constant for any random sampling proce-
the population parameter, and another 34 percent dure such as the one just describedif a large number
will fall within one standard error below the param- of samples are selected. The size of the standard error
eter. In our example, the standard error increment is in any given case, however, is a function of the popu-
5 percent, so we know that 34 percent of our samples lation parameter and the sample size. If we return to
will give estimates of resident approval between 50 the formula for a moment, we note that the standard
percent (the parameter) and 55 percent (one standard error will increase as a function of an increase in the
error above); another 34 percent of the samples will quantity P times Q. Note further that this quantity
give estimates between 50 percent and 45 percent (one reaches its maximum in the situation of an even split
standard error below the parameter). Taken together, in the population:
then, we know that roughly two-thirds (68 percent)
If P 5 .5, PQ 5.25
of the samples will give estimates within 65 percent
of the parameter. If P 5 .6, PQ 5 .24
Moreover, probability theory dictates that roughly
If P 5 .8, PQ 5 .16
95 percent of the samples will fall within plus or
minus two standard errors of the true value, and If P 5 .99, PQ 5 .0099
By extension, if P is either 0.0 or 1.0 (either zero within a specified interval from the parameter. For
percent or 100 percent approve of the facility), then example, we are 68 percent confident that our sample
the standard error will be zero. If everyone in the estimate is within one standard error of the param-
population has the same attitude (no variation), then eter. Or we may say that we are 95 percent confident
every sample will give exactly that estimate. that the sample statistic is within two standard errors
The standard error is also a function of the sample of the parameter, and so forth. Quite reasonably, our
sizeand an inverse function. As the sample size in- confidence increases as the margin for error is ex-
creases, the standard error decreases. As the sample tended. We are virtually positive (99.74 percent) that
size increases, the several samples will cluster closer we are within three standard errors of the true value.
to the true value. Another rule of thumb is evident in Although we may be confident (at some level) of be-
the formula: Because of the square root formula, the ing within a certain range of the parameter, we have
standard error is reduced by half if the sample size already noted that we seldom know what the parame-
quadruples. In our current example, samples of 100 ter is. To resolve this dilemma, we substitute our sam-
produce a standard error of 5 percent; to reduce the ple estimate for the parameter in the formula; lacking
standard error to 2.5 percent, we must increase the the true value, we substitute the best available guess.
sample size to 400. The result of these inferences and estimations is
All of this information is provided by established that we are able to estimate a population parameter as
probability theory as it relates to the selection of well as the expected degree of error on the basis of one
large numbers of random samples. (If youve taken a sample drawn from a population. Beginning with the
statistics course, you may know this as the central question What percentage of the town population
tendency theorem.) If the population parameter is approves of the facility? we could select a random
known and a large number of random samples are sample of 100 residents and interview them. We might
selected, then we can predict how many of the sam- then report that our best estimate is that 50 percent of
ple estimates will fall within specified intervals from the population approves of the facility and that we are
the parameter. Be clear that this discussion only il- 95 percent confident that between 40 and 60 percent
lustrates the logic of probability sampling and does (plus or minus two standard errors) approves. The
not describe the way research is actually conducted. range from 40 to 60 percent is called the confidence
Usually, we do not know the parameter: We conduct interval. (At the 68 percent confidence level, the confi-
a sample survey to estimate that value. Moreover, we dence interval would be 45 percent to 55 percent.)
dont actually select large numbers of samples: We The logic of confidence levels and confidence in-
select only one sample. Nevertheless, the preceding tervals also provides the basis for determining the
discussion of probability theory provides the basis for appropriate sample size for a study. Once you have
inferences about the typical social research situation. decided on the degree of sampling error you can tol-
Knowing what it would be like to select thousands of erate, youll be able to calculate the number of cases
samples allows us to make assumptions about the one needed in your sample. Thus, for example, if you
sample we do select and study. want to be 95 percent confident that your study fi nd-
ings are accurate within plus or minus 5 percentage
points of the population parameters, then you should
CONFIDENCE LEVELS AND select a sample of at least 400.
The foregoing discussion has considered only one
CONFIDENCE INTERVALS
type of statistic: the percentages produced by a bino-
Whereas probability theory specifies that 68 percent mial or dichotomous variable. The same logic, how-
of that fictitious large number of samples would pro- ever, would apply to the examination of other statis-
duce estimates that fall within one standard error of tics, such as mean income.
the parameter, we turn the logic around and infer that Two cautions are in order here. First, the survey
any single random sample estimate has a 68 percent uses of probability theory as discussed here are not
chance of falling within that range. This observation wholly justified technically. The theory of sampling
leads us to the two key components of sampling error distribution makes assumptions that almost never
estimates: confidence level and confidence interval. apply in survey conditions. The exact proportion of
We express the accuracy of our sample statistics in samples contained within specified increments of stan-
terms of a level of confidence that the statistics fall dard errors, for example, mathematically assumes an
C O N F I D E N C E L E V E L S A N D C O N F I D E N C E I N T E RVA L S 615
infi nitely large population, an infi nite number of sam- further detract from the representativeness of the
ples, and sampling with replacementthat is, every sample.
sampling unit selected is thrown back into the pot Nevertheless, the calculations discussed in this ap-
and could be selected again. Second, our discussion pendix can be extremely valuable to you in under-
has greatly oversimplified the inferential jump from standing and evaluating your data. Although the cal-
the distribution of several samples to the probable culations do not provide estimates that are as precise
characteristics of one sample. as some researchers might assume, they can be quite
These cautions are offered as perspective. Re- valid for practical purposes. They are unquestion-
searchers often appear to overestimate the precision ably more valid than less rigorously derived estimates
of estimates produced by using probability theory. As based on less rigorous sampling methods. Most im-
has been mentioned elsewhere in this appendix and portant, you should be familiar with the basic logic
throughout the book, variations in sampling tech- underlying the calculations. If you are so informed,
niques and nonsampling factors may further reduce then you will be able to react sensibly to your own
the legitimacy of such estimates. For example, those data and those reported by others.
selected in a sample who fail or refuse to participate
Glossary
AB design The simplest single-case evaluation design that in- transient or homeless participantsfor future follow-up sessions
cludes one baseline phase (A) and one intervention phase (B). This or interviews. See Chapter 5.
is a popular design among practitioners and researchers because anonymity An arrangement that makes it impossible for a re-
it involves only one baseline phase and therefore poses the least searcher to link any research data with a given research partici-
confl ict with service delivery priorities. It has less control for his- pant. Distinguished from confi dentiality, in which the researcher
tory, however, than most alternative single-case evaluation de- is able to identify a given persons responses but essentially prom-
signs. See Chapter 12. ises not to do so publicly. See Chapter 4.
ABAB withdrawal/reversal design A single-case evaluation de- anonymous enrollment A method of recruiting members of hid-
sign that adds a second baseline phase (A) and a second inter- den and oppressed populations to participate in research studies;
vention phase (B). This design assumes that if the intervention the method emphasizes techniques that enable prospective par-
caused the improvement in the target problem during the first ticipants to feel safer in responding to recruitment efforts and
intervention period, then the target problem will reverse toward participating in studies. See Chapter 5.
its original baseline level during the second baseline. When the
intervention is reintroduced, the target problem should start im- area probability sample A form of multistage cluster sample
proving again. The basic inferential principle here is that if shifts in which geographic areas such as census blocks or tracts serve
in the trend or level of the target problem occur successively each as the fi rst-stage sampling unit. Units selected in the fi rst stage
time the intervention is introduced or withdrawn, then it is not of sampling are then listedall the households on each selected
plausible that history explains the change. See Chapter 12. block would be written down after a trip to the blockand such
lists would be subsampled. See Chapter 14.
abstract A separate page at the beginning of a research pro-
posal or report that briefly summarizes the proposed or com- assent form A brief consent form that a child can understand
pleted study. See Chapter 23. and sign before participating in a study; it uses simpler language
than consent forms for adults about the features of the study that
accidental sampling See availability sampling. might affect their decision about whether they want to participate
acculturation The process in which a group or individual in it. See consent form and Chapter 4.
changes after coming into contact with a majority culture, taking attributes Characteristics of persons or things. See variables
on its language, values, attitudes, and lifestyle preferences. See and Chapters 3 and 7.
Chapter 5.
attrition A threat to the validity of an experiment that occurs
acquiescent response set A source of measurement error in when participants drop out of an experiment before it is com-
which people agree or disagree with most or all statements pleted. Also called experimental mortality. See Chapter 10.
regardless of their content. See Chapter 8.
auditing A strategy for improving the trustworthiness of qual-
agency tracking Asking service providers or other community itative research fi ndings in which the researcher leaves a paper
agencies whether they have been in recent contact with research trail of field notes, transcripts of interviews, journals, and memos
participantsparticularly those who are transient or homeless documenting decisions made along the way, and so on. This en-
whom you are unable to locate and whom you need to contact for ables an impartial and qualitatively adept investigator who is not
further sessions or interviews. See Chapter 5. part of the study to scrutinize what was done in order to deter-
alternative treatment design with pretest An experiment that mine if efforts to control for bias and reactivity were thorough, if
compares the effectiveness of two alternative treatments. Partici- the procedures used were justifi able, and if the interpretations fit
pants are assigned randomly to two experimental groups, each of the data that were collected. See Chapter 17.
which receives a different intervention being evaluated, and to a availability sampling A sampling method that selects elements
control group that does not receive any intervention. Each group simply because of their ready availability and convenience. Fre-
is tested on the dependent variable before and after the experi- quently used in social work because it is usually less expensive
mental groups receive the intervention. See Chapter 10. than other methods and because other methods may not be fea-
analysis of variance A form of data analysis in which the vari- sible for a particular type of study or population. See Chapter 14.
ance of a dependent variable is examined for the whole sample available records A source of data for a study in which the in-
and for separate subgroups created on the basis of one or more formation of concern already has been gathered by others. For ex-
independent variables. See Chapter 22. ample, an evaluation of a statewide dropout prevention program
anchor points Pieces of information about the various places you may use available school records on dropout rates. See Chapters
may be able to fi nd particular research participants particularly 7 and 16.
617
618 G L O S SA RY
average An ambiguous term that generally suggests typical or clinical significance The term used for substantive signifi cance
normal. Mean, median, and mode are specific examples of mathe- in clinical outcome studies. See also substantive signifi cance and
matical averages, or measures of central tendency. See Chapter 20. Chapter 21.
back-translation A method used when translating instruments closed-ended questions Unlike in open-ended questions, the re-
from one language into another. The steps are: (1) a bilingual spondent is asked to select an answer from among a list provided
person translates the instrument and its instructions to a target by the researcher. See Chapter 9.
language, (2) another bilingual person translates from the target cluster sample A sample drawn using cluster sampling proce-
language back to the original language (not seeing the original dures. See Chapter 14.
version of the instrument), (3) the original instrument is com-
pared to the back-translated version, and (4) items with discrep- cluster sampling A multistage sampling procedure in which natu-
ancies are further modified. See Chapter 5. ral groups (clusters) are sampled initially, with the members of each
selected group being subsampled afterward. For example, we might
baseline The phase of a single-case evaluation design that select a sample of U.S. colleges and universities from a directory, get
consists of repeated measures before a new intervention or policy lists of the students at all the selected schools, and then draw samples
is introduced. See Chapter 12. of students from each. This procedure is discussed in Chapter 14.
bias (1) That quality of a measurement device that tends to re- codebook The document used in data processing and analysis
sult in a misrepresentation of what is being measured in a par- that tells the location of different data items in a data fi le. Typi-
ticular direction. For example, the questionnaire item Dont you cally, the codebook identifies the locations of data items and the
agree that the president is doing a good job? would be biased meaning of the codes used to represent different attributes of
because it would generally encourage more favorable responses. variables. See Chapter 20.
See Chapters 8 and 9 for more on this topic. (2) The thing inside
a person that makes other people or groups seem consistently bet- coding The process whereby raw data are transformed into a
ter or worse than they really are. standardized form that is suitable for machine processing and
analysis. See Chapters 19 and 20.
binomial variable A variable that has only two attributes is bi-
coeffi cient alpha A statistic for depicting the internal consis-
nomial. Gender would be an example, having the attributes
tency reliability of an instrument; it represents the average of the
male and female.
correlations between the subscores of all possible subsets of half
bivariate analysis The analysis of two variables simultane- of the items on the instrument. See Chapter 8.
ously to determine the empirical relationship between them. The
cohort study A study in which some specifi c group is studied
construction of a simple percentage table or the computation of
over time, although data may be collected from different mem-
a simple correlation coeffi cient would be examples of bivariate
bers in each set of observations. For example, a study of the pro-
analyses. See Chapter 20.
fessional careers of students earning their social work degrees in
CA See conversation analysis. 1990, in which questionnaires were sent every five years, would
case-control design A design for evaluating interventions that be a cohort study. See Chapter 6.
compares groups of cases that have had contrasting outcomes and community forum An approach to needs assessment that in-
then collects retrospective data about past differences that might volves holding a meeting where concerned members of the com-
explain the difference in outcomes. It relies on multivariate statis- munity can express their views and interact freely about their
tical procedures. See Chapter 11. needs. See Chapter 13.
case-oriented analysis An idiographic qualitative data analysis compensatory equalization A threat to the validity of an evalua-
method that focuses on attempting to understand a particular tion of an interventions effectiveness that occurs when practition-
case fully. See Chapter 19. ers in the comparison routine-treatment condition compensate for
the differences in treatment between their group and the experi-
case study An idiographic examination of a single individual,
mental group by providing enhanced services that go beyond the
family, group, organization, community, or society using a full
routine-treatment regimen for their clients, thus potentially blur-
variety of evidence regarding that case. See Chapter 17.
ring the true effects of the tested intervention. See Chapter 10.
causal inference An inference derived from a research design and
compensatory rivalry A threat to the validity of an evaluation
fi ndings that logically imply that the independent variable really
of an interventions effectiveness that occurs when practitioners
has a causal impact on the dependent variable. See Chapter 10.
in the comparison routine-treatment condition decide to com-
census An enumeration of the characteristics of some popula- pete with the therapists in the other unit. They may start reading
tion. A census is often similar to a survey, with the difference that more, attending more continuing education workshops, and in-
the census collects data from all members of the population and creasing their therapeutic contact with clients. Their extra efforts
the survey is limited to a sample. See Chapter 15. might improve their effectiveness and thus blur the true effects of
the tested intervention. See Chapter 10.
chi-square A statistical significance test used when both the inde-
pendent and dependent variables are nominal level. See Chapter 22. computer-assisted telephone interviewing (CATI) Interviewing
over the phone by reading questions from a computer screen and
client logs A qualitative or quantitative method that can be
immediately entering responses into the computer. See Chapter 15.
used as part of case studies or single-case evaluations in which
clients keep journals of events that are relevant to their problems. concept A mental image that symbolizes an idea, an object, an
See Chapter 17. event, or a person. See Chapter 3.
G L O S SA RY 619
concept mapping A qualitative data analysis method in which contemporary positivism A paradigm that recognizes the vir-
relationships among concepts are examined and diagrammed in a tual impossibility of being completely objective yet assumes that
graphical format. See Chapter 19. there is an objective answer to research questions and that it is
conceptual equivalence Instruments and observed behaviors worth trying to investigate things as objectively as possible to at-
having the same meanings across cultures. See Chapter 5. tempt to maximize the accuracy of answers to research questions.
See Chapter 3.
conceptualization The mental process whereby fuzzy and im-
precise notions (concepts) are made more specific and precise. So content analysis A research method for studying virtually any
you want to study prejudice. What do you mean by prejudice? form of communication, consisting primarily of coding and tabu-
Are there different kinds? What are they? See Chapter 7. lating the occurrences of certain forms of content that are being
communicated. See Chapter 16.
concurrent validity A form of criterion-related validity examin-
content validity The degree to which a measure covers the range
ing a measures correspondence to a criterion that is known con-
of meanings included within the concept. See Chapter 8.
currently. See Chapter 8.
contingency question A survey question that is to be asked of
confidence interval The range of values within which a popu-
only some of the respondents, depending on their responses to
lation parameter is estimated to lie. A survey, for example, may
some other question. For example, all respondents might be asked
show 40 percent of a sample favoring candidate A (poor devil).
whether they belong to the Cosa Nostra, and only those who said
Although the best estimate of the support existing among all vot-
yes would be asked how often they go to company meetings and
ers would also be 40 percent, we would not expect it to be exactly
picnics. The latter would be a contingency question. See Chap-
that. We might, therefore, compute a confi dence interval (for ex-
ter 9 for illustrations of this topic.
ample, from 35 to 45 percent) within which the actual percentage
of the population probably lies. Note that its necessary to specify contingency table Any table format for presenting the relation-
a confi dence level in connection with every confidence interval. ships among variables in the form of percentage distributions. See
See Appendix B. Chapter 20.
confidence level The estimated probability that a population pa- control group In experimentation, a group of participants who
rameter lies within a given confi dence interval. Thus, we might do not receive the intervention being evaluated and who should
be 95 percent confident that between 35 and 45 percent of all vot- resemble the experimental group in all other respects. The com-
ers favor candidate A. See Appendix B. parison of the control and experimental groups at the end of the
experiment points to the effect of the tested intervention. See
confidentiality A promise by the researcher not to publicly iden-
Chapter 10.
tify a given research participants data. Distinguished from ano-
nymity, which makes it impossible for a researcher to link any control variable A variable that is held constant in an attempt to
research data with a given research participant. See Chapter 4. further clarify the relationship between two other variables. Hav-
ing discovered a relationship between education and prejudice,
consent form A form that human subjects sign before partici- for example, we might hold gender constant by examining the re-
pating in a study that provides full information about the features lationship between education and prejudice among men only and
of the study that might affect their decision about whether to then among women only. In this example, gender would be the
participateparticularly regarding its procedures, potential control variable. See Chapter 7, and also Chapter 10 to see the
harm, and anonymity and confi dentiality. See Chapter 4. importance of the proper use of control variables in analysis.
constant comparative method A qualitative data analysis convenience sampling See availability sampling.
method in which the researcher looks for patterns in inductive
observations, develops concepts and working hypotheses based convergent validity The degree to which scores on a measure
on those patterns, seeks out more cases and conducts more ob- correspond to scores on other measures of the same construct.
servations, and then compares those observations against the See also construct validity, discriminant validity, and Chapter 8.
concepts and hypotheses developed from the earlier observations. conversation analysis (CA) A qualitative data analysis approach
The selection of new cases is guided by theoretical sampling con- that aims to uncover the implicit assumptions and structures in
cepts in which new cases are selected that seem to be similar to social life through an extremely close scrutiny of the way we con-
those generated by previously detected concepts and hypotheses. verse with one another. See Chapter 19.
Once the researcher perceives that no new insights are being gen-
costbenefit analysis An assessment of program efficiency in
erated from the observation of similar cases, a different type of
which an attempt is made to monetize the benefits associated
case is selected and the same process is repeated. Additional cases
with a programs outcome and thus see if those monetary benefits
similar to this new type of case are selected until no new insights
exceed program costs. See Chapter 13.
are being generated. This cycle of exhausting similar cases and
then seeking a different category of cases is repeated until the re- cost-effectiveness analysis An assessment of program efficiency
searcher believes that further seeking of new types of cases will in which the only monetary considerations are the costs of the
not alter the fi ndings. See Chapter 19. program; the monetary benefits of the programs effects are not
assessed. Cost-effectiveness analysis looks at the cost per unit of
construct validity The degree to which a measure relates to
outcome without monetizing the outcome. See Chapter 13.
other variables as expected within a system of theoretical rela-
tionships and as reflected by the degree of its convergent validity criterion-related validity The degree to which a measure relates
and discriminant validity. See also convergent validity, discrimi- with some external criterion. For example, the validity of the
nant validity, and Chapter 8. college board exam is shown in its ability to predict the college
620 G L O S SA RY
success of students. See known groups validity, concurrent valid- from the general principle that all deans are meanies, you might
ity, predictive validity, and Chapter 8. anticipate that Dean Moe wont let you change courses. That an-
ticipation would be the result of deduction. See also induction
critical region Those values in the statistically signifi cant zone
and Chapter 3.
of a theoretical sampling distribution. See Chapter 21.
dependent variable That variable that is assumed to depend on,
critical social science A paradigm distinguished by its focus on
or be caused by, another (called the independent variable). If you
oppression and its commitment to use research procedures to em-
fi nd that income is partly a function of amount of formal educa-
power oppressed groups. See Chapter 3.
tion, then income is being treated as a dependent variable. See
cross-case analysis A qualitative data analysis method that is an Chapters 3 and 7.
extension of case-oriented analysis, in which the researcher turns
descriptive statistics Statistical computations that describe ei-
to other subjects, looking into the full details of their lives as well
ther the characteristics of a sample or the relationship among
but paying special note to the variables that seemed important in
variables in a sample. Descriptive statistics merely summarize a
the fi rst case. Some subsequent cases will closely parallel the fi rst
set of sample observations, whereas inferential statistics move be-
one in the apparent impact of particular variables. Other cases
yond the description of specifi c observations to make inferences
will bear no resemblance to the fi rst. These latter cases may re-
about the larger population from which the sample observations
quire the identifi cation of other important variables, which may
were drawn. See Chapter 20.
invite the researcher to explore why some cases seem to reflect one
pattern whereas others reflect another. See case-oriented analysis deviant case sampling A type of nonprobability sampling
and Chapter 19. in which cases selected for observation are those that are not
thought to fit the regular pattern. For example, the deviant cases
cross-sectional study A study based on observations that repre-
might exhibit a much greater or lesser extent of something. See
sent a single point in time. Contrasted with a longitudinal study.
Chapters 14 and 17.
See Chapters 6 and 11.
dichotomous variable A variable that has only two categories.
cultural bias A source of measurement error or sampling error
See also binomial variable.
stemming from researcher ignorance or insensitivity regarding
how cultural differences can influence measurement or gener- diffusion (or imitation) of treatments A threat to the validity of
alizations made to the entire population when certain minority an evaluation of an interventions effectiveness that occurs when
groups are inadequately represented in the sample. A measure- practitioners who are supposed to provide routine services to a
ment procedure is culturally biased when it is administered to a comparison group implement aspects of the experimental groups
minority culture without adjusting for the ways in which the mi- intervention in ways that tend to diminish the planned differences
nority cultures unique values, attitudes, lifestyles, or limited opin the interventions received by the groups being compared. See
portunities alter the accuracy or meaning of what is really being Chapter 10.
measured. See Chapters 5 and 8. dimension A specifiable aspect or facet of a concept.
cultural competence A researchers ability to obtain and provide direct behavioral observation A source of data, or type of data
information that is relevant, useful, and valid for minority and collection, in which researchers watch what people do rather than
oppressed populations. Cultural competence involves knowledge rely on what they say about themselves or what others say about
about the minority cultures historical experiences, traditions, them. See Chapters 7 and 8.
values, family systems, socioeconomic issues, and attitudes about
social services and social policies; awareness of how ones own at- direct observation A way to operationally defi ne variables based
titudes are connected to ones own cultural background and how on observing actual behavior. See also direct behavioral observa-
they may differ from the worldview of members of the minority tion and Chapters 7 and 8.
culture; and skills in communicating effectively both verbally and discriminant validity The degree to which scores on an instru-
nonverbally with members of the minority culture and establishment correspond more highly to measures of the same construct
ing rapport with them. See Chapter 5. than they do to scores on measures of other constructs. See also
culturally competent research Being aware of and appropriately convergent validity, construct validity, and Chapter 8.
responding to the ways in which cultural factors and cultural dif- dismantling studies Experiments designed to test not only
ferences should influence what we investigate, how we investigate, whether an intervention is effective, but also which components
and how we interpret our fi ndingsthus resulting in studies that of the intervention may or may not be necessary to achieve its
are useful and valid for minority and oppressed populations. See effects. Participants are assigned randomly to groups that either
Chapter 5. receive the entire intervention package, separate components of
curvilinear relationship A relationship between two variables it, or a control condition, and are tested on a dependent variable
that changes in nature at different values of the variables. For ex- before and after the intervention components are provided. See
ample, a curvilinear relationship might exist between amount of Chapter 10.
social work practice experience and practice effectiveness, par- dispersion The distribution of values around some central value
ticularly if we assume that practitioners with a moderate amount such as an average. The range is a simple example of a measure of
of experience are more effective than those with none and at least dispersion. Thus, we may report that the mean age of a group is
as effective as those nearing retirement. See Chapter 7. 37.9, and the range is from 12 to 89. See Chapter 20.
deduction The logical model in which specific expectations of hy- disproportionate stratified sampling A sampling method aimed
potheses are developed on the basis of general principles. Starting at ensuring that enough cases of certain minority groups are
G L O S SA RY 621
selected to allow for subgroup comparisons within each of those experimental group In experiments, a group of participants who
minority groups. See Chapters 5 and 14. receive the intervention being evaluated and who should resemble
double-barreled question Asking for a single answer to a question the control group in all other respects. The comparison of the ex-
that really contains multiple questions; for example, Should taxes perimental group and the control group at the end of the experi-
be raised so welfare funding can be increased? See Chapter 9. ment points to the effect of the tested intervention. See Chapter 10.
ecological fallacy Erroneously drawing conclusions about indi- experimental mortality A threat to the validity of an experiment
viduals based solely on the observation of groups. See Chapter 6. that occurs when participants drop out of an experiment before it
is completed. Also called attrition. See Chapter 11.
effect size A statistic that portrays the strength of association
between variables. Effect-size statistics might refer to various experimenter expectancies Research participants learn what
measures of proportion of dependent variable variation explained experimenters want them to say or do, and then they cooperate
or specifically to the difference between the means of two groups with those demands or expectations. See Chapter 10.
divided by the standard deviation. The latter is usually called the external evaluators Program evaluators who do not work for
effect size, ES, or Cohens d. See Chapter 21. the agency being evaluated but instead work for external agen-
element That unit in a sample about which information is col- cies such as government or regulating agencies, private research
lected and that provides the basis of analysis. Typically, in sur- consultation fi rms, or universities. See Chapter 13.
vey research, elements are people or certain types of people. See external validity Refers to the extent to which we can general-
Chapter 14. ize the fi ndings of a study to settings and populations beyond the
emic perspective Trying to adopt the beliefs, attitudes, and study conditions. See Chapter 10.
other points of view shared by the members of the culture being extraneous variable See control variable.
studied. See Chapter 18.
face validity That quality of an indicator that makes it seem
empirical support Observations that are consistent with what a reasonable measure of some variable. That the frequency of
we would expect to experience if a theory is correct or an inter- church attendance is some indication of a persons religiosity
vention is effective. See Chapters 1, 2, and 3. seems to make sense without a lot of explanation: It has face va-
EPSEM See equal probability of selection method. lidity. See Chapter 8.
equal probability of selection method (EPSEM) A sample design factor analysis A statistical procedure that identifies which
in which each member of a population has the same chance of subsets of variables or items on a scale correlate with each other
being selected into the sample. See Chapter 14. more than with other subsets. In so doing, it identifi es how many
dimensions a scale contains and which items cluster on which di-
ES See effect size.
mensions. See Chapter 8.
ethnocentrism The belief in the superiority of ones own cul-
factorial validity Whether the number of constructs and the
ture. See Chapter 5.
items that make up those constructs on a measurement scale are
ethnography A qualitative research approach that focuses on what the researcher intends. See Chapter 8.
providing a detailed and accurate description of a culture from
fi eld tracking Talking with people on the streets about where
the viewpoint of an insider rather than the way the researcher
to find research participantsparticularly those who are
understands things. See Chapter 17.
homelessto secure their participation in future sessions or in-
etic perspective Maintaining objectivity as an outsider and rais- terviews. See Chapter 5.
ing questions about the culture being observed that wouldnt oc-
File drawer effect A term based on the notion that authors of
cur to members of that culture. See Chapter 18.
studies with fi ndings that dont support the effectiveness of an
evidence-based practice Using the best scientifi c evidence avail- intervention will just fi le their studies away rather than submit
able in deciding how to intervene with individuals, families, them for publication. See Chapter 22.
groups, or communities. See Chapter 2.
focus groups An approach to needs assessment in which a small
existing statistics analysis Research involving the analysis of group of people are brought together to engage in a guided dis-
statistical information in official government or agency docu- cussion of a specified topic. See Chapters 13 and 18.
ments and reports. See Chapter 16.
formative evaluation A type of program evaluation not con-
experimental demand characteristics Research participants learn cerned with testing the success of a program, but focusing in-
what experimenters want them to say or do, and then they cooper- stead on obtaining information that is helpful in planning the
ate with those demands or expectations. See Chapter 11. program and improving its implementation and performance. See
Chapter 13.
experimental design A research method that attempts to provide
maximum control for threats to internal validity by: (1) randomly frequency distribution A description of the number of times the
assigning individuals to experimental and control groups, (2) in- various attributes of a variable are observed in a sample. The re-
troducing the independent variable (which typically is a program port that 53 percent of a sample were men and 47 percent were
or intervention method) to the experimental group while with- women would be a simple example of a frequency distribution.
holding it from the control group, and (3) comparing the amount Another example would be the report that 15 of the cities stud-
of experimental and control group change on the dependent vari- ied had populations under 10,000, 23 had populations between
able. See Chapter 10. 10,000 and 25,000, and so forth. See Chapter 20.
622 G L O S SA RY
gender bias The unwarranted generalization of research fi ndings on. This kind of explanation wont necessarily help us understand
to the population as a whole when one gender is not adequately bigotry in general, but wed feel we really understood Uncle Ed.
represented in the research sample. See Chapter 14. By contrast, see nomothetic. See Chapter 3.
generalizability That quality of a research fi nding that justifies independent variable A variable whose values are not problem-
the inference that it represents something more than the specifi c atical in an analysis but are taken as simply given. An independent
observations on which it was based. Sometimes, this involves the variable is presumed to cause or explain a dependent variable. If
generalization of fi ndings from a sample to a population. Other we discover that religiosity is partly a function of genderwomen
times it is a matter of concepts: If you are able to discover why are more religious than mengender is the independent variable
people commit burglaries, can you generalize that discovery to and religiosity is the dependent variable. Note that any given vari-
other crimes as well? See Chapter 17. able might be treated as independent in one part of an analysis
and dependent in another part of the analysis. Religiosity might
generalization of effects A rival explanation in a multiple-
become an independent variable in the explanation of crime. See
baseline design that occurs when an intervention that is intended
Chapters 3 and 7.
to apply to only one behavior or setting affects other behaviors or
settings that are still in baseline. See Chapter 12. index A type of composite measure that summarizes several
specifi c observations and represents some more general dimen-
generalize To infer that the fi ndings of a particular study repre-
sion. See Chapter 9.
sent causal processes or apply to settings or populations beyond
the study conditions. See Chapter 17. induction The logical model in which general principles are de-
veloped from specifi c observations. Having noted that Jews and
going native A risk in qualitative field research that occurs
Catholics are more likely to vote Democratic than are Protes-
when researchers overidentify with their respondents and lose
tants, you might conclude that religious minorities in the United
their objective, analytic stance or their own sense of identity. See
States are more affi liated with the Democratic Party and explain
Chapters 17 and 18.
why. That would be an example of induction. See also deduction
grounded theory A qualitative research approach that begins and Chapter 3.
with observations and looks for patterns, themes, or common
inference A conclusion that can be logically drawn in light of a
categories. See Chapters 17, 18, and 19.
research design and fi ndings. See Chapter 10.
grounded theory method (GTM) A qualitative methodology for inferential statistics The body of statistical computations that
building theory from data by beginning with observations and is relevant to making inferences from fi ndings based on sample
looking for patterns, themes, or common categories in those ob- observations to some larger population. See also descriptive sta-
servations. See Chapters 17 and 19. tistics and Chapters 21 and 22.
GTM See grounded theory method. informal conversational interview An unplanned and unantici-
hermeneutics A qualitative research approach in which the re- pated interaction between an interviewer and a respondent that
searcher mentally tries to take on the circumstances, views, and occurs naturally during the course of fieldwork observation. It is
feelings of those being studied in order to interpret their actions the most open-ended form of interviewing, and the interviewee
appropriately. See Chapter 16. might not think of the interaction as an interview. Flexibility to
pursue relevant information in whatever direction seems appro-
historical and comparative research A research method that traces
priate is emphasized, and questions should be generated naturally
the development of social forms over time and compares those de-
and spontaneously from what is observed at a particular point in
velopmental processes across cultures, seeking to discover common
a particular setting or from what individuals in that setting hap-
patterns that recur in different times and places. See Chapter 16.
pen to say. See Chapter 18.
history A threat to internal validity referring to extraneous
informant Someone who is well versed in the social phenom-
events that coincide in time with the manipulation of the inde-
enon that you wish to study and willing to tell you what he or
pendent variable. See Chapters 10 and 12.
she knows. If you were planning participant observation among
hypothesis A tentative and testable prediction about how the members of a religious sect, then you would do well to make
changes in one thing are expected to explain and be accompa- friends with someone who already knows about the members
nied by changes in something else. A statement of something that possibly even a sect memberwho could give you background
ought to be observed in the real world if a theory is correct. See information about them. Not to be confused with a respondent.
deduction and also Chapters 3, 6, and 7. See Chapters 14 and 18.
hypothesis testing The determination of whether the expecta- in-house evaluators Program evaluators who work for the
tions that a hypothesis represents are actually found to exist in agency being evaluated and therefore may be under pressure to
the real world. See Chapters 3 and 6. produce biased studies or results that portray the agency favor-
ideology A closed system of beliefs and values that shapes the un- ably. See Chapter 13.
derstanding and behavior of those who believe in it. See Chapter 3. institutional review board (IRB) An independent panel of pro-
idiographic An approach to explanation in which we attempt to fessionals that is required to approve the ethics of research involv-
explain a single case fully, using as many idiosyncratic, explana- ing human subjects. See Chapter 4.
tory factors as may be necessary. We might explain why Uncle Ed internal consistency reliability A practical and commonly
is such a bigot by talking about what happened to him that sum- used approach to assessing reliability that examines the homo-
mer at the beach, what his college roommate did to him, and so geneity of a measurement instrument by dividing the instrument
G L O S SA RY 623
into equivalent halves and then calculating the correlation of the key informants An approach to needs assessment that is based
scores of the two halves. See Chapter 8. on expert opinions of individuals who are presumed to have spe-
internal invalidity Refers to the possibility that the conclusions cial knowledge about a target populations problems or needs. See
drawn from experimental results may not accurately reflect what Chapter 13.
went on in the experiment itself. See Chapter 10 and also external known groups validity A form of criterion-related validity that
invalidity. pertains to the degree to which an instrument accurately differ-
internal validity The degree to which an effect observed in an ex- entiates between groups that are known to differ in respect to the
periment was actually produced by the experimental stimulus and variable being measured. See Chapter 8.
not the result of other factors. See Chapter 10 and external validity. latent content As used in connection with content analysis, the
interobserver reliability See interrater reliability. underlying meaning of communications as distinguished from
their manifest content. See Chapter 16.
interpretation A technical term used in connection with the
elaboration model. It represents the research outcome in which a level of significance See signifi cance level.
control variable is discovered to be the mediating factor through life history (or life story or oral history interviews) A qualitative
which an independent variable affects a dependent variable. See research method in which researchers ask open-ended questions
Chapter 10. to discover how the participants in a study understand the signifi -
interpretivism An approach to social research that focuses on cant events and meanings in their own lives. See Chapter 18.
gaining an empathic understanding of how people feel inside,
life story See life history.
seeking to interpret individuals everyday experiences, deeper
meanings and feelings, and idiosyncratic reasons for their behav- Likert scale A type of composite measure developed by Rensis
iors. See Chapter 3. Likert in an attempt to improve the levels of measurement in so-
cial research through the use of standardized response categories
interrater reliability The extent of consistency among differ-
in survey questionnaires. Likert items use such response cat-
ent observers in their judgments, as reflected in the percentage of
egories as strongly agree, agree, disagree, and strongly disagree.
agreement or degree of correlation in their independent ratings.
Such items may be used in the construction of true Likert scales
See Chapter 8.
and also be used in the construction of other types of composite
interrupted time-series with a nonequivalent comparison group measures. See Chapter 9.
time-series design The most common form of multiple time-
series design, in which an experimental group and a control linguistic equivalence (or translation equivalence) The result of
group are measured at multiple points in time before and after an a successful translation and back-translation of an instrument
intervention is introduced to the control group. See Chapter 11. originally developed for the majority language, but which will be
used with research participants who dont speak the majority lan-
interval measure A level of measurement that describes a vari- guage. See Chapter 5.
able whose attributes are rank-ordered and have equal distances
between adjacent attributes. The Fahrenheit temperature scale is logic model A graphic portrayal that depicts the essential com-
an example of this, because the distance between 17 and 18 is ponents of a program, shows how those components are linked
the same as that between 89 and 90. See also nominal measure, to short-term process objectives, specifies measurable indicators
ordinal measure, ratio measure, and Chapter 20. of success in achieving short-term objectives, conveys how those
short-term objectives lead to long-term program outcomes, and
intervening variable See mediating variable. identifies measurable indicators of success in achieving long-term
intervention fi delity The degree to which an intervention be- outcomes. See Chapter 13.
ing evaluated is actually delivered to clients as intended. See
longitudinal study A study design that involves the collection
Chapter 11.
of data at different points in time, as contrasted with a cross-
interview A data-collection encounter in which one person (an sectional study. See Chapter 6.
interviewer) asks questions of another (a respondent). Interviews
mail tracking A method of locating and contacting research par-
may be conducted face-to-face or by telephone. See Chapters 15
ticipants by mailing reminder notices about impending interviews
and 18 for more information on interviewing.
or about the need to call in to update any changes in how they
interview guide approach A semistructured form of qualitative can be contacted. It might also include sending birthday cards,
interviewing that lists in outline form the topics and issues that holiday greetings, and certifi cates of appreciation for participa-
the interviewer should cover in the interview, but allows the inter- tion. See Chapter 5.
viewer to adapt the sequencing and wording of questions to each
particular interview. See Chapter 18. managed care A variety of arrangements that try to control the
costs of health and human services by having a large organization
inverse relationship See negative relationship. that pays for the cost of services for many people contract with
IRB See institutional review board. care providers who agree to provide that care at reduced costs.
Managed care is thought to have contributed to the growth of
judgmental sample A type of nonprobability sample in which
program evaluation. See Chapter 13.
we select the units to be observed on the basis of our own judg-
ment about which ones will be the most useful or representative. manifest content In connection with content analysis, the con-
Another name for this is purposive sample. See Chapter 14 for crete terms contained in a communication, as distinguished from
more details. latent content. See Chapter 16.
624 G L O S SA RY
matching In connection with experiments, the procedure multiple regression analysis A multivariate statistical procedure
whereby pairs of subjects are matched on the basis of their simi- that shows the overall correlation between a set (or sets) of inde-
larities on one or more variables, and one member of the pair is pendent variables and an interval- or ratio-level dependent vari-
assigned to the experimental group and the other to the control able. See Chapter 22.
group. See Chapter 11. multiple time-series designs A form of time-series analysis in which
maturation A threat to internal validity referring to aging ef- both an experimental group and a nonequivalent comparison group
fects or developmental changes that influence the dependent vari- are measured at multiple points in time before and after an interven-
able. See Chapters 10 and 11. tion is introduced to the experimental group. See Chapter 11.
mean An average, computed by summing the values of several multivariate analysis The analysis of the simultaneous relation-
observations and dividing by the number of observations. If you ships among several variables. Examining simultaneously the
now have a grade point average of 4.0 based on 10 courses and effects of age, sex, and social class on religiosity would be an ex-
you get an F in this course, then your new grade point average ample of multivariate analysis. See Chapters 10, 20, and 22.
(the mean) will be 3.6. See Chapter 20. naturalism A qualitative research paradigm that emphasizes ob-
measurement equivalence The degree to which instruments serving people in their natural, everyday social settings and on
or observed behaviors have the same meaning across cultures, reporting their stories the way they tell them. See Chapter 17.
relate to referent theoretical constructs in the same way across needs assessment Systematically researching diagnostic ques-
cultures, and have the same causal linkages across cultures. See tions for program planning purposes. For example, community
Chapter 5. residents might be surveyed to assess their need for new child-
care services. See Chapter 13.
median Another average; it represents the value of the middle
case in a rank-ordered set of observations. If the ages of five men negative case analysis A strategy for improving the trustworthi-
are 16, 17, 20, 54, and 88, then the median would be 20 (the ness of qualitative research fi ndings in which researchers show
mean would be 39). See Chapter 20. they have searched thoroughly for disconfi rming evidencelook-
ing for deviant cases that do not fi t the researchers interpreta-
mediating variable (or intervening variable) The mechanism by
tions. See Chapter 17.
which an independent variable affects a dependent variable. See
Chapter 7. negative relationship A relationship between two variables in
which one variable increases in value as the other variable de-
member checking A strategy for improving the trustworthiness creases. For example, we might expect to fi nd a negative relation-
of qualitative research fi ndings in which researchers ask the par- ship between the level of utilization of community-based aftercare
ticipants in their research to confi rm or disconfi rm the accuracy services and rehospitalization rates. See Chapter 7.
of the research observations and interpretations. Do the reported
observations and interpretations ring true and have meaning to nominal measure A level of measurement that describes a vari-
the participants? See Chapter 17. able whose different attributes differ only categorically and not
metrically, as distinguished from ordinal, interval, or ratio mea-
memoing A qualitative data analysis technique used at several sures. Gender would be an example of a nominal measure. See
stages of data processing to capture code meanings, theoretical Chapters 9 and 20.
ideas, preliminary conclusions, and other thoughts that will be
nomothetic An approach to explanation in which we attempt to
useful during analysis. See Chapter 19.
discover factors that can offer a general, though imperfect, explana-
meta-analysis A procedure for calculating the average strength tion of some phenomenon. For example, we might note that educa-
of association between variables (that is, the mean effect size) tion seems to reduce prejudice in general. Even though we recognize
across previously completed research studies in a particular field. that some educated people are prejudiced and some uneducated peo-
See Chapter 22. ple are not, we have learned some of what causes prejudice or toler-
ance in general. By contrast, see idiographic. See Chapter 3.
metric equivalence (or psychometric equivalence or scalar equi-
valence) Scores on a measure being comparable across cultures. nondirectional hypotheses Predicted relationships between vari-
See Chapter 5. ables that do not specify whether the predicted relationship will
be positive or negative. See Chapter 21.
mode The most frequently observed value or attribute. If a sam-
ple contains 1,000 Protestants, 275 Catholics, and 33 Jews, then nonequivalent comparison groups design A quasi-experimental
Protestant is the modal category. See Chapter 20. design in which the researcher finds two existing groups that
appear to be similar and measures change on a dependent vari-
moderating variable A variable that influences the strength or able before and after an intervention is introduced to one of the
direction of a relationship between independent and dependent groups. See Chapter 11.
variables. See Chapter 7.
nonparametric tests Tests of statistical signifi cance that have
multiple-baseline design A type of single-case evaluation design been created for use when not all of the assumptions of paramet-
that attempts to control for extraneous variables by having more ric statistics can be met. Chi-square is the most commonly used
than one baseline and intervention phase. See Chapter 12. nonparametric test. See Chapter 22.
multiple-component design A type of single-case evaluation de- nonprobability sample A sample selected in some fashion other
sign that attempts to determine which parts of an intervention than those suggested by probability theory. Examples include
package really account for the change in the target problem. See judgmental (purposive), quota, and snowball samples. See Chap-
Chapter 12. ters 14 and 17.
G L O S SA RY 625
novelty and disruption effects A form of research reactivity in oral history interviews See life history.
experiments in which the sense of excitement, energy, and enthu- ordinal measure A level of measurement describing a variable
siasm among recipients of an evaluated interventionand not the whose attributes may be rank-ordered along some dimension. An
intervention itselfcauses the desired change in their behavior. example would be measuring socioeconomic status by the at-
See Chapter 10. tributes high, medium, and low. See also nominal measure, inter-
NUD*IST A computer program designed to assist researchers val measure, and ratio measure and Chapters 9 and 20.
in the analysis of qualitative data. See Chapter 19. panel attrition A problem facing panel studies, based on the fact
null hypothesis In connection with hypothesis testing and tests that some respondents who are studied in the fi rst wave of the
of statistical signifi cance, the hypothesis that suggests there is no survey may not participate later. See Chapter 6.
relationship between the variables under study. You may conclude panel studies Longitudinal studies in which data are collected from
that the two variables are related after having statistically rejected the same sample (the panel) at several points in time. See Chapter 6.
the null hypothesis. See Chapters 21 and 22.
PAR See participatory action research.
observations Information we gather by experience in the real
world that helps us build a theory or verify whether it is correct paradigm (1) A model or frame of reference that shapes our
when testing hypotheses. See Chapter 3. observations and understandings. For example, functionalism
leads us to examine society in terms of the functions served by its
obtrusive observation Occurs when the participant is keenly constituent parts, whereas interactionism leads us to focus at-
aware of being observed and thus may be predisposed to behave tention on the ways people deal with each other face-to-face and
in socially desirable ways and in ways that meet experimenter ex- arrive at shared meanings for things. (2) Almost a quarter. See
pectancies. See Chapters 10, 11, 12, and 16. Chapter 3.
one-group pretestposttest design A pre-experimental design, parallel-forms reliability Consistency of measurement between
with low internal validity, that assesses a dependent variable be- two equivalent measurement instruments. See Chapter 8.
fore and after a stimulus is introduced but does not attempt to
control for alternative explanations of any changes in scores that parameter A summary statistic describing a given variable in a
are observed. See Chapters 10 and 11. population, such as the mean income of all families in a city or
the age distribution of the citys population. See Chapter 14 and
one-shot case study A pre-experimental research design, with Appendix B.
low internal validity, that simply measures a single group of sub-
jects on a dependent variable at one point in time after they have parametric tests Tests of statistical significance that assume that
been exposed to a stimulus. See Chapters 10 and 11. at least one variable being studied has an interval or ratio level of
measurement, that the sample distribution of the relevant param-
one-tailed tests of significance Statistical signifi cance tests that eters of those variables is normal, and that the different groups
place the entire critical region at the predicted end of the theoreti- being compared have been randomly selected and are independent
cal sampling distribution and thus limit the inference of statisti- of one another. Commonly used parametric tests are the t-test,
cal signifi cance to fi ndings that are only in the critical region of analysis of variance, and Pearson product-moment correlation.
the predicted direction. See Chapter 21. See Chapter 22.
online surveys Surveys conducted via the Interneteither by participatory action research (PAR) A qualitative research par-
e-mail or through a website. See Chapter 15. adigm in which the researchers function is to serve as a resource
open coding A qualitative data-processing method in which, in- to those being studiedtypically, disadvantaged groupsas
stead of starting out with a list of code categories derived from an opportunity for them to act effectively in their own interest.
theory, one develops code categories through close examination of The disadvantaged participants defi ne their problems, defi ne the
qualitative data. During open coding, the data are broken down remedies desired, and take the lead in designing the research
into discrete parts, closely examined, and compared for similari- that will help them realize their aims. See Chapter 17.
ties and differences. Questions are asked about the phenomena as passage of time A threat to internal validity referring to changes
reflected in the data. Through this process, ones own and others in a dependent variable that occur naturally as time passes and
assumptions about phenomena are questioned or explored, lead- not because of the independent variable. See Chapters 10 and 11.
ing to new discoveries. See Chapter 19.
path analysis A statistical procedure, based on regression analy-
open-ended questions Questions for which respondents are sis, that provides a graphic picture of a causal model for under-
asked to provide their own answer, rather than selecting from standing relationships between variables. See Chapter 22.
among a list of possible responses provided by the researcher as
Pearson product-moment correlation (r) A parametric measure
for closed-ended questions. See Chapter 9.
of association, ranging from 1.0 to +1.0, used when both the in-
operational defi nition The concrete and specifi c defi nition of dependent and dependent variables are at the interval or ratio
something in terms of the operations by which observations are level of measurement. See Chapter 22.
to be categorized. The operational defi nition of earning an A in
peer debriefi ng and support A strategy for improving the trust-
this course might be correctly answering at least 90 percent of
worthiness of qualitative research fi ndings in which teams of in-
the fi nal exam questions. See Chapters 7 and 12.
vestigators meet regularly to give each other feedback, emotional
operationalization One step beyond conceptualization. Opera- support, alternative perspectives, and new ideas about how they
tionalization is the process of developing operational defi nitions. are collecting data or about problems, and about meanings in the
See Chapter 7. data already collected. See Chapter 17.
626 G L O S SA RY
phone tracking A method of locating and contacting research PRE See proportionate reduction of error.
participantsparticularly those who are transient or homeless predictive validity A form of criterion-related validity involv-
to secure their participation in future sessions or interviews. This ing a measures ability to predict a criterion that will occur in the
method involves repeated telephoning of anchor points in ad- future. See Chapter 8.
vance to schedule an interview and providing participants a toll-
free number where they can leave messages about appointment pre-experimental designs Pilot study designs for evaluating the
changes or changes in how to locate them, incentives for leaving effectiveness of interventions; they do not control for threats to
such messages, and a card that lists appointment times and the internal validity. See Chapters 10 and 11.
research projects address and telephone number. See Chapter 5. pretestposttest control group design The classical experimen-
placebo control group design An experimental design that con- tal design in which subjects are assigned randomly to an experi-
trols for placebo effects by randomly assigning subjects to an ex- mental group that receives an intervention being evaluated and to
perimental group and two control groups and exposing one of a control group that does not receive it. Each group is tested on
the control groups to a stimulus that is designed to resemble the the dependent variable before and after the experimental group
special attention received by subjects in the experimental group. receives the intervention. See Chapter 10.
See placebo effects and Chapter 10. pretesting Testing out a scale or questionnaire in a dry run to
placebo effects Changes in a dependent variable that are caused see if the target population will understand it and not fi nd it too
by the power of suggestion among participants in an experimental unwieldy, as well as to identify any needed modifications. See
group that they are receiving something special that is expected to Chapters 5 and 9.
help them. These changes would not occur if they received the ex- probabilistic knowledge Knowledge based on probability that
perimental intervention without that awareness. See Chapter 10. enables us to say that if A occurs, then B is more likely to occur.
plagiarism Presenting someone elses words or thoughts as though It does not enable us to say that B will occur, or even that B will
they were your own; constitutes intellectual theft. See Chapter 23. probably occur. See Chapter 3.
population The group or collection that a researcher is inter- probability proportionate to size (PPS) This refers to a type of
ested in generalizing about. More formally, it is the theoretically multistage cluster sample in which clusters are selected, not with
specified aggregation of study elements. See Chapter 14. equal probabilities (see equal probability of selection method)
but with probabilities proportionate to their sizesas measured
positive relationship A relationship between two variables in by the number of units to be subsampled. See Chapter 14.
which one variable increases in value as the other variable also
increases in value (or one decreases as the other decreases). For probability sample The general term for a sample selected in ac-
example, we might expect to fi nd a positive relationship between cord with probability theory, typically involving some random se-
rate of unemployment and extent of homelessness. See Chapter 7. lection mechanism. Specific types of probability samples include
area probability sample, EPSEM, PPS, simple random sample,
positivism A paradigm introduced by August Comte that held and systematic sample. See Chapter 14.
that social behavior could be studied and understood in a ratio-
nal, scientific mannerin contrast to explanations based in reli- probability sampling The use of random sampling techniques
gion or superstition. See Chapter 3. that allow a researcher to make relatively few observations and
generalize from those observations to a much wider population.
possible-code cleaning Examining the distribution of responses See Chapter 14.
to each item in a data set to check for errors in data entered into
a computer by looking for impossible code categories that have probe A technique employed in interviewing to solicit a more
some responses and then correcting the errors. See Chapter 20. complete answer to a question, this nondirective phrase or ques-
tion is used to encourage a respondent to elaborate on an answer.
postmodernism A paradigm that rejects the notion of a know- Examples include Anything more? and How is that? See
able objective social reality. See Chapter 3. Chapters 15 and 18 for discussions of interviewing.
posttest-only control group design A variation of the classical prolonged engagement A strategy for improving the trustwor-
experimental design that avoids the possible testing effects as- thiness of qualitative research fi ndings that attempts to reduce the
sociated with pretesting by testing only after the experimental impact of reactivity and respondent bias by forming a long and
group receives the intervention, based on the assumption that the trusting relationship with respondents and by conducting lengthy
process of random assignment provides for equivalence between interviews or a series of follow-up interviews with the same
the experimental and control groups on the dependent variable respondent. This improves the likelihood that the respondent ulti-
before the exposure to the intervention. See also pretestposttest mately will disclose socially undesirable truths, and improves the
control group design. See Chapter 10. researchers ability to detect distortion. See Chapter 17.
post test- on ly design w ith nonequiva lent g roups A pre - proportionate reduction of error (PRE) The proportion of errors
experimental design that involves two groups that may not be reduced in predicting the value for one variable based on knowing
comparable, in which the dependent variable is assessed after the value for the other. The stronger the relationship is, the more
the independent variable is introduced for one of the groups. See our prediction errors will be reduced. See Chapter 21.
Chapter 11.
pseudoscience Fake science about an area of inquiry or practice
PPS See probability proportionate to size. that has the surface appearance of being scientific, but upon care-
practice models Guides to help us organize our views about so- ful inspection can be seen to violate one or more principles of the
cial work practice that may reflect a synthesis of existing theories. scientific method or contain fallacies against which the scientific
See Chapter 3. method attempts to guard. See Chapter 1.
G L O S SA RY 627
psychometric equivalence See metric equivalence and Chapter 5. problems or diagnoses into groups that receive different interven-
purposive sample See judgmental sample and Chapters 14 and 17. tions. If the predicted difference in outcome is found between the
groups, it is not plausible to attribute the difference to a priori dif-
purposive sampling Selecting a sample of observations that the ferences between two incomparable groups. See Chapters 2 and 11.
researcher believes will yield the most comprehensive understand-
ing of the subject of study, based on the researchers intuitive feel range A measure of dispersion that is composed of the highest
for the subject that comes from extended observation and reflec- and lowest values of a variable in some set of observations. In
tion. See Chapters 14 and 17. your class, for example, the range of ages might be from 20 to 37.
See Chapter 20.
qualitative analysis The nonnumerical examination and inter-
pretation of observations for the purpose of discovering underly- rates under treatment An approach to needs assessment based
ing meanings and patterns of relationships. This is most typical on the number and characteristics of clients already using a ser-
of field research and historical research. See Chapter 19. vice in a similar community. See Chapter 13.
qualitative interview An interaction between an interviewer and ratio measure A level of measurement that describes a variable
a respondent in which the interviewer usually has a general plan whose attributes have all the qualities of nominal, ordinal, and
of inquiry but not a specifi c set of questions that must be asked interval measures and also are based on a true zero point. Age
in particular words and in a particular order. Ideally, the respon- would be an example of a ratio measure. See Chapters 9 and 20.
dent does most of the talking. See Chapter 18. reactivity A process in which change in a dependent variable is
qualitative research methods Research methods that emphasize induced by research procedures. See Chapters 11 and 12.
depth of understanding and the deeper meanings of human expe- recall bias A common limitation in case-control designs that
rience, and that aim to generate theoretically richer, albeit more occurs when a persons current recollections of the quality and
tentative, observations. Commonly used qualitative methods in- value of past experiences are tainted by knowing that things
clude participant observation, direct observation, and unstruc- didnt work out for them later in life. See Chapter 11.
tured or intensive interviewing. See Chapters 3, 17, 18, and 19.
reductionism A fault of some researchers: a strict limitation (re-
quantitative analysis The numerical representation and manip- duction) of the kinds of concepts to be considered relevant to the
ulation of observations for the purpose of describing and explain- phenomenon under study. See Chapter 6.
ing the phenomena that those observations reflect. See especially
Chapter 20 and also the remainder of Part 7. reification The process of regarding as real things that are not
real. See Chapter 7.
quantitative methods Research methods that emphasize precise,
objective, and generalizable fi ndings. See Chapter 3. relationship Variables that change together in a consistent, pre-
dictable fashion. See Chapters 3 and 7.
quasi-experimental design Design that attempts to control for
threats to internal validity and thus permits causal inferences but reliability That quality of a measurement method that sug-
is distinguished from true experiments primarily by the lack of gests that the same data would have been collected each time in
random assignment of subjects. See Chapter 11. repeated observations of the same phenomenon. In the context
of a survey, we would expect that the question Did you attend
questionnaire A document that contains questions and other
church last week? would have higher reliability than the ques-
types of items that are designed to solicit information appropriate
tion About how many times have you attended church in your
to analysis. Questionnaires are used primarily in survey research
life? This is not to be confused with validity. See Chapter 8.
and also in experiments, field research, and other modes of obser-
vation. See Chapters 9 and 15. reminder calls Telephoning research participants to remind
them of their scheduled treatment or assessment sessions in a
quota sampling A type of nonprobability sample in which units
study. See Chapter 5.
are selected into the sample on the basis of prespecifi ed charac-
teristics so that the total sample will have the same distribution replication (1) Generally, the duplication of a study to expose
of characteristics as are assumed to exist in the population being or reduce error or the reintroduction or withdrawal of an inter-
studied. See Chapters 14 and 17. vention to increase the internal validity of a quasi-experiment
r 2 The proportion of variation in the dependent variable that is or single-case design evaluation. See Chapters 1, 3, 11, and 12.
explained by the independent variable. See Chapter 21. (2) One possible result in the elaboration model that occurs when
an original bivariate relationship appears to be essentially the
random error A measurement error that has no consistent pat- same in the multivariate analysis as it was in the bivariate analy-
tern of effects and that reduces the reliability of measurement. For sis. See elaboration model and Chapter 10.
example, asking questions that respondents do not understand
will yield inconsistent (random) answers. See Chapter 8. representativeness That quality of a sample of having the same
distribution of characteristics as the population from which it
random selection A probability sampling procedure in which was selected. By implication, descriptions and explanations de-
each element has an equal chance of selection independent of any rived from an analysis of the sample may be assumed to represent
other event in the selection process. See Chapter 14. similar ones in the population. Representativeness is enhanced
randomization A technique for assigning experimental partici- by probability sampling and provides for generalizability and the
pants to experimental groups and control groups at random. See use of inferential statistics. See Chapter 14.
Chapter 10 and Appendix B. request for proposals (RFP) An announcement put out by
randomized clinical trials (RCTs) Experiments that use random funding sources that identifi es the research questions and types
means (such as a coin toss) to assign clients who share similar of designs the funding source would like to fund, encourages
628 G L O S SA RY
researchers to submit proposals to carry out such research, speci- scientific method An approach to inquiry that attempts to safe-
fi es the maximum size of the research grant, and provides other guard against errors commonly made in casual human inquiry.
information about the sources expectations and funding process. Chief features include viewing all knowledge as provisional and
See Chapter 23. subject to refutation, searching for evidence based on systematic
and comprehensive observation, pursuing objectivity in observa-
research contract Type of funding that provides great specifi c-
tion, and replication. See Chapter 1.
ity regarding what the funding source wants to have researched
and how the research is to be conducted. Unlike a research grant, secondary analysis A form of research in which the data col-
a research contract requires that the research proposal conform lected and processed by one researcher are reanalyzedoften for
precisely to the funding sources specifi cations. See Chapter 23. a different purposeby another. This is especially appropriate in
the case of survey data. Data archives are repositories or libraries
research design A term often used in connection with whether logi-
for the storage and distribution of data for secondary analysis.
cal arrangements permit causal inferences; also refers to all the deci-
See Chapter 16.
sions made in planning and conducting research. See Chapter 10.
selection bias A threat to internal validity referring to the as-
research grant Type of funding that usually identifies some signment of research participants to groups in a way that does not
broad priority areas the funding source has and provides re- maximize their comparability regarding the dependent variable.
searchers considerable leeway in the specifi cs of what they want See Chapters 10 and 11.
to investigate within that area and how they want to investigate
it. See Chapter 23. self-mailing questionnaire A mailed questionnaire that requires no
return envelope: When the questionnaire is folded a particular way,
research reactivity A process in which change in a dependent vari- the return address appears on the outside. The respondent therefore
able is induced by research procedures. See Chapters 10, 11, and 12. doesnt have to worry about losing the envelope. See Chapter 15.
resentful demoralization A threat to the validity of an evalu- self-report scales A source of data in which research subjects all
ation of an interventions effectiveness that occurs when practi- respond in writing to the same list of written questions or statements
tioners or clients in the comparison routine-treatment condition that has been devised to measure a particular construct. For exam-
become resentful and demoralized because they did not receive ple, a self-report scale to measure marital satisfaction might ask how
the special training or the special treatment. Consequently, their often one is annoyed with ones spouse, is proud of the spouse, has
confidence or motivation may decline and may explain their infe- fun with the spouse, and so on. See Chapters 7, 8, and 12.
rior performance on outcome measures. See Chapter 10.
self-reports A way to operationally defi ne variables according
respondent A person who provides data for analysis by respond- to what people say about their own thoughts, views, or behaviors.
ing to a survey questionnaire or to an interview. See Chapters 15 See Chapters 7 and 8.
and 18.
semantic differential A scaling format that asks respondents to
response rate The number of persons who participate in a sur- choose between two opposite positions. See Chapter 9.
vey divided by the number selected in the sample, in the form of semiotics The science of symbols and meanings, commonly
a percentage. This is also called the completion rate or, in self- associated with content analysis and based on language, that
administered surveys, the return ratethe percentage of ques- examines the agreements we have about the meanings associated
tionnaires sent out that are returned. See Chapter 15. with particular signs. See Chapter 19.
sample That part of a population from which we have data. See sensitivity The ability of an instrument to detect subtle differ-
Chapter 14. ences. See Chapter 8.
sampling The process of selecting a sample. See Chapter 14. significance level The probability level that is selected in ad-
sampling error The degree of error to be expected for a given vance to serve as a cutoff point to separate fi ndings that will and
sample design, as estimated according to probability theory. See will not be attributed to chance. Findings at or below the selected
Chapter 14 and Appendix B. probability level are deemed to be statistically signifi cant. See
Chapter 21.
sampling frame That list or quasi-list of units that compose a
simple interrupted time-series design A quasi-experimental de-
population from which a sample is selected. If the sample is to be
sign in which no comparison group is utilized and that attempts
representative of the population, then its essential that the sam-
to develop causal inferences based on a comparison of trends over
pling frame include all (or nearly all) members of the population.
multiple measurements before and after an intervention is intro-
See Chapter 14.
duced. See Chapter 11.
sampling interval The standard distance between elements se-
simple random sample (SRS) A type of probability sample in
lected from a population for a sample. See Chapter 14.
which the units that compose a population are assigned numbers. A
sampling ratio The proportion of elements in the population set of random numbers is then generated, and the units having those
that are selected to be in a sample. See Chapter 14. numbers are included in the sample. Although probability theory
and the calculations it provides assume this basic sampling method,
sampling unit That element or set of elements considered for se-
its seldom used for practical reasons. An equivalent alternative is
lection in some stage of sampling. See Chapter 14.
the systematic sample (with a random start). See Chapter 14.
scalar equivalence See metric equivalence and Chapter 5.
single-case evaluation design A time-series design used to evalu-
scale A type of composite measure composed of several items that ate the impact of an intervention or a policy change on individual
have a logical or empirical structure among them. See Chapter 9. cases or systems. See Chapter 12.
G L O S SA RY 629
snowball sample A nonprobability sample that is obtained by random, systematic, or cluster sampling, improves the represen-
asking each person interviewed to suggest additional people for tativeness of a sample, at least in terms of the stratification vari-
interviewing. See Chapters 14 and 17. ables. See Chapter 14.
snowball sampling A nonprobability sampling method often stratified sampling A probability sampling procedure that uses
employed in qualitative research. Each person interviewed may stratifi cation to ensure that appropriate numbers of elements are
be asked to suggest additional people for interviewing. See Chap- drawn from homogeneous subsets of that population. See stratifi-
ters 5, 14, and 17. cation and Chapter 14.
social desirability bias A source of systematic measurement er- study population The aggregation of elements from which the
ror involving the tendency of people to say or do things that will sample is actually selected. See Chapter 14.
make them or their reference group look good. See Chapter 8. substantive significance The importance, or meaningfulness, of
social indicators An approach to needs assessment based on ag- a fi nding from a practical standpoint. See Chapter 21.
gregated statistics that reflect conditions of an entire population. summative evaluation A type of program evaluation focusing
See Chapter 13. on the ultimate success of a program and decisions about whether
Solomon four-group design An experimental design that as- it should be continued or chosen from among alternative options.
sesses testing effects by randomly assigning subjects to four See Chapter 13.
groups, introducing the intervention being evaluated to two switching replication A way to detect selection bias in a quasi-
of them, conducting both pretesting and posttesting on one experiment that involves administering the treatment to the
group that receives the intervention and one group that does comparison group after the fi rst posttest. If we replicate in that
not, and conducting posttesting only on the other two groups. groupin a second posttestthe improvement made by the ex-
See Chapter 10. perimental group in the fi rst posttest, then we reduce doubt as to
spurious relationship A relationship between two variables that whether the improvement at the fi rst posttest was merely a func-
are no longer related when a third variable is controlled; the third tion of a selection bias. If our second posttest results do not rep-
variable explains away the original relationship. Thus, the rela- licate the improvement made by the experimental group in the
tionship between number of storks and number of human births fi rst posttest, then the difference between the groups at the fi rst
in geographic areas is spurious because it is explained away by posttest can be attributed to the lack of comparibility between
the fact that areas with more humans are more likely to have a the two groups.
zoo or a larger zoo. See Chapters 7 and 10. systematic error An error in measurement with a consistent
standard deviation A descriptive statistic that portrays the dis- pattern of effects. For example, when child welfare workers ask
persion of values around the mean. Its the square root of the av- abusive parents whether they have been abusing their children,
eraged squared differences between each value and the mean. See they may get biased answers that are consistently untrue because
Chapter 20. parents do not want to admit to abusive behavior. Contrast this
to random error, which has no consistent pattern of effects. See
standardized open-ended interviews The most highly structured Chapter 8.
form of qualitative interviews, which are conducted in a consis-
tent, thorough manner. Questions are written out in advance ex- systematic sample A type of probability sample in which every
actly the way they are to be asked in the interview, reducing the kth unit in a list is selected for inclusion in the samplefor ex-
chances that variations in responses are being caused by changes ample, every 25th student in the college directory of students. We
in the way interviews are being conducted. See Chapter 18. compute k by dividing the size of the population by the desired
sample size; the result is called the sampling interval. Within cer-
static-group comparison design A cross-sectional design for tain constraints, systematic sampling is a functional equivalent of
comparing different groups on a dependent variable at one point simple random sampling and usually easier to do. Typically, the
in time. The validity of this design will be influenced by the extent fi rst unit is selected at random. See Chapter 14.
to which it contains multivariate controls for alternative explana-
tions for differences among the groups. See Chapters 10 and 11. t-test A test of the statistical significance of the difference
between the means of two groups. See Chapter 22.
statistic A summary description of a variable in a sample. See
testretest reliability Consistency, or stability, of measurement
Appendix B.
over time. See Chapter 8.
statistical power analysis Assessment of the probability of
tests of statistical signifi cance A class of statistical computa-
avoiding Type II errors. See Chapter 22.
tions that indicate the likelihood that the relationship observed
statistical regression A threat to internal validity referring to between variables in a sample can be attributed to sampling error
the tendency for extreme scores at pretest to become less extreme only. See inferential statistics and Chapter 21.
at posttest. See Chapter 10.
theoretical sampling distribution The distribution of outcomes
statistical significance A general term that refers to the unlikeli- produced by an infi nite number of randomly drawn samples or
hood that relationships observed in a sample could be attributed random subdivisions of a sample. This distribution identifi es the
to sampling error alone. See tests of statistical signifi cance and proportion of times that each outcome of a study could be ex-
Chapter 21. pected to occur as a result of chance. See Chapter 21.
stratification The grouping of the units that compose a popu- theory A systematic set of interrelated statements intended to
lation into homogeneous groups (or strata) before sampling. explain some aspect of social life or enrich our sense of how peo-
This procedure, which may be used in conjunction with simple ple conduct and fi nd meaning in their daily lives. See Chapter 3.
630 G L O S SA RY
time-series designs A set of quasi-experimental designs in which univariate analysis The analysis of a single variable for pur-
multiple observations of a dependent variable are conducted be- poses of description. Frequency distributions, averages, and
fore and after an intervention is introduced. See Chapter 11. measures of dispersion would be examples of univariate analy-
translation equivalence See linguistic equivalence, translation sis, as distinguished from bivariate and multivariate analysis.
validity, and Chapter 5. See Chapter 20.
translation validity Successful translation of a measure into the unobtrusive observation Unlike in obtrusive observation, the
language of respondents who are not fluent in the majority lan- participant does not notice the observation and is therefore less
guage, thus attaining linguistic equivalence. See Chapter 5. influenced to behave in socially desirable ways and ways that meet
experimenter expectancies. See Chapters 10, 11, 12, and 16.
trend studies Longitudinal studies that monitor a given charac-
teristic of some population over time. An example would be annual validity A descriptive term used of a measure that accurately re-
canvasses of schools of social work to identify trends over time in flects the concept that its intended to measure. For example, your
the number of students who specialize in direct practice, generalist IQ would seem a more valid measure of your intelligence than
practice, and administration and planning. See Chapter 6. would the number of hours you spend in the library. Realize that
triangulation The use of more than one imperfect data-collection the ultimate validity of a measure can never be proven, but we
alternative in which each option is vulnerable to different poten- may still agree to its relative validity, content validity, construct
tial sources of error. For example, instead of relying exclusively validity, internal validation, and external validation. This must
on a clients self-report of how often a particular target behavior not be confused with reliability. See Chapter 8.
occurred during a specifi ed period, a signifi cant other (teacher, variable-oriented analysis A qualitative data analysis method that
cottage parent, and so on) is asked to monitor the behavior as focuses on interrelations among variables, with the people observed
well. See Chapters 8, 12, and 17. being the primary carriers of those variables. See Chapter 19.
two-tailed tests of significance Statistical significance tests that
variables Logical groupings of attributes. The variable gender
divide the critical region at both ends of the theoretical sampling
contains the attributes male and female. See Chapters 3 and 7.
distribution and add the probability at both ends when calculat-
ing the level of signifi cance. See Chapter 21. verstehen The German word meaning understanding, used in
Type I error An error we risk committing whenever we reject qualitative research in connection to hermeneutics, in which the
the null hypothesis. It occurs when we reject a true null hypoth- researcher tries mentally to take on the circumstances, views, and
esis. See Chapter 21. feelings of those being studied to interpret their actions appropri-
ately. See Chapter 16.
Type II error An error we risk committing whenever we fail to
reject the null hypothesis. It occurs when we fail to reject a false weighting A procedure employed in connection with sampling
null hypothesis. See Chapters 21 and 22. whereby units selected with unequal probabilities are assigned
weights in such a manner as to make the sample representative of
units of analysis The what or whom being studied. In so-
the population from which it was selected. See Chapter 14.
cial science research, the most typical units of analysis are indi-
vidual people. See Chapter 6. withdrawal/reversal design See ABAB withdrawal/reversal design.
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Index
Note: Page numbers followed by f refer to figures. Page numbers followed by t refer to tables.
AB design, 304305 Analyzing Social Settings (Lofland), Beutler, L. E., 127

ABAB withdrawal/reversal design, 437, 448, 453, 461462, 464, Beveridge, W. I. B., 61
305307 472, 478, 483, 486 Bian, Yanjie, 218
Absolute zero, 503 Anchor points, 117 Bias
Abstract, of a research report, 591 Anecdotal case reports, 36 class, 363
Abstract variables, 170 Aneshenshel, Carol S., 151 cultural, 9899, 121, 190191
Accidental sampling, 355357 Annie E. Casey Foundation, 410 gender, 9899, 377378
Acculturation, 108 Anonymity, 8283 journal ethics, 9698
Acquiescent response set, 189, 219, Anonymous enrollment, 114115 measurement, 261
224 ANOVA (analysis of variance), measurement errors, 189190
Activities approach logic model, 558559 meta-analysis, 551
341 Appearance and demeanor, 391 questionnaires, items and
Ad hominem attack, 20 Appendices, 594 terms in, 219
Administration in Mental Health, Aren, Patricia, 113 recall, 282
147 Asch Experiment, 50 in research studies, 7, 1213
Administrative problems, 326327 Assessment, measurement researcher, 451
African Americans, 101103, equivalence, 124 respondent, 451
108109, 115, 118, 127, 155 Atheoretical research studies, 56 sampling, 359360, 362363,
Agency tracking, 117 Attributes, 5760, 165 377378
Agreement reality, 34 Attrition (experimental mortality), selection, 250
Aid to Families with Dependent 265266 social-class, 363
Children (AFDC), 416, 442 Audience, 588 Bilingual interviewers, 114, 120
Alexander, Leslie B., 415 Auditing, 452 Billups, James, 424425
Alternative single-case designs, Authority-based practice, 14, 27, 63 Bivariate analysis, 508, 516
304305 An Authors Guide to Social Work Bivariate parametric tests, 558559
Alternative treatment design with Journals, 588 Bivariate tables, 517, 519
pretest, 257 Availability sampling, 355357 Black, B. M., 274
Ambiguity, direction of causal Available records, 418419 Black, Donald, 414
influence, 250 Blair, Johnny, 226
Ambiguous results, interpretation of, B designs, 313314 Blind ratings, 261
311313 Babbie, Earl, 579, 594 Bloom, Martin, 304, 445
American Association for Public Back-translation, 121 Bogdan, Robert, 342345
Opinion Research (AAPOR), Bad Blood: The Tuskegee Syphilis Bonferroni adjustment, 564
395 Experiment (Jones), 75 Bonney, Charles, 220221, 246247
American Institute of Public Bandwagon appeal, 20 Book research report, 589
Opinion, 353354 Bartko, J. J., 560 Booth, Charles, 382
American Journal of Mental Baseline, 292 Boston Globe, 102
Deficiency, 147 Baseline phase, 302304 Bottom-up searches, 3233
American Psychological Association, Basics of Qualitative Research Brannen, Stephen, 258
590 (Strauss and Corbin), 480 Brown, L. Dave, 278
American Psychological Associations Baxter, Ellen, 439440 Buckingham, Robert, 87
Division 12 Task Force on Belcher, John, 443 Budget, 585
Promotion and Dissemination of The Bell Curve (Murray and Burnette, Denise, 522523
Psychological Procedures, 40 Herrnstein), 101102 Bush, George, 352f, 354355
American Sociological Association, Bellah, Robert, 462 Buxtun, Peter, 75
590 Bell-shaped curve, 512
Aminzade, Ron, 429430 Bennett, William, 102 Cambridge Scientific Abstracts, 30
Analysis of variance, 558559 Benton, J. Edwin, 225 Campbell Collaboration, 33
Analytic induction, 424 Berg, Bruce, 424 Campbell, Donald T., 248, 265267,
Analytic techniques, 429431 Beta weight, 559560 285, 377378
643
644 INDEX
Carey, Raymond, 249, 327328 Cohort studies, 149152 Constructivism in Practice: Methods
Carmines, Edward, 200 Coleman, James, 101 and Challenges (Franklin and
Carryover effects, 310 Collapsing extreme categories, 514, Nurius), 322
Case assignment protocol, 285 515t Constructs, 171173
Case studies, 3940, 345346, Collapsing response categories, Contact, establishing initial, 457
388389, 443445 514515 Contamination of the control
Case-control design and studies, Common sense, 14 condition, 285
282283 Community forum, 339 Contemporary positivism, 4952,
A Case-Control Study of Adverse Community leaders, endorsement of, 451
Childhood Experiences as 111112 Content analysis, 418427
Risk Factors for Homelessness Community Mental Health Journal, Content validity, 200201, 204f
(Herman), 283284 147 Contingency questions, 222223
Case-oriented analysis, 478479 Comparability, 278 Contingency table, 223f, 517
Caseworkers, 425, 427 Comparative analysis, 427 Continuous variables, 513514
Catalytic authenticity, 453 Comparative data, 428 Contracts, 576577
Cauce, A. M., 122 Comparative research, 429431 Control conditions, 285
Causal inference, 243, 245247 Comparative studies, 412 Control group, 253, 260261
CBS News, 514 Comparison group, 272 Control variable, 168
Central tendency, 509512 Compassion, 811, 131 Convenience sampling, 355357
Certificates of Confidentiality, Compensation for study Convergent validity, 202, 205f
8384 participation, 112 Conversation analysis (CA), 482
Chance, 528529 Compensatory equalization, 265 Convert, 461
Changing intensity design, 310 Compensatory rivalry, 265 Conway, Patricia, 545, 554
Chicago Manual of Style, 590 Complete observer, 458, 461 Cook, Thomas D., 248, 265267,
Chicago School, 438 Complete participant, 457460 285
Childcare for participants in studies, Components of Scientifi c Theory Cooney, Margaret, 442
113 (Leming), 58 Corbin, Juliet, 478, 480, 483, 485
Childs Attitude toward Mother Composite measurement, 188 Coronado, N., 122
(CAM) scale, 206208 Comprehensive observation, 12 Correlation and Casualty (Bonney),
Chi-square test, 557 Computer programs, 424, 487488, 246247
Chow, Julia, 416 504 Correlational studies, 35
Christian Science Monitor, 511 Computer-assisted telephone Cost, 449
Chronicle of Higher Education, 96 interviewing (CATI), 395396, Cost-benefit analysis, 330331,
CIAO, 30 508 332t334t
Class bias, 363 Comte, Auguste, 49 Cost-effectiveness analysis, 330331
Classic experimental design, Concept mapping, 486487 Coulton, Claudia, 416
254255 Concept(s), 57, 165, 478, 483 Council on Social Work Education
Client logs, 445 Conceptions, 171 (CSWE), 325, 376
Client preferences, 37, 41. See also Conceptual equivalence, 123124, Couper, Mick, 397398
Therapeutic alliance 126f Cournoyer, B., 38
Client recruitment and retention, Conceptual explication, 165 Cover letter, 385, 386f
285286 Conceptual framework, 580 Cover materials, 578
The Clinical Measurement Package Conceptual order, 174175 Cramers V., 540
(Hudson), 203, 206208 Conceptualization, 131, 165, Criterion-related validity, 200,
Clinical social workers, 425 172175, 422 204f, 206
Closed-ended questions, 216 Conclusion, research report, Critical incidents sampling, 447
Cluster sampling, 373, 421 593594 Critical social science, 5152
Cochrane Collaboration, 33 Concurrent validity, 200 Critiques of social work, 8
Code categories, 422, 505507 Confidentiality, 8283, 112, 117118 Cross-case analysis, 479
Code of Ethics of the National Confl icts of interest, 551 Cross-sectional studies, 148149,
Association of Social Workers Confl icts of interest statement, 552 152, 281282
(NASW), 11, 8889, 101 Conrad, K., 341 Crowder, Carla, 910
Code notes, 485486 Conscious sampling bias, 359360 Cullum-Swam, Betsy, 480
Code past, 494f Consent form, 78, 79f82f, 120 Cultural bias, 9899, 121122,
Codebook, 507508 Consent procedures, 111 176, 190191
Codes, creating, 483 Constant comparative method, 479 Cultural competence
Coding, 421422, 482485, 491f, Construct validity, 200202, 204f, acculturation, 108
494f, 501, 504505 206 challenges to, 111118
Coefficient alpha, 198199 Constructing measurement community members as research
Cognitive-behavioral model, 55 instruments, 135136, staff, 112
Cohen, Jacob, 545, 553554, 556 137f, 141f data analysis, 107108
INDEX 645
developing, 109111 Discrete variables, 513514 confidentiality, 8283

insensitivity, impact on research Discriminant function analysis, controversies, 9298
climate, 109110 560561 deception, 8384
interpretation, 107108 Discriminate validity, 202, 205f informed consent, 7678
measurement in, 107, 118127 Discussion, research report, 593594 Institutional Review Board (IRB),
minority participation in studies, Dismantling studies, 257258 7576, 8992
107117 Dispersion, 512 participants, no harm to, 78, 82
problematic issues, 127 Disproportionate stratified sampling, professional, 811
research participants, 106107 372, 373f reporting, 8485
sensitivity in questionnaires, 220 Distributions, 509 research, 453
Cultural context of social work Dix, Dorothea, 319, 427428 right to receive services vs.
research, 73 Documentation, 414 responsibility to evaluate service
Curtin, Richard, 396397 Dont knows, 515516 effectiveness, 86, 88
Curvilinear relationship, 167168 Dont Talk to the Humans: The voluntary participation, 7678
Crackdown on Social Science Ethnicity, 2829
Dallas Morning News, 94 Research (Shea), 92 Ethnocentrism, 109
Daly, John, 225 Dork Depression Scale, 204f205f Ethnography, 438440
Daly, Kerry, 403404, 522523 Duneier, Mitchell, 438 Ethno methodology, 209210
Dannemiller, James E., 396 Duration, 301 Etic perspective, 461463
Data Evaluating a Sexual Assault and
analysis, 107108, 311, 423, 478, EBP process, 38 Dating Violence Prevention
528529, 585 Ecological fallacy, 155157 Program (Weisz and Black), 274
archives, 410 Economic barriers for participants in Evaluations, 135, 137f, 141f
cleaning, 508 studies, 113 Evidence, empirical, 12
entry, 508 Economic reductionism, 158 Evidence-based medicine (EBM), 27
existing, 408, 416419 Edmond, Tonya, 264 Evidence-Based Medicine: How
gathering, 298299 Effect size, 540542, 543t, 544, 555t to Practice and Teach EBM
missing, 413 Effective Casework Practice (Sackett), 27
quantification process, 301302 (Fischer), 419 Evidence-based practice (EBP)
sources, 299 Ego involvement, 19 case example, 3840
Databases, 3031, 144, 411t Eichler, Margrit, 99 controversies and misconceptions,
Data-collection methods, 349, Einstein, Albert, 430431 4042
584585 Element, 361 evaluations, 38
Davis, D., 586 Elemental memo, 486 feedback, 38
Davis, Fred, 461 The Elements of Style (Strunk and historical background, 2627
Deductive method, 6063 White), 588 intervention, 3638, 133
DeFleur, Lois, 414 Emic perspective, 461463 introduction to, 26
Degrees of freedom, 557 Empirical clinical practice model, 27 nature of, 2728
DeJong, C., 190 Empirical evidence, 12 newer integrative model, 37t
Demographic Yearbook, 411 Empirical support, 57 online surveys, 400401
DePanfi lis, Diane, 415 Empirically supported treatments process vs. practice, 38
Dependent variable, 57, 60, 166 (EST), 3840 questions, formulating, 2830
Depth, 421 Empowerment standards, 453 randomized clinical trials (RCTs),
Description, 134, 137f, 141f Encounters, 437 3538
Descriptive statistics, 520521 Episodes, 437 research, 3034
Design methods, 584585 Epistemological paradigm, 451 single-case designs, 295296
Detail vs. manageability, 514 Epistemology, 4 social work research, purposes of,
Deviant case sampling, 357, Epstein, William, 9698, 552 137f
446447 Equal probability of selection study appraisal, 3436
Dewey, Thomas E., 353354 method (EPSEM), 360361 Ex post facto hypothesizing, 1819
Diagramming the religious sources of Errors, 536 Examining available records, 193
Anti-Semitism, 562f Estimated sampling error, 366t Exhaustive response categories, 216
Diffusion of treatments, 263265 Ethics Existing data, 408, 416419
Dillman, Don, 388, 394 analysis, 8485 Existing statistics, 410411
Dimension, 173, 178, 203, 232 anonymity, 8283 Experiential reality, 34
Direct behavioral observation, benefits and costs, weighing, Experimental demand
192193, 300 8586 characteristics, 262
Direct observables, 171172, 178, bias, 9899 Experimental designs, 253
180181 Code of Ethics of the National Experimental group, 253
Direct practice, 425 Association of Social Workers Experimental intervention, 260261
Directors, women fi lm, 490493 (NASW), 8889 Experimental mortality, 265266
646 INDEX
Experimenter expectancies, 262 General Social Survey (GSS), 189, program effectiveness, 248
Experiments, 3435, 50, 284, 397398, 410, 507 program evaluation, 319320
286287 Generalizability, 77, 449451 survey research, 382
Explanation, 56, 135, 137f, 141f Generalization of effects, 309 Hogarty, Gerard, 9, 551552
Exploration, 133135, 137f, 141f Gilgun, Jane, 144, 403404, 442, Hohmann, A. A., 107
External evaluators, 323325 522523 Hollingshead, A., 122
External validity, 247248, Giuli, C., 206, 208 Homogeneous sample, 447
267268 Glaser, Barney, 424, 438, 479480, Hopper, Kim, 439440
Extraneous variables, 168 483, 486 Hospice vs. hospital care, 69
Eye movement desensitization and Glass, G., 545, 550 Howell, Joseph, 449
reprocessing (EMDR), 3940, Goal attainment model, 329 Huberman, A. Michael, 478
258, 551 Goffman, Erving, 481 Hudson, Walter, 203, 206208, 322
Going native, 451 Human obedience experiments,
Face validity, 198, 200, 204f, 230 Gold, Raymond, 458 9394
Factorial validity, 202203, 205f Goldman, H., 427428 Human subject concerns, 412
Family Support Act 1988, 442 Google, 3132, 144147, 576 Humphreys, Laud, 94
Fanshel, David, 259 Google Scholar, 3132, 145, 148 Hurh, Won Moo, 125126
Feasibility, 139142, 414415 Grants, 576577 Hush Little Baby: The Challenge of
Feasibility of Providing Culturally Grantsmanship Center, 575 Child Care, 189190
Relevant, Brief Interpersonal Greene, Robert, 225 Hypothesis, 1819, 5763, 166168,
Psychotherapy for Antenatal Grote, Nancy, 254 180181, 528529
Depression in an Obstetrics Grotevant, Harold, 233, 234f238f
Clinic . . . (Grote), 254 Grounded theory, 438, 440443 Ideal types, 431
Federal Register, 576 Grounded theory method (GTM), Identification (ID) number, 385386
Feinberg, B., 395 479480 Ideology, 46, 100101
Feminist paradigm, 5152 Grounded Theory Methodology on Idiographic model, 6467
Fevola, Antonio, 409 the Web (Morin), 480 Illogical reasoning, 1920
Field tracking, 117 Group interviewing, 469470 An Illustration: Living with the
File drawer effect, 552 Group work, 425 Dyinguse of Participant
Filing, 483 Groups, 153, 437 Observation, 87
Film directors, 490493 Groupthink, 470 An Illustration of a Quasi-
FirstSearch, 30 Grundy, John F., 259 Experiment Evaluating a Family
Fischer, Joel, 304, 419, 445 Guba, E., 452 Preservation Program (Rubin),
Fishers exact test, 558 Guide Research Proposals Used 279280
Fittingness, 452 by the University of Texas at Imitation of treatments, 263265
Flexibility, 449 Austins Institutional Review Immigration experience, 108
Focus groups, 110111, 340341, Board, 90f Implicit stratification, 371372
468471 Guttman scaling, 231 Independent variable, 57, 60, 166
Focus groups and feminist methods: Index tree, 493, 495f
the voices of battered women in Haase, R. F., 545 Indexes, 229230
Japan, an illustration . . . , 471 Handel, Gerald, 403404, 522523 Indicators, 172173
Follow-up mailings, 387388 Hard-to-identify populations, 412 Indirect observables, 171172
Forms, 8990 Harris, B. G., 586 Individualistic fallacy, 157
Foundation Center, 576 Harris Interactive, 398 Individuals, 152153
Foundation Directory, 576 Harvard Educational Review, 101 Inductive method, 6063
Fox News Sunday, 511 Haven in a Heartless World Inference, 245247
Franklin, Cynthia, 322 (Lasch), 8 Inferential statistics, 520522, 550,
Fraser, Mark, 256 Herald Tribune, 514 562563, 566569
Freewill notions, 63 Herman, Daniel, 283284 Informants, 358359
Frequency, 301 Hermeneutics, 430431 Information needs of agency, 139
Frequency distribution, 509 Herrnstein, Richard J., 101102 Informed consent, 7678, 111
Funding sources, 575577 Higginbotham, Leon Jr., 428 In-house evaluators, 323325
Historic Themes and Landmarks Inquiry, premature closure of, 2021
Gall, John, 590591 in Social Welfare Research Insensitivity, cultural, 108109
Gallagher-Thompson, Dolores, 113 (Zimbalist), 427 Insider understanding, 461463
Gallup Organization, 218 Historical analysis, 427 Institutional Review Board (IRB),
Gallup, George, 353354 Historical data, 428 7576, 78, 82, 8586, 8991,
Gamblers fallacy, 1920 Historical research, 429431 120, 412, 585586
Gender Advertisements (Goffman), History Instrumentation changes, 248249
481 intervention plans, change Integrating memo, 486
Gender bias, 9899, 176, 377378 limitations associated with, 310 Intensity sampling, 447
INDEX 647
Interdisciplinary triangulation, 452 KIDS COUNT, 410 Mail distribution, 384385

Internal consistency reliability, Kim, Kwang Chung, 125126 Mail return, 384385
196198, 206 Kinnell, Ann Marie, 482 Mail tracking, 117
Internal validity, 247248, 273 Knowledge, 34, 1221 Manageability, 514
Internet resources, 3132, 34, Knowledge Networks, 398 Managed care, 320322
89, 144148, 397398, 411t, Known groups validity, 201, Manifest content, 421422
575576, 578 204f, 208 Manning, Peter K., 480
Interobserver reliability, 196 Kolmogorov-Smirnov two-sample Mann-Whitney U test, 558
Interpretivism, 5052 test, 558 Manson, S. M., 109, 111112, 127
Interquartile range, 512 Kronick, Jane, 211 Marginals, 509
Interrater reliability, 196 Kuhn, Thomas, 47 Marshall, C., 458
Interrupted time-series with a Kvale, Steinar, 463 Martian, 461
nonequivalent comparison group Marx, Karl, 382
time-series design, 278 Lambda, 540 Marxist scholars, 431
Inter-University Consortium of Landon, Alf, 352353 Matching, 260
Political and Social Research Language problems, 120121 Matrix question format, 223f
(ICPSR), 410 Lasch, Christopher, 8 Maturation, 248, 251
Interval measures, 229, 503 Laslett, Barbara, 429430 Maximum variation sampling, 447
Interval recording, 301 Latent content, 421422 Maynard, Douglas, 482
Intervening variables, 169 Learning from Bad Examples McNemar nonparametric test, 558
Intervention fidelity, 284285 (Bonney), 220221 McRoy, Ruth, 67, 233, 234f238f,
Interventions, 68, 3638, 292, 310 Leming, Michael R., 58 425426
Interview guide, 215, 465467 Leon, Joseph J., 152 Mean, 509512
Interview schedule, 215 Level of acculturation, 108 Measurement. See also
Interview surveys, 389397, 399, Level of significance, 532533 Conceptualization;
401402 Levels of measurement, 229230, Operationalization
Interviewers, 113114, 390393 501, 503504 bias, 261
Interviewing. See also specific Leviticus, Book of, 483485, 488 constructing composite, 229230
approaches Library resources, 3031, 144145, constructing qualitative, 232233
Asians, 119120 428429 cultural competence in, 107,
culturally competent, 118119 Lichtenwalter, Sara, 409 118127
group, 469470 Liebow, Elliot, 521 data gathering, 298299
informal conversational, 464465 The Life and Labour of the People of data sources, 299
measurement errors in, 192 London, 382 errors, 188189, 191, 193194
qualitative methods, 463 Lien, Forrest, 10 instruments, 135136, 137f, 141f,
recording observations, 470474 Life history, 468 179, 215
Introduction, research report, 592 Life story, 468 interval, 229, 503
Inverse relationship, 167 Lifestyles, 438 issues, 296298
Item analysis, 231 Likert, Rensis, 215 levels of, 229230, 501, 503504
Likert scale, 215216, 231232 nominal, 501502
Jensen, Arthur, 101 Limited socialism, 382 ordinal, 229, 502503
Johnson, C., 254255 Lincoln, Yvonna S., 452 problem formulation and, 131
Johnson, Lyndon, 429 Linguistic equivalence, 123124, process, 188
Jones, James, 75 126f proposals, writing, 580
Jones, Lovell, 102103 Lipsey, Mark, 545 ratio, 229, 503
Journal articles, 562, 589 Literary Digest, 352353, 394 in the real world, 175
Journal bias, 9698 Literature, relevant, 457 reliability, 194197
Journal of Counseling Psychology, Literature review, 143148, 179, what to measure, 298
545 579583, 592 who should measure, 299
Journal of Evidence-Based Social Lofland, John and Lyn, 437, 448, Measurement equivalence,
Work, 27 453, 461462, 464, 472, 478, 122124, 126f
Journal of Social Work Education, 483, 486 Measures of association, 538539
400401 Logic model, 328, 341342 Media, 1416
Judgmental sampling, 357 Logistical problems, 326327 Median, 509511
Julia, Maria, 424425 Longhurst, Terri, 442 Median test, 558
Longitudinal studies, 149151 Mediating variable, 169
Kane, R., 307 Losing ground (Murray), 8 Medium effect sizes, 544545
Kaplan, Abraham, 171 Lowe, Peggy, 910 Medline, 31, 145
Keeter, S., 395 Member checking, 452
Kerry, John, 354355 Magnabosco, Jennifer, 322 Memoing, 485486
Key informants, 338339, 457 Magnitude, 301 Mental Retardation, 147
648 INDEX
Mercer, S., 307 National Institute of Health (NIH), Open-ended questions, 216
Meta-analysis, 32, 550553 89, 107, 575576 Operational defi nition, 165,
Methodological Problems In the Study National Institutes of Health Guide 170171, 175176, 180181,
of Korean Immigrants: Linguistic for Grants and Contracts, 575 183185, 297298, 319
And Conceptual Problems (Hurh National Institute of Mental Health Operational notes, 485486
and Kim), 125126 (NIMH), 325, 575 Operationalization, 131, 165,
Methodology, 4, 78, 56, 119, National Library of Medicine, 31 174185
552553. See also specific National Opinion Research Center Opinions, clinical experts, 36
methods (NORC), 398, 410 Oral history reviews, 468
Methods, of a research report, 592 Naturalism, 438, 468 Order effects, 310
Metric equivalence, 123124, 126f Nazi medical experimentation, 75 Ordinal measures, 229, 502
Miles, Matthew B., 478 Needs assessment, 337338 Organizations, 437
Milgram, Stanley, 9394 Negative case analysis, 452 Orme, John G., 304, 445
Milgram study, 9394 Negative case testing, 424 Ortega, D., 121122
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Negative relationship, 167 Outcomes approach logic model,
Inventory (MMPI), 198, 200 New Republic, 102, 510511 341, 342f
Minority groups, 107111. See also New York Times, 96, 514 Outcomes Measurement in the
Cultural competence Newmaker, Candace, 10 Human Services: Cross-Cutting
Miranda, 109110, 114, 116 Nodes, 490, 493, 496f Issues and Methods (Mullen and
Missing data, 413 Nominal defi nition, 174175 Magnabosco), 322
Mitchell, Richard G. Jr., 218 Nominal measures, 229, 501502 Overflow design, 280
Mode, 509511 Nomothetic model, 6467 Overgeneralization, 17, 18f
Moderating variables, 169 Nondirectional hypotheses, 533534 OVID, 30
Monette, D., 190 Nonequivalent comparison groups Ozawa, Martha, 416
Monitoring survey returns, 385387 design, 272274
Monitoring trends, 412 Nonparametric test, 557558 Padgett, Deborah, 451
Morgan, David, 470 Nonprobability sampling, 352, 355 Pandey, Shanta, 416
Morin, Gaelle T., 480 Nonrational behavior, 50 Panel attrition, 151
Morrissey, J., 427428 Nonreactive research, 408 Panel studies, 150152
Mullen, Edward, 4142 Nonresponse bias, 363364 Paradigmatic flexibility, 5253
Multiple measurement points, 292 Nonsexist Research Methods Paradigms, 47. See also specific
Multiple pretests, 273274, 275f (Eichler), 99 paradigms
Multiple regression analysis, 559 Normal curve, 512 Parallel-forms reliability, 197198
Multiple time-series designs, Norton, I., 109, 111112, 127 Parameter, 365, 557
278279 Notes, 472 Parametric test, 557558
Multiple-baseline designs, 307309 Novelty and disruption affects, 263 Parrish, Danielle, 400401, 418419
Multiple-component designs, NUD*IST (Nonnumeric Parron, D. L., 107
309311 Unstructured Data, Index Participant-as-observer, 458,
Multistage cluster sampling, Searching, and Theorizing), 460461
373375 488493, 494f496f Participants in studies
Multistage designs, 373374 Null hypothesis, 536537, 556, 563 factors influencing, 114
Multivariate analysis, 508, 559561 Numerical, end product of coding, intervention that disappoint or
Multivariate statistical techniques, 423 frustrate, avoiding, 266267
412 Numerical descriptions in qualitative minority and repressed
Multivariate tables, 519520 research, 522 populations, 108111
Murphy, Katrina, 225 Nurius, Paula, 322 observation of, 110
Murray, Charles, 8, 101102 recruiting and retaining, 116
Mutually exclusive answer Objectivity, 12, 46, 6870, 100101 recruiting and retaining the
categories, 216 Observation, 1618, 57, 6263 participation of, 285286
My Lai tragedy, 93 Observation-based evidence, 12 reimbursement, 266
Observer-as-participant, 458, 461 sampling, 584
Naive realism, 47 Obtrusive observation, 262, Participation, 459460
NASW News, 425 300301, 408 Participatory action research (PAR)
National Archive of Criminal Justice One-group pretest-posttest design, paradigm, 442443
Data, 410 251252, 253f Passage of time, 248
National Association of Social One-shot case study, 251, 253f Path analysis, 561
Workers, 97 One-tailed test of significance, Path coefficients, 561
National Data Archive on Child 534535 Patterns, 478
Abuse and Neglect, 410 Online surveys, 397399, 402 Patton, Michael Quinn, 447,
National Institute of Drug Abuse Open coding, 483 463, 466
(NIDA), 575 Open mindedness, 12 Paulson, Robert I., 285286
INDEX 649
Pearson product-moment correlation Probability proportionate to size Qualitative inquiry, 564566

(r), 540, 559 (PPS) sampling, 375376 Qualitative methods
Peer debriefi ng and support, 452 Probability sampling, 352, 354355, a comparison of quantitative and
Percentage down, 517 359, 367368, 377 qualitative approaches to asking
Percentaging a table, 516517, 518f Probability theory, 365 people questions, 238239
Personal interest, 139 Probes, 464 contemporary positivism, 50
Personal Responsibility and Work Problem formulation, 131133, contemporary positivist standards,
Opportunity Reconciliation Act 142143 451452
1996, 442 Procedures, 89 defi ned, 437
Philosophy, 45 Process evaluation, 336337 descriptive studies, 134
Phone tracking, 117 Professional papers, 589 empowerment standards, 453
Pilot studies, 250251 Program analysts, 320 evaluation research, an
Pitfalls of experiments, 284 Program evaluation illustration of a qualitative
Pittsburgh Survey, 382 administrative problems, 326327 approach to, 342
Placebo control group design, 263 compliance with and utilization evaluation standards, 451
Placebo effects, 263 of, 328 and evidence based practice,
Plagiarism, 590591 goal attainment, problems and 42, 137f
Planners, 320 issues, 331, 335 feminist methods, 468
Plausible, 478 historical background, 319320 field, preparing for the, 457
Point-biserial correlation coefficient, in-house vs. external evaluators, grounded theory in studying
540, 544545 323325 homelessness, an illustration of,
Polansky, N., 138 logistical problems, 326327 443
Political influence, 243 managed care, 320322 informal conversational
Politics, 73, 323 monitoring program interviews, 464465
Poll, 351t, 352f, 384 implementation, 335336 interview guide approach,
Popular media, 1416 needs assessment, 337338 465466
Population, 152153, 361365 outcome and efficiency, 329330 interviewing, 463
Population Bulletin, 411 planning, 327328 naturalistic, ethnographic
Porter, Stephen, 399 politics of, 323 studies of homelessness, two
Portionate reduction of error (PRE), process evaluation, 336337 illustrations of, 439440
540 program planning, 337338 numerical descriptions, 522
Posavac, Emil, 249, 327328 qualitative approach, 342, 345 observer, roles of the, 458
Positive relationship, 167 quantitative and qualitative operationalization and its
Positivism, 4950 approaches, 344 complementarity with a
Possible-code cleaning, 508 types, 329 quantitative perspective,
Postcard contents, 387 utilization of fi ndings, 325326 illustrations of the qualitative
Postmodernism, 4749, 52 validity of inferences, 243 perspective on, 184185
Posttest-only control group design, Prolonged engagement, 451452 overview, 435
255 Prolonged exposure therapy (PET), participants, relations to, 461463
Posttest-only design with 3940 program evaluation, combining
nonequivalent groups, 252253 Proportionate stratified sampling, quantitative and qualitative
Post-traumatic stress disorder 372 methods in, 344
(PTSD), 29, 3132, 6466, 173, Proposal, 162, 575, 577579 qualitative measures, constructing,
229230, 258, 314 Pseudoscience, 21, 22f 232233
Powers, G., 38 Psychoeducational approaches, 15 recording observations, 470,
Practical pitfalls, qualitative Psychological reductionism, 158 472474
techniques for avoiding or Psychometric equivalence, 123 reliability and validity in, 209212
alleviating, 287 Psychosocial model, 26, 5556 research ethics, 453
Practice evaluation, 243 PsycINFO, 30, 145 research paradigms, 438, 440442
Practice models, 55 Public Health Service Act, 83 sampling, 445448
Practices, 437 Public Opinion Quarterly, 397 scientific research inquiry, 6668
Prediction, 56, 136 PubMed, 145 selecting informants in, 358
Predictive validity, 200 Purpose of study, explain, 458 single-case evaluation, role in, 315
Predictor variables, 560 Purposes, 136, 137f social constructivist standards,
Pre-experimental designs, 250251, Purposive sampling, 357, 448 452453
254256 specific methods, 457
Presser, Stanley, 226, 396397 Qualitative analysis, 478, 488 strengths and weaknesses of,
Pretest-posttest control group design, Qualitative data analysis, 424426 448449
255 Qualitative data, computer survey research methods,
Primary sources, 428429 programs, 487488 combining, 403404
Probabilistic knowledge, 28, 63 Qualitative data processing, 482 topics, 437438
650 INDEX
Qualitative Methods in Family Quoss, Bernita, 442 bias, 451

Research (Gilgun, Daly, Quota matrix, 260 community members as research
Handel), 403404, 522523 Quota sampling, 353354, 357358, staff, 112
Qualitative Methods in Social Work 446 compensation, 112
Research (Padgett), 451 confidentiality, 112
Qualitative reports, 594595 Race, 101103 contracts, 576577
Qualitative research proposal, Random error, 191, 193 cultural context of, 73
586587 Random sampling, 420 cultural insensitivity, 108109
Qualitative Studies in Social Work Random selection, 361 design, 245
Research (Reissman), 522523 Random-digit dialing, 361, 394 ethics, 453
Qualitative Techniques for Randomization, 258259 evidence-based practice, research
Experimental or Quasi- Randomized clinical trials (RCTs), hierarchy, 35t, 42
Experimental Research, 288 3435, 40, 42 Federal exemption categories, 91
Quantitative analysis, 501 Randomized experiments, 3435 grants, 575576
Quantitative data analysis, 424, 499 Range, 512 mental health example, 9
Quantitative methods, 50, 6668, Range of variation, 176177 methods, 1011
134, 137f, 238239, 342, Rank, Mark, 522523 misleading studies, 551552
344345, 437 Rank order, 502 note, 589
Quantitative research proposal, Rapport, establishing, 457459 participants, 7578, 8283,
586587 Rasinski, Kenneth, 189 110111, 285286
Quasi-experimental designs, 243, 272 Rates under treatment, 339 politics of, 73, 99
Quasi-experiments, 35, 284 Ratio measures, 229, 503 proposal, 575, 577579
Questionnaire Reactivity, 451 publication of, 7
answer selection, 222 Reading and Evaluating Documents quality, 78
biased items and terms, 219 (Aminzade and Laslett), 429430 reactivity, 261265
clarity of the, 216 Reality, conceptions and, 174 reporting, 8485, 587591
composite illustration, 226 Reality, experiential, 34 resources, 3134, 116
construction, 219222 Reality, nature of, 46 social, 101103
contingency questions, 222223 Reality agreement, 34 social work practice, utility in,
cultural sensitivity, 220 Reasoning, illogical, 1920 2, 10
data, handling missing, 230231 Rebirthing therapy, 910 studies, 68, 56, 551552
double-barreled questions, Recall bias, 282 topics and questions, 136,
216217 Reconstructed baseline, 304 138142
formats for respondents, 222 Record keeping, 423 understanding and use of, 59
instructions, 225226 Records, 178, 180181, 193 Research Committee of the Eye
interviewers, 390392 Recruitment of study participants, Movement Desensitization and
matrix questions, 223224 111116, 285286 Reprocessing International
measures, constructing composite, Reductionism, 157158 Association (EMDRIA), 576
229230 References, 594 Resentful demoralization, 265
ordering questions in a, 224225 Referral sources, 116 Respondent bias, 451
pretesting, 226 Reflexivity, 462 Response rate, 388, 396397
questions and statements, 215216 Reification, 174 Results, 311313, 593
random errors, 191192 Reimbursement, 266 Retention of participants in studies,
relevancy, 218 Reismann, Catherine, 522523 116, 285286
respondent issues, 218 Relationship, 57, 437 Retrospective baseline, 304
sample, 226f229f Relationship magnitude, 539540 Retrospective data, 282
scale construction, 230231 Relevance, 139140 Reviews
voluntary participation and Reliability, 179, 194196, 205212, Cochrane Collaboration, 33
informed consent, 7677 299300, 413414 on the effectiveness of social
Questions Reminder calls, 116 work, 56
in evidence-based practice (EBP), Replication, 13, 17, 38, 306 Campbell Collaboration, 33
2829, 34, 35t Reporting, 492f, 562, 587591 Institutional Review Board (IRB),
guidelines, 215 Representativeness, 360361 89, 9192
matrix, 223224 Request for proposals (RFP), literature, 143148, 179,
quantitative vs. qualitative 575576 579583, 592
approaches, 238239 Research. See also Cultural Richey, C. A., 121122
research, attributes of good, competence; ethics; Social work Richmond, Mary, 2627
139140 research; specific methods; Right to receive services vs.
research vs. hypotheses, 166167 Survey research responsibility to evaluate service
social work research, selection for, analysis, 8485 effectiveness, 86
136, 138 benefits and costs, weighing, 8586 Robinson, Robin, 468
INDEX 651
Rocky Mountain News (Crowder Scientific inquiry, 1, 4, 16. See also Social work
and Lowe), 910 Research critiques of, 8
Rodwell, J., 453 Scientific method, 1113, 38 education programs, 376377
Roffman, Roger A., 114115 Search engines, 3033, 144145 operationalization in, 178179
Rogler, L., 122 Secondary analysis, 408417 practice models, 55
Roles, 437 Secondary sources, 428429 research, 58, 73
Rosenhan, D. L., 77 Selection biases, 250, 252 research reports, 587590
Rossman, G., 458 Selective observation, 1718 single-case designs, 294296
Rothman, Ellen, 428 Self-administered questionnaires, utility of theory in, 5455
Rubin, Allen 215, 384385, 399400 Social Work Abstracts, 144, 147
effect sizes, 545 Self-esteem, 131 A Social Work Dissertation that
evidence-based practice (EBP), Self-mailing questionnaire, 384385 Evaluated the Effectiveness of
400401, 418419 Self-monitoring, 300 EMDR (Edmond, Rubin, and
An Illustration of a Quasi- Self-reports, 178, 180181, 191192 Wambach), 264
Experiment Evaluating a Family Semantic differential, 232 A Social Work Experiment
Preservation, 279280 Semiotics, 480481 Comparing the Effectiveness
literature review, 579 Settlements, 438 of Two Approaches to
multiple regression analysis, 559 Shadish, William, 265267, 285 Court-mandated Spouse Abuse
program evaluation, 324 Shaffi r, William B., 462 Treatment (Brannen), 258
qualitative interviewing, 463, 465 Shea, Christopher, 92 A Social Work Experiment
references and appendices, 594 Significance, power of test of, 555t Evaluating Cognitive-
sample size, 538 Significance levels, 532533 Behavioral Interventions with
A Social Work Dissertation that Significance tests, 562 Parents at Risk of Child Abuse
Evaluated the Effectiveness of Signs, 480f, 481 (Whiteman, Fanshel, and
EMDR, 264 Silverman, David, 482, 523 Grundy), 259
statistical power analysis, 554 Simple random sampling (SRS), A Social Work Experiment
Statistics for Evidence-Based 367368 Evaluating The Effectiveness Of
Practice and Evaluation, Simple time-series designs, 275278 A Program To Treat Children
311, 513 SINET: A Quarterly Review of at Risk of Serious Conduct
support group intervention, 245 Social Reports and Research on Problems (Fraser), 256
Social Indicators, Social Trends, A Social Work Experiment
Sackett, Evidence-Based Medicine: and the Quality of Life, 411 Evaluating Motivational
How to Practice and Teach Singer, Eleanor, 396397 Interviewing (Schilling), 256
EBM, 27 Single-case designs, 294296, Social Work Research, 355
Sales, Esther, 409410, 412 304305 Social work research
Sample, 351 Single-case evaluation designs, 35, cross-sectional studies, 148149,
Sample size, 365, 367, 538, 555t, 556 243, 292294, 315 152
SamplePower, 367 Single-case research studies, 313 data analysis, 158159
Sampling Single-subject designs, 294 data collection, 158
bias, 359360, 362363, 377378 Single-system designs, 294 data processing, 158
error, 365367, 373374, Smith, M., 545, 550 interpretation, 159
528529 Snowball sampling, 115, 358, 446 literature review, 143148
frame, 353, 362365 Snyder, Shelita, 225 longitudinal studies, 149151
interval, 369 Social problem formulation and,
participants in studies, 584 adjustment, 131 142143, 158
ratio, 369 artifacts, 154 process, diagramming the,
techniques, 115, 351358, groups, 153 159162
420421, 469 indicators, 339340 proposal, 162
unit, 361 research, 101103, 408409 purposes, 133136
Sampling social work students, status, 481 report, writing, 159
illustration, 376377 worlds, 438 research design, 158
Sandelowski, M., 586 Social Casework, 425 topics and questions, 136,
Scalar equivalence, 123 Social constructivist standards, 138142
Scales, 179, 181183, 206208, 452453 units of analysis, 151154
229231 Social desirability bias, 189191 Social worker, 425
Schedule, 585 Social Diagnosis (Richmond), 2627 Social-class bias, 363
Schilling, Robert, 256 Social science methodology, 4 Sociological Abstracts, 30
Schizophrenia Bulletin (Bartko, Social Sciences Abstracts, 30 Sociometrics Social Science
Carpenter, McGlashan), 560 Social scientific theory, 53 Electronic Data Library, 410
Schuerman, John, 9698 Social Service Abstracts, 30 Solomon, Phyllis, 285286, 415, 545
Science, 4 Social Service Review, 9697, 569 Solomon four-group design, 257
652 INDEX
Sorting memo, 486 Summative evaluations, 319 The Time Dimension and Aging
Specifications, 393 Survey, 384 (Leon), 152
Specificity, 421 Survey Monkey, 399 Title, of a research report, 591
Split-halves method, 197 Survey research Todd, Tracy, 322
Spot-check recording, 302 communities or target groups, 340 Top-down searches, 3233
Spreadsheet for qualitative analysis, cover letter, 385, 386f Tracking methods, 117, 267
488f follow-up mailings, 387388 Tradition, 1314
SPSS, 504505, 507508 historical background, 382383 Training requirements, 89
Spurious relationship, 168169 identification (ID) numbers, Transferability, 452
Stability, 196 385386 Translation equivalence, 123
Stakeholders, 327328 interviewing guidelines, 391392 Translation validity, 120
Standard deviation, 512513 mail distribution, 384385 Transparency, 552
Standardized Open-Ended Interview, mail return, 384385 Transportation for participants in
467468 method comparisons, 399, studies, 113
Standardized Open-Ended Interview 401402 Trauma-focused cognitive behavioral
Schedule, 234f238f monitoring returns, 385387 therapy (TFCBT), 258
Standardized regression coefficient, qualitative research methods, Trend studies, 149, 152
559560 combining, 403404 Triangulation, 194, 298, 452, 584
Stanley, J., 248 response rate, 388 Truman, Harry, 353354
Static-group comparison design, 252, responses, 391392 Trustworthiness, 451
253f secondary analysis, 408409 Tuckel, P., 395
Statistical Abstracts of the United strengths and weaknesses of, Tuskegee syphilis study, 75, 76ph
States, 410 403404 Two-tailed tests of significance,
Statistical data, 417 topics, 383384 533534
Statistical Package for the Social Switching replication, 274275, 276f Type I error, 536537, 550, 553, 556,
Sciences (SPSS), 367 Symbolic realism, 462 564565, 568
Statistical power analysis, 553, 556, Systematic error, 188189, 193 Type II error, 537538, 550,
563564, 584 Systematic observation, 12 553554, 556, 564566, 568
Statistical Power Analysis for the Systematic sampling, 368369, Type III error, 564566
Behavioral Sciences (Cohen), 371372, 420
553, 556 Unconscious sampling bias,
Statistical regression, 249250 Tactical authenticity, 453 359360
Statistical significance, 311, Tally sheet, 423t Understanding, 136, 430431,
529530, 556557 Tandon, Rajesh, 278 448449
Statistics, 410411, 520522, 550, Tape recording, 470, 472 Unidimensionality, 230
562563, 566569 Target problems, 297298 Uniform Crime Reports, 414
Statistics for Evidence-Based Taylor, Steven, 342345 Units of analysis, 151158
Practice and Evaluation Tearoom Trade: Impersonal Sex in Univariate analysis, 508509
(Rubin), 311, 513 Public Places (Humphreys), 94 University of CaliforniaSan Diego
Stebbins, Robert A., 462 Technical support, 412413 Social Science Data on the
Stimulus-response theory, 390 Telephone surveys, 394395, 402 Internet, 410
Stratification, 370, 374375 Testing, 248 University of Michigans Survey of
Stratified sampling, 369371, 421 Test-retest reliability, 196197, 206 Consumer Attitudes, 396397
Strauss, Anselm, 424, 438, 478480, Texas Welfare Study, 9496 Unlikely coincidences, 292
483, 485 Theoretical notes, 485486 Unobtrusive observation, 194, 262,
Straw person argument, 20 Theoretical sampling, 447448 300301, 408
Street Corner Society (Whyte), 438 Theoretical sampling distributions, Unpublished studies, 553
Strong effect sizes, 544545 530535 Utility, 514
Structural equation modeling, 561 Theory, 45, 5357, 478
The Structure of Scientifi c Theory-based logic model, 341, Validity, 198202, 204f, 205212,
Revolutions (Kuhn), 47 343f 247248, 261, 299300, 413
Strunk, William Jr., 588 Therapeutic alliance, 55. See also Values, 5354
Studies, unpublished, 553 Client preferences Variable-oriented analysis,
Study population, 361 Therapists, 425 478479
Style guides, 590 Thinking topics, 437 Variables, 5760, 165167, 182f
Subcultures, 438 Thorelli, I., 559 Variance, 230
Subjectivity, 6870, 449450 Thought Field Therapy (Johnson, Variations, 176177
Substantive significance, 311, et al.), 254255 Venn diagrams, 560
545546 Threats to internal validity, 35 Videka-Sherman, Lynn, 551552
Sue, Stanley, 123124 Thurstone scaling, 231 Visual pattern, 311
Sullivan, T., 190 Time dimension, 147148 Visual significance, 311
INDEX 653
Voice Capture (Dannemiller), 396 Weiss, Carol, 278 Writing research proposals, 575,
Voluntary participation, 7678 Weisz, A. N., 274 577579
Wheel of Science, 62f Written self-reports, 191192
Waechter, D. M., 545 Whitcomb, Michael, 399
Walker Research, 395 White, E. B., 588 Yahoo, 144145, 576
Wallace, Walter, 6263 Whiteman, Martin, 259 Yoshihama, Mieko, 471
Wallace model, 62f Whyte, William Foote, 438 Yu, L., 121
Wambach, Kathryn, 264 Wikipedia, 145 Yules Q, 540
Washington Post, 102 Wilcoxon sign test, 558
Watson, J., 122 Wilson, Camilo, 397398 Zeller, Richard, 200
Weak effect sizes, 544545 Women fi lm directors, 490493 Zerbib, Sandrine, 490493
Webb, Eugene J., 408 Working papers, 589 Zhang, J., 121
Weber, Robert Philip, 431 World Population Data Sheet, Zimbalist, Sidney, 100, 427
Websites. See Internet resources 411 Zippay, Allison, 446
PRACTICE-RELATED ISSUES
PART I: AN INTRODUCTION TO SCIENTIFIC Chapter 7 Conceptualization and
INQUIRY IN SOCIAL WORK Operationalization
Chapter 1 Why Study Research? Symptoms of PTSD to illustrate indicators and
dimensions of constructs
Review of practice effectiveness research
Welfare policy reform illustration regarding
Utility of research to practitioners (examples)
hypotheses variables
Chapter 2 Evidence-Based Practice Operational definitions illustrated with examples
Evidence-based practice from child welfare, community organizing, family
a. Historical background therapy, and social work interviewing skill
b. Nature of Child welfare practice illustration regarding
c. Steps in qualitative perspective on operational definitions
d. Controversies and misconceptions about
Chapter 8 Measurement
Chapter 3 Philosophy and Theory in Social Measurement error, reliability and validity illustrated
Work Research regarding assessing paranoia, child welfare interven-
Play therapy illustration of role of theory tions, parent-child relationships, self-esteem, depres-
Contracting and client satisfaction, illustration of sion, interviewing skills, treating battered women,
relationship practice orientations, trauma symptoms, treating
Social work practice models sex offenders, marital satisfaction, and others
Treatment of PTSD illustration of nomothetic and Chapter 9 Constructing Measurement Instruments
idiographic models of explanation
Qualitative interview schedule regarding
openness in adoption
PART II: THE ETHICAL, POLITICAL, AND
CULTURAL CONTEXT OF SOCIAL WORK RESEARCH PART IV: DESIGNS FOR EVALUATING PROGRAMS
Chapter 4 The Ethics and Politics of Social Work ANDPRACTICE
Research
Chapter 10 Causal Inference and Experimental
Right to receive services vs. need to evaluate them Designs
discussed in relation to social work practice evaluation
This chapter is filled with practice examples
Ethical controversies regarding a study of social
throughout, particularly in regard to the internal
work journal bias and a study on social welfare reform
and external validity of evaluations of practice effec-
Chapter 5 Culturally Competent Research tiveness and how experiments attempt to control for
Mental health services with African Americans, threats to internal validity.
Asian Americans, and Latinos; parenting interven- Chapter 11 Quasi-Experimental Designs
tions; HIV/AIDS prevention interventions; services This chapter is also filled with practice examples
for the homeless; and caregiver burden
throughout, this time with an emphasis on quasi-
experimental evaluations of practice effectiveness.
PART III: PROBLEM FORMULATION AND Also included is coverage of practical pitfalls in con-
MEASUREMENT ducting evaluations in social work practice settings
and how to prevent or alleviate them.
Chapter 6 Problem Formulation
Practitioner involvement in evidence-based practice Chapter 12 Single-Case Evaluation Designs
example of research purposes. This entire chapter is devoted to practitioners use
Research process illustrated with example of social of research to evaluate their own practice. Virtually
work in a residential treatment facility every word in it deals directly with practice related
Welfare reform example of narrowing research topics issues.
Treatment of sexually abused girls, example of
research question
Case management example regarding literature review
PRACTICE-RELATED ISSUES
Chapter 13 Program Evaluation Chapter 18 Qualitative Research: Specific Methods
This chapter is filled with examples of issues and Residential treatment centers for children
techniques for trying to conduct evaluations of Evaluating in-service training
practice in practice settings. Such examples include Sexually abused girls
the following practice areas: managed care, family Empowering battered women
preservation, community mental health, family
service agencies, case management, school social Chapter 19 Qualitative Data Analysis
work, hospice, AIDS prevention, homelessness Discovering patterns in child abuse data
programs, assessing client or community needs,
child abuse prevention programs, and services
PART VII: ANALYSIS OF QUANTITATIVE DATA
to people with developmental disabilities.
Chapter 20 Quantitative Data Analysis
PART V: DATA COLLECTION METHODS WITH Assessing client satisfaction with services
LARGE SOURCES OF DATA Assessing why clients drop out of treatment
(coding example)
Chapter 14 Sampling Case management example regarding standard
Client satisfaction survey example regarding deviation
sampling. Also, sampling social work students. Child welfare interventions regarding qualitative
Chapter 15 Survey Research research and descriptive statistics
Examples of surveys include one with welfare Chapter 21 Inferential Data Analysis: Part 1
recipients and one regarding views about evidence- Statistical significance explained with an example
based practice regarding intervention to prevent child abuse.
Chapter 16 Analyzing Available Data: (This example is returned to in various subsequent
sections of this chapter.) Effect size is illustrated
Quantitative and Qualitative Methods
regarding the evaluation of interventions for male
Evidence-based practice conclusions of practice batterers.
outcome studies in social work journals.
Impact of welfare reform Chapter 22 Inferential Data Analysis: Part 2
Evaluating play therapy Examples include a school social work program
The core conditions of the helping relationship in an inner-city high school, case management,
The practice of school social workers psychotherapy, treating the chronically mentally ill,
child abuse prevention, social service volunteers,
Community organization
caregiver burden, and support group intervention
Self-image of social work
for people with AIDS
Social work with adoptive families
Care of the chronically mentally ill
PART VIII: WRITING RESEARCH PROPOSALS
ANDREPORTS
PART VI: QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS
Chapter 23 Writing Research Proposals
Chapter 17 Qualitative Research:
and Reports
General Principles
Proposal writing examples regarding substance
Community-based services for the mentally ill
abuse treatment, child abuse prevention, and
Services for the homeless EMDR
Client logs
Social service agency volunteers
Community organizing
Fostering family involvement in nursing home care
Case management
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PART 1 Chapter 16 Analyzing Existing Data:

Chapter 1 Why Study Research? 2

Chapter 4 The Ethics and Politics of

Preface XV Other Ways of Knowing 13

Step 5. Apply the Evidence-Based Intervention 37 Main Points 70

Chapter 5 Main Points 128

Main Points 162 Chapter 8

Avoid Double-Barreled Questions 216 Pre-experimental Pilot Studies 250

Resistance to the Case Assignment Protocol 285 Main Points 316

President Thomas E. Dewey 353 Chapter 15

Distinguishing Secondary Analysis from Other Standards for Evaluating Qualitative

Coding 482 Multivariate Tables 519

Main Points 569 Results 593

Review Questions and Exercises 569 Discussion and Conclusions 593

Internet Exercises 570 References and Appendices 594

Additional Readings 570 Additional Considerations When

Expanded coverage of IRBs. A figure showing the connections between para-

Two new figures to help students comprehend the of t he t ex t m at er i a l a nd it s appl ic at ion to

GSS Data ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

INTRODUCTION Readers Guide to Periodical Literature: This annual

The Card Catalog BF Psychology

Activism Gumport, P. J., 1231

Journal of Family Issues Journal of Psychotherapy Practice and

Health Qualitative Research

Journal of Sociology and Social Welfare Journal of Drug Education

Suppose 10 people are in a group, and each person has

presents the population of 10 people.

youll fi nd that the total is $45, so the mean is $4.50.

that mean without actually observing all 10 individu- $3 $5

10 mean? Figure B-4 presents the sampling distributions

Figure B-2 The Sampling Distribution of Samples of 1 SAMPLING DISTRIBUTION AND

20 20 True mean = $4.50

Number of samples (Total = 210)

True mean = $4.50

Number of samples (Total = 210)

Figure B-4 The Sampling Distributions of Samples of 3, 4, 5, and 6

Suppose this operation gives us 48 residents who ap-

Table B-1 Random Numbers

Table B-1 (continued)

Sample 2 (51%) Number of samples

probability theory enables us to estimate the sampling

hypothetical small town is 50 percent approving of

AB design, 304305 Analyzing Social Settings (Lofland), Beutler, L. E., 127

developing, 109111 Discrete variables, 513514 confidentiality, 8283

Interdisciplinary triangulation, 452 KIDS COUNT, 410 Mail distribution, 384385

Pearson product-moment correlation Probability proportionate to size Qualitative inquiry, 564566

Qualitative Methods in Family Quoss, Bernita, 442 bias, 451

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