African ornamentals
Proposals and examples
PROTA is an international Foundation involving the following participating institu-
tions:
Wageningen University (WU), Plant Sciences Group (PSG), Droevendaalsesteeg
1, 6708 PB, Wageningen; P.O. Box 341, 6700 AH Wageningen, Netherlands
Centre de Coopration Internationale en Recherche Agronomique pour le Dve-
loppement (CIRAD), Avenue Agropolis, 34398 Montpellier Cedex 5, France
Royal Botanic Gardens Kew (RBGKEW), Centre for Economic Botany, Rich-
mond, Surrey TW9 3AB, United Kingdom
Centre National de Semences Forestires (CNSF), 01 B.P. 2682, Ouagadougou
01, Burkina Faso
Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique et Technologique (CENAREST),
B.P. 842, Libreville, Gabon
Forestry Research Institute of Ghana (FORIG), KNUST, University P.O. Box
63, Kumasi, Ghana
Parc Botanique et Zoologique de Tsimbazaza (PBZT), B.P. 4096, Tsimbazaza,
Antananarivo 101, Madagascar
National Herbarium and Botanic Gardens of Malawi (NHBGM), P.O. Box 528,
Zomba, Malawi
Makerere University (MU), Department of Botany, P.O. Box 7062, Kampala,
Uganda
World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF), P.O. Box 30677, Nairobi, Kenya
Prosea Association (PROSEA), P.O. Box 332, Bogor 16122, Indonesia
This publication has been made possible through the financial support by:
International Association of Horticultural Producers (AIPH), Voorhout, Nether-
lands
PEFC Certified
This product is
from sustainably
managed forests and
controlled sources
PEFC/30-32-067 www.pefc.org
Plant Resources of Tropical Africa
African ornamentals
Proposals and examples
PROTA Foundation
Wageningen, Netherlands, 2011
Correct citation of this publication:
PROTA, 2011. Plant Resources of Tropical Africa. African ornamentals. Proposals
and examples. PROTA Foundation, Wageningen, Netherlands. 56 pp.
No part of this publication, apart from bibliographic data and brief quotations em-
bodied in critical reviews, may be reproduced, re-recorded or published in any form
including print, photocopy, microfilm, electric or electromagnetic record without
written permission from the copyright holder: PROTA Foundation, P.O. Box 341,
6700 AH Wageningen, Netherlands.
Contents
Sample articles 14
Literature 43
Photographers 49
PROTA publications 50
PROTA in short 55
This publication is intended to incite interest in this initiative and to show its feasi-
bility. It deals with the specific problems of this commodity group and summarizes
proposals for the approach to be followed. The booklet presents 7 sample reviews for
PROTA 4: Ornamentals to give an outline of the intended approach, to show the
set-up of the reviews, and to indicate the peculiarities of the group of ornamental
plants and ways to tackle them.
Choice of species
All species with ornamental value in tropical Africa need to be listed before actual
work on this group can start. The PROTA database Specieslist contains the names
of 600 species of ornamental plants. Still, it can serve as a starting point only, as
this list should be updated and expanded. The few books or other publications on
tropical African ornamental plants cannot serve as a base to produce a complete list
also indicating the present importance of species.
INTRODUCTION AND PROPOSALS 7
Proposal:
Organize inventories of ornamental plants sold in
some major cities of tropical Africa.
The PROTA project on ornamental plants will start with an inventory of ornamental
plant species sold in nurseries in large cities in tropical Africa. To do this in an effi-
cient way, an inventory will be done in selected cities in each of the major regions of
tropical Africa. A provisional list of cities includes: West Africa: Ouagadougou or
Dakar, Cotonou, Accra, Lagos; Central Africa: Libreville or Douala; East Africa:
Nairobi and Addis Ababa; Southern Africa: Harare, Lusaka or Gaborone; and the
Indian Ocean Islands: Antananarivo and Port Louis or Saint Denis. The PROTA
network in tropical Africa will play a central role in the inventory to control costs.
PROTA will work closely with specialists who can ascertain proper identification
and who can also take photographs.
From its inception, PROTA has chosen not to include South Africa because this
country is largely outside the tropics. Moreover, it hosts a large number of endemic
species, especially in the Cape region, which would make the list of species to be
treated dramatically longer. However, many well-known ornamentals originate from
South Africa and local scientists publish regularly on the ornamental plants. Infor-
mation on South African species grown also in tropical Africa will be included in the
PROTA reviews.
Numerous ornamental species present in tropical Africa are also present in other
tropical regions. Many species originating from Africa have been introduced else-
where, and vice versa. A complete overview of African ornamentals will therefore
also be of great value for tropical Asia, tropical America and other tropical regions.
It will certainly offer new opportunities for plant breeders inside and outside Africa.
For two other large commodity groups in the PROTA programme, i.e. Timbers (2
volumes) and Medicinal plants (4 volumes), it was decided to adopt a combination
of approach 1 and 2: distribute plant families over the different volumes, and then
publish the species alphabetically per volume. The main advantages are that collect-
ing botanical literature per family is more efficient and that nomenclatural changes
of genus names during the course of preparation of the volumes can be incorporated
easily.
Treatment by growth forms also has several advantages, including the possibility of
writing a general introduction per group, easier collection of relevant literature,
8 AFRICAN ORNAMENTALS
4. Succulent plants
PROTA considers the division of the ornamental species into groups based on
growth forms most appropriate. The first group, Woody plants would be treated in
the first volume and the other 3 groups in the second one.
Proposal:
Treatment of species by growth forms.
In PROTA reviews, each article contains the following paragraphs (unless no infor-
mation is available):
- Species name with Protologue, Family, Synonyms, Vernacular names and
Chromosome number;
- Origin and geographic distribution;
- Uses, Production and international trade, Properties;
- Description, Other botanical information, Anatomy;
- Growth and development, Ecology;
- Propagation and planting, Management, Diseases and pests, Harvesting,
Yield, Handling after harvest;
- Genetic resources, Breeding;
INTRODUCTION AND PROPOSALS 9
- Prospects.
Proposal:
Treatment of articles following the PROTA format
with some adaptations for Ornamentals.
In Origin and geographic distribution the origin of the species is indicated, the
countries in Africa where the species is currently present are listed, and the world-
wide distribution is described. However, the distribution of cultivated plants is poor-
ly documented and confirmation on the presence of a particular species in a particu-
lar country can be quite difficult. An example of this is Ravenala madagascariensis,
the travellers palm. It is native to Madagascar and naturalized in some other Indi-
an Ocean islands. It has been planted in gardens all over continental Africa, but its
presence cannot be confirmed in all countries. Therefore, the map in the article of
Ravenala madagascariensis only shows where it grows wild and has been natural-
ized.
In Uses all uses of a species are described, not only its ornamental value. Other
paragraphs may contain information that is linked to these other uses, e.g. Anato-
my, Harvesting, Yield and Handling after harvest. An example is Catharanthus
roseus, which is an important ornamental but also an important cultivated medici-
nal plant. In Anatomy a wood-anatomical description might be included for orna-
mental trees with important timber value.
It is difficult to find information for Production and international trade. For orna-
mentals, production is usually in local nurseries and sale is in nearby markets. Sug-
gestions to obtain reliable information on trade are most welcome.
In Diseases and pests common diseases and their causing agents are summarized,
as well as pests, often insects. The symptoms and control measures are given. If
they exist, cultivars which show resistance to important diseases and pests are
mentioned.
Many of the articles published by PROTA contain a line drawing, usually redrawn
and adapted from illustrations published in books and journals. As in other PROTA
publications, it is intended to include line drawings for the more important orna-
mental plants. Unlike in other PROTA books, a limited number of photographs of
the major species will be included in the books on ornamental plants. In the
PROTA4U database line drawings and photographs will be included, as usual.
Proposal:
Include line drawings for major species, as well as
photographs in both the web database (PROTA4U)
and book publications.
In general, PROTA deals with species, each having a separate review in the data-
base. However, in some groups of ornamental plants, interspecific or even interge-
neric hybrids exist, which are sometimes difficult to classify according to the bino-
mial system. For orchid hybrids a grex classification has been created, based on
specified parentage and applied to a cross and its reciprocal. Another example of a
difficult group to tackle are roses. Many of the horticultural groups in Rosa are so
highly bred that they cannot be treated as a species. This implies that for Orna-
mentals different types of entries to articles are sometimes needed. Names of culti-
vated plants should be according to the International Code of Nomenclature for Cul-
tivated Plants (8th Edition, 2009, or upcoming new editions).
INTRODUCTION AND PROPOSALS 11
One of the main reasons for making this booklet is to find out the needs and ideas of
stakeholders of ornamentals. We would be very grateful to receive feedback at
prota@wur.nl concerning the proposals for the approach of Ornamentals and for the
contents of the articles in this commodity group.
Request:
Please send us feedback.
Basic literature
Bakare, P.A., 2008. Exploration of wild ornamental plants. BSc Botany degree
thesis, Department of Botany, Faculty of Science, Obafemi Awolowo University,
Ile-Ife, Osun State, Nigeria. 28 pp.
Brtels, A., 1993. Guide des plantes tropicales. Plantes ornementales, plantes
utiles, fruits exotiques. Eugen Ulmer GmbH & Co., Paris, France. 384 pp.
Booth, F.E.M. & Wickens, G.E., 1988. Non-timber uses of selected arid zone
trees and shrubs in Africa. FAO Conservation Guide No 19. FAO, Rome, Italy.
176 pp.
Brandies, M.M., 2004. Landscaping with tropical plants: design ideas, creative
garden plans, cold-climate solutions. Sunset Books, Cornell University, United
States. 128 pp.
Darke, R., 2004. Pocket guide to ornamental grasses. Timber Press, Portland,
United States. 226 pp.
Llamas, K.A., 2003. Tropical flowering plants: a guide to identification and cul-
tivation. Timber Press, Portland, United States. 425 pp.
Rauch, F.D. & Weissich, P.R., 2000. Plants for tropical landscapes: a gardener's
guide. University of Hawaii Press, Hawaii. 139 pp.
Riffle, R.L., 1998. The tropical look: an encyclopedia of dramatic landscape
plants. Timber Press, Portland, United States. 428 pp.
South African National Biodiversity Institute (SANBI). [Internet]
www.PlantZAfrica.com
Staples, G.W. & Herbst, D.R., 2005. A tropical garden flora: plants cultivated in
the Hawaiian Islands and other tropical places. Bishop Museum Press, Honolu-
lu, United States. 908 pp.
Van der Spuy, U., 1965. Ornamental shrubs and trees for gardens in southern
Africa. Juta, South Africa. 254 pp.
Waiganjo, M.M., Gikaara, D.N., Muriithi, A., Kihara, S., Kamau, E. & Gateri,
M., 2008. The status of native ornamental plants and their potential utilization
in the floriculture industry in Kenya. In: Jaenicke, H., Ganry, J., Hoeschle-
Zeledon, I. & Kahane, R. (Editors). International symposium on underutilized
12 AFRICAN ORNAMENTALS
plants for food, nutrition, income and sustainable development, Arusha, Tanza-
nia.
Whistler, W.A., 2000. Tropical ornamentals, a guide. Timber Press, Portland,
United States. 542 pp.
Williams, R.O., 1949. The useful and ornamental plants in Zanzibar and Pemba.
Zanzibar, Tanzania. 497 pp.
Acknowledgements
Sample articles
14 AFRICAN ORNAMENTALS
CANNA 15
CANNA GENERALIS L.H.Bailey & E.Z.Bailey iegated, and the flowers are usually large,
brightly uniformly coloured, or streaked and
Protologue Hortus: 118 (1930). speckled with other colours. They can be plant-
Family Cannaceae ed as a border plant, or they may be planted as
Chromosome number 2n = 18, 27 an individual amongst other ornamentals as an
Synonyms Canna orchiodes L.H.Bailey & eye catcher, and also in containers. Several
E.Z.Bailey (1930). cultivars are adapted to growing near water.
Vernacular names Garden canna, canna, In Africa garden canna is regularly planted as
canna lily (En). Canna, balisier (Fr). a large hedge. Cattle will browse the leaves if
Origin and geographic distribution Canna given the chance. The leaves are sometimes
is native to the New World, but several species used as wrapping material for food. The seeds,
have been introduced and naturalized in the if any are produced, are used as beads in neck-
Old World tropics a long time ago. The orna- laces. Garden canna, as well as Canna indica
mental garden canna comprises an assortment L., are used to extract polluting compounds in
of over 1100 cultivars. These belong to a hybrid wetland environments and domestic waste
complex and are nowadays classified into 10 water.
cultivar groups, including one agricultural Production and international trade A large
group, but originally the garden plants come horticultural industry depends on garden can-
from two main groups of complex hybrids that na. Major production areas are found in the
arose in Europe in the 19th Century, Canna United States, Australia, United Kingdom,
generalis and Canna orchiodes. The distinc- France, Germany and the Netherlands, but
tion between the two groups has since then also in Israel, South Africa, Japan and Thai-
become blurred, so that they are combined land. In 2000 in the United States production
here. was 43,00053,000 rhizomes/ha on an estimat-
Garden canna is planted throughout the trop- ed 200 ha. Of these rhizomes, 5080% was sold
ics and subtropics, and also as annual or con- wholesale to distributors, c. 15% of the smaller
tainer plants in the temperate zone. In tropical rhizomes were kept for replanting and the re-
Africa, it probably occurs in all countries. Most mainder was sold to garden centres and nurse-
Canna hybrids have been developed in temper- ries. In 2011 rhizomes are sold on the internet
ate climates. They grow in almost every coun- for US$ 228 each, depending on the rarity of
try of the world as long as they get 68 hours the cultivar. In 20052007 production world-
sunlight per day during the flowering season. wide was seriously hampered by the advance-
Uses Garden canna is popular as ornamen- ment of canna yellow mottle virus and bean
tal and widely cultivated in gardens and parks yellow mosaic virus, and most stock had to be
for its growth form, foliage and large, coloured burnt, causing a loss in the number of culti-
flowers. The plants can be up to 2 m tall, but vars. Recently, healthy to fairly healthy plants
dwarf varieties also exist, the foliage varies can be obtained again, which are reproduced by
from bright green to strikingly coloured or var- micropropagation, although diseased plants
are also still available from suppliers.
Properties From the stems of Canna gene-
ralis (cultivar not stated) the following com-
pounds were isolated: -sitosterol, linoleic acid
methyl ester, daucosterol and a glycerol deriva-
tive.
Canna gum, an exudate from the stalks of
Canna generalis (cultivar not stated), was
found to be a nontoxic emulsifying agent and a
potential substitute for commercial gums.
Since the amount of the gum available in the
plant was not large, different methods of in-
creasing its production were investigated, in-
cluding artificial incisions in the flowering
stalks, special nutrition and extraction meth-
ods, but none of these methods increased the
quantity of gum considerably.
Canna generalis planted In Australia Canna generalis (cultivar not
16 AFRICAN ORNAMENTALS
stated) is used in trials to clean domestic waste The cultivar groups recognized for Canna are
water in constructed wetlands. It has a great the following:
water consumption, total biomass production Crozy Group: This group includes all culti-
and aboveground N and P content. vars where the flowers are arranged close to-
Description Glabrous perennial herb 0.5 gether on the stalk of the inflorescence and
2(4) m tall; stem not branched, arising from have narrow to medium wide staminodes.
fleshy rhizome, sympodially branched. Leaves There is always space between the stami-
arranged spirally, sessile, simple and entire, nodes, and the labellum is smaller than the
green, waxy blue or streaked with other col- staminodes and often curled or twisted. This
ours; sheath open; blade slightly asymmetrical, is the most cold hardy cultivar group. It in-
ovate to elliptical, 2545(100) cm 2030( cludes many diploids but also sterile trip-
60) cm, base obtuse to cordate, apex usually loids. The triploids have larger staminodes,
short-acuminate, pinnately veined, with nu- sometimes creating a perfect circle, and a
merous lateral veins. Inflorescence a terminal new cultivar group needs to be created for
raceme or panicle, with 12-flowered cymes. this subgroup.
Flowers bisexual, zygomorphic, 3-merous, Italian Group: In this cultivar group the
erect, red, orange, yellow, purple, white, pink, large flowers are loosely arranged on the
or variously 2-coloured; pedicel 11.5 cm long; stalk of the inflorescence, and have large,
sepals free, narrowly triangular to narrowly fragile staminodes, which are so wide that
obovate, up to 2(3) cm long, green or coloured, there is no space between them. The label-
apex acute to obtuse, slightly curved inwards; lum is at least as large as the staminodes.
corolla with short tube, lobes unequal, narrow- The stamen is much wider than in other cul-
ly ovate-triangular, up to 10 cm long, apex tivar groups.
curved inwards, acute to obtuse; staminodes 3 Foliage Group: The cultivars in this group
4, petal-like, one of them usually with different are grown principally for their large leaves,
shape, called labellum, obovate to narrowly which can even resemble banana leaves and
triangular, stamen 1, for half its length petal- may have different colours, so that several
like; nectaries 3; ovary inferior, 3-celled, style cultivars can also be included in the Varie-
petal-like, fleshy, fused for most of its length gated Group. The flowers are relatively
with the stamen, stigmatic areas 3, terminal small, and can be red, orange or yellow.
and marginal. Fruit an ellipsoid to obovoid Australian Group: The cultivars in this small
capsule, more or less triangular, 1.54(5.5) cm group are the result of a crossing of a Foliage
1.52(3.5) cm, covered with soft warts, Group seed parent and an Italian Group pol-
green, maturing brown, opening by longitudi- len parent. They have large leaves and large,
nal slits, many-seeded. Seeds globose, 48 mm white, pink and yellow variegated flowers.
in diameter, hard, brown to black. Premier Group: This group contains culti-
Other botanical information Canna com- vars with large flowers, which are circular in
prises 1020 species, but several of these spe- outline, without space between the stami-
cies are based on a single specimen. Recent nodes. These cultivars are derived from trip-
molecular research tends to support a restrict- loids and cultivars from the Italian Group.
ed number of species. The taxonomy of garden Variegated Group: This group contains
canna is complex due to its extensive hybridi- plants with variegated leaves, as long as the
zation for ornamental use and its worldwide variegation is distinctive. Variegation may
cultivation as a starch crop. In 2007 canna consist of white or red splotches or of narrow
breeders made 10 cultivar groups in garden stripes between the small veins. Most varie-
canna, as the genetic background of the culti- gation is introduced through mutations, and
vars had become too unclear to be of any use to is not transmitted by seed, so that these cul-
breeders. The cultivar groups are only con- tivars need to be propagated vegetatively.
cerned with the phenotype of plants, and are Many cultivars also belong to another culti-
also based on the history of garden canna. var group.
However, these 10 cultivar groups have not yet Conservatory Group: The cultivars in this
been formally published. group have been selected for the specific, all-
The International Cultivar Registration Au- year round growing conditions of conservato-
thority (ICRA) for Canna is the Royal General ries, and characteristics include plant vigour,
Bulbgrowers Association (KAVB), Hillegom, early flowering, self-shedding capacity and
the Netherlands. good propagation qualities. The approxi-
CANNA 17
plaatjes
18 AFRICAN ORNAMENTALS
mately 12 cultivars have been developed in can cause chilling injury, and then plants or
the United States. their rhizomes need to be brought inside. Gar-
Aquatic Group: The cultivars in this cultivar den canna prefers a rich, well-draining soil,
group grow well at the borders of water. In which is high in organic matter, but will grow
general they have lanceolate leaves and thin, well in a wide variety of soils. The optimum
spreading rhizomes, so that they are not range of soil pH is 67. The soil needs to be
suited for small ponds. permanently humid, not wet, although some
Miniature Group: This cultivar group in- cultivars tolerate wet growing conditions. Gar-
cludes all cultivars up to 50 cm tall, with rel- den canna needs full sun to develop flowers,
atively small flowers, suitable as cut flowers and has the potential to bloom throughout the
in large flower arrangements. year, but when temperatures are too high or
Agriculture Group: This group includes all too low, flowering stops altogether.
cultivars that have been used in agriculture. Propagation and planting In some culti-
Most cultivars have been selected for their vars propagation is by seed, in others it is veg-
ability to produce high quantities of starch in etatively by rhizomes or tissue culture.
their rhizomes. The earliest cultivars origi- Seeds remain viable for a long period of time;
nate from the Andes region. Nowadays many seed that was recovered from an archaeological
cultivars exist in Australia and Asia. Espe- site, estimated about 600 years old, was still
cially in Thailand the starch is popular in able to germinate. Seed dormancy has been
producing a certain type of noodles. Most cul- observed, but not in all cultivars. The hard
tivars are triploids. Common cultivars are seed coat can be chipped or treated with sand
Achira and Queensland Arrowroot. As their paper, or the seed can be soaked in water 12
large leaves are more prominent than their days before sowing. The best place to scarify
flowers, they can also be included in the Fo- the seed is near the hilum, where the seed was
liage Group. attached to the fruit. Without pre-treatment,
Of the cultivar groups described above, proba- seedlings will appear only after several
bly the most common ones, i.e. Crozy Group, months. Seeds are individually sown 1 cm deep
Italian Group and Foliage Group, are repre- in a pot using well-draining soil with peat-
sented in gardens in Africa. based compost, and they will germinate after
Growth and development Growth of young 13 weeks when the temperature is kept at 21
plants can be rapid if adequate light and tem- 27C. As soon as the plants are about 15 cm
perature are provided. Usually it takes 3 tall, they can be potted into a 15 cm diameter
months between sowing and flowering. Flowers pot, using well-draining soil mixture with a
should be removed as they fade; this promotes little slow-release fertilizer granules. The seed-
the development of more buds and prevents lings are hardened-off by gradually increasing
formation of fruits. Each rhizome will produce the light level and exposure to cooler tempera-
several flowering shoots, one after the next. tures until they are growing in full sun at out-
After a flowering shoot has died, it should be side temperatures.
cut towards the base to promote growth of new Rhizomes are planted horizontally, 612 cm
shoots. deep, with the eyes (growing points) facing up,
Bees, bumblebees, hummingbirds and bats if they are visible. Usually they are planted
collect nectar and pollen. Pollen is shed on the 3060 cm apart. Some of the cultivars adapted
style while still in the bud, and in early flower- to a wet environment need a larger planting
ing hybrids some is also found on the stigma distance as they produce long runners. After
because of the high position of the anther, planting, the rhizomes need to be kept moist
which means that they are self-pollinating. but not wet. When new growth appears they
Later flowering cultivars have a lower anther, can be watered more heavily. A layer of mulch
and rely on pollinators landing on the labellum will conserve water and reduce weeds. When
and touching first the terminal stigma, and the plants begin to die back at the end of the
then the pollen. season, the aerial parts can be cut. Rhizomes
Ecology Garden canna requires a warm to are dug up in areas with frost. They need to be
hot climate for best performance, but many kept at 10C in the dark and in peat moss to
cultivars are adapted to a wide range of climat- prevent drying out. Before replanting, the rhi-
ic conditions. The optimum temperature range zomes can be cut into sections, each containing
for growth and development is 2035C. Pro- at least 3 growing points. Rhizomes with a
longed exposure to temperatures below 10C single growing point may survive but will take
CANNA 19
longer to produce a vigorous new plant. Each rus, bean yellow mosaic virus, hippeastrum
clump will yield 4 or more new rhizomes. mosaic virus and tomato aspermy virus. The
Tissue culture has also been used to propagate most serious virus is canna yellow mottle virus,
garden canna but it has long time been uneco- which may result in spotted or streaked leaves
nomical compared to propagation by division. and finally in stunted growth and twisted and
Micropropagation techniques are especially distorted leaves and flowers.
interesting for specimens infected with canna Canna viruses are the most serious problem in
viruses and are used to disinfest plants of the cultivation; they are easily passed from plant
virus, as it is possible to use a growing shoot to plant by sucking insects such as aphids and
tip as the explant, which is dividing so fast then spread by division of rhizomes. They are
that it has had no time to be infected with the sometimes also transmitted by seed. In most
virus. In this way, healthy stock can be re- cases, low levels of virus are undetectable and
claimed from virus contaminated plants. unnoticed, except during cool weather, increas-
Management Cultural requirements are ing stress. Most garden canna cultivars toler-
similar for most garden canna cultivars. A deep ate a certain amount of viral infection and will
rich soil, with much compost, that holds mois- grow and flower despite being infected. High
ture well without becoming waterlogged is virus loads, however, can render garden canna
best. Full sun is necessary for best develop- very unattractive.
ment and flowering, but light shade is tolerat- In the mid-2000s, there were virtually no vi-
ed and even necessary especially in dry and hot rus-free garden canna, and the development of
areas. Dense shade leads to thin, weak shoots, tissue culture multiplication saved many culti-
loss of colour of the leaves and reduced flower- vars, although it is a time consuming and ex-
ing. pensive process (US$ 10005000 per plant)
To assure good growth and flowering, garden since it often takes several tries to make sure
canna should be regularly given manure or the tissue is clean. Despite selling clean stock,
compost, or a slow-release fertilizer that in- there is no guarantee that the plants will stay
cludes trace elements. In dry weather, garden clean once they are exposed to the environ-
canna requires a steady supply of water. Regu- ment.
lar additional fertilization during the growth Garden canna may be attacked by canna leaf
season is recommended. The beds may need roller (Calpodes ethlius), grasshoppers, snails
additional calcium or magnesium to counteract and slugs, which all eat holes in the tender
the acidity built up in the soil through the con- young leaves. Control of many insects is by
stant use of organic matter. Yellowing of the removing the old and dead lower leaves. Sys-
leaves indicates trace element deficiency, usu- temic insecticides or insecticidal soap can be
ally iron. Application of trace elements fertiliz- applied to prevent and control attacks. Aphids,
er every three months overcomes this. Garden spider mites or whiteflies will rarely attack
canna generally does not need wind protection. garden canna in the garden, but can sometimes
Garden canna needs to be replanted every be a problem indoors or in a greenhouse. Stress
year. In garden centers plants may have been reduction is the best method to prevent such
treated with growth retardants, creating short, attacks, but when present, they can be con-
compact plants. Replanting the rhizomes the trolled with insecticides. Dead flowers need to
year after may result in much taller than the be removed to control thrips infestations. Mice
year before. may eat the stored rhizomes and can be treated
Diseases and pests Canna diseases include with poisonous bait or traps.
canna rust (Puccinia thaliae), rhizome rot and Genetic resources The genetic background
viruses. They occur more often during high of the cultivars of garden canna is very diverse,
humidity. The rust forms rusty-orange col- due to the high level of hybridity. Studies have
oured spots spread by splashed water on the shown that about 85% of the cultivars are dip-
back of the leaves which eventually turn black loid, the majority of these belonging to the Cro-
and die. Canna rust is difficult to control but zy Group. Triploids make up about 15% of cul-
there are fungicidal sprays that can prevent it tivars; tetraploids exist but are exceptions be-
from starting. cause of their slow growth and lack of fertility.
Garden canna is also susceptible to various In the early 1960s it was found that diploids
plant viruses, including canna yellow mottle had about 90% of pollen fertility and produced
virus (a badna virus), canna yellow streak vi- fertile seeds and triploids were about 65% pol-
rus, canna mosaic virus, cucumber mosaic vi- len fertile and produced no seeds, whereas
20 AFRICAN ORNAMENTALS
there were no data concerning pollen fertility CATHARANTHUS ROSEUS (L.) G.Don
for the rare tetraploids, which occasionally
produced seeds. As a rule, triploid cultivars Protologue Gen. hist. 4(1): 95 (1837).
tend to have fewer rhizomes, smaller but com- Family Apocynaceae
paratively broader and thicker leaves and larg- Chromosome number 2n = 16
er flowers in comparison to the diploids. Synonyms Vinca rosea L. (1759), Lochnera
Breeding The phenotype transformation from rosea (L.) Rchb. ex Endl. (1838).
wild Canna plants to cultivated ones has in- Vernacular names Madagascar periwinkle,
volved reduction in plant height, change in rosy periwinkle, annual vinca (En). Pervenche
form and colour of leaves, inflorescences above de Madagascar, rose amre (Fr). Sempre noiva,
the leaves, erect flowers, increase in number of flor de anjinho, pervinca de Madagascar (Po).
inflorescence branches, increase in flower size Mtunda (Sw).
and colour diversity, increase in thickness of Origin and geographic distribution Catha-
flower petals, durability of flowers and self- ranthus roseus originates from Madagascar,
shedding capability. but for centuries it has been cultivated as an
Breeders are still looking for very pure flower ornamental throughout the tropics, subtropics
colours, especially white. Canna liliiflora and warm temperate regions; it has become
Warsc. ex Planch. has almost white flowers but naturalized in many regions. It was brought
is not cold hardy and it has been difficult to under cultivation in the first half of the 18th
produce successful cultivars from it. Other century in Paris, from seeds collected in Mada-
flower colours sought after by breeders are blue gascar, and was later distributed from Europe-
or purple. In addition, objectives of breeders an botanical gardens to the tropics. The anti-
are to increase the length of time that individ- mitotic properties of some of its alkaloids were
ual flowers last and selecting cultivars of which discovered accidentally in the late 1950s dur-
the flowers open during the day instead of the ing searches for antidiabetic substances.
night. Improvements in these traits would re- Uses Catharanthus roseus is a popular gar-
sult in plants that have more flowers open at den ornamental, grown as a perennial in the
the same time. There is also potential to im- tropics and as an annual in temperate regions,
prove the scent of Canna flowers, although although it can overwinter as a pot plant in a
flower scent is not the focus of many breeders. conservatory. It is valued for its bushy habit
Prospects Garden canna will remain popu- and many large flowers carried above dark
lar as garden plant, especially in the tropics green foliage with a lighter midrib. Catharan-
and subtropics, and new cultivars are being thus roseus can also be kept as a cut flower; the
developed all the time. Many cultivars are branches will last for weeks or even months,
adapted to the temperate zone as well, but they producing new, but smaller, flowers all the
need a warm and sunny locality for optimal time.
growth and flowering. As garden canna is easi- In Africa, especially in the Indian Ocean is-
ly propagated by division of rhizomes or by lands, medicinal uses of Catharanthus roseus
seed, planting material is rarely a problem. A
point of concern, however, is the prevalence of
viruses, causing a reduced development and
leaf spots. Infected rhizomes are still offered
for sale, depriving customers of a successful
acquisition.
Major references Carey & Avent, 2011;
Cooke, 2001; Khoshoo & Guha, 1976; Khoshoo
& Mukherjee, 1970; Latham, 2007; Maas-van
der Kamer & Maas, 2008; Staples & Herbst,
2005; Tanaka, 2001.
Other references Bang et al., 2006; Blan-
chard & Runkle, 2009; Broschat, Reinert &
Donselman, 1983; Chen et al., 2009; Hatch,
2011; Konnerup, Koottatep & Brix, 2009;
Strittmatter, 2006; Winter, Kishida & Gold-
stein, 1995.
Authors G.H. Schmelzer Catharanthus roseus planted and naturalized
CATHARANTHUS 21
are manifold and are similar to those in Asia. A roseus, are sold for a total of US$ 100 million
decoction of all parts of Catharanthus roseus is per year.
well known as an oral hypoglycaemic agent. Catharanthus roseus is widely cultivated in
The decoction is also taken to treat malaria, Spain, United States and China for its phar-
dengue fever, diarrhoea, diabetes, cancer and maceutical compounds.
skin diseases. Extracts prepared from the Properties Catharanthus roseus has been
leaves have been applied as antiseptic agents found to contain as many as 130 constituents
for the healing of wounds, against haemor- with an indole or dihydroindole structure. The
rhage and skin rash and as a mouthwash to principal component is vindoline (up to 0.5%);
treat toothache. The aerial parts are also con- other compounds are serpentine, catharan-
sidered diaphoretic and diuretic, and decoc- thine, ajmalicine (raubasine), akuammine,
tions are taken to relieve indigestion, dyspep- lochnerine, lochnericine and tetrahydroalsto-
sia, dysentery, toothache and the effects of nine. Ajmalicine and serpentine are essentially
wasp stings, and as an emetic, purgative, ver- present in the roots, whereas catharanthine
mifuge and depurative. In Uganda an infusion and vindoline accumulate in aerial parts. The
of the leaves is taken to treat stomach ulcers. aerial parts contain 0.21% alkaloids.
In Botswana the leaves ground in milk are The substances of pharmacological interest are
applied to mature abscesses. In Togo a root the bisindole alkaloids, most of them contain-
decoction is taken to treat dysmenorrhoea. ing a plumeran (vindoline) or an ibogan
The aerial parts of the plant are used for the (catharanthine) moiety. Several of these alka-
extraction of the medicinal alkaloids vincris- loids have cytostatic properties, but occur in
tine and vinblastine. The alkaloids are pre- very small amounts: vincristine (leurocristine)
scribed in anticancer therapy, usually as part in up to 3 g/t of dried plant material and vin-
of complex chemotherapy protocols. The dried blastine (vincaleucoblastine) in a slightly larg-
root is an industrial source of ajmalicine, which er amount. Other active compounds are leuro-
increases the blood flow in the brain and pe- sidine (vinrosidine) and leurosine.
ripheral parts of the body. Preparations of Vincristine and vinblastine are highly toxic
ajmalicine are used to treat the psychological antimitotics, blocking mitosis in the meta-
and behavioural problems of senility, sensory phase. They both also have neurotoxic activity
problems (dizziness, tinnitus), cranial traumas (especially vincristine), affecting neurotrans-
and their neurological complications. mission. Their peripheral neurotoxic effects are
Alkaloids extracted from the aerial parts of neuralgia, myalgia, paresthesia, loss of the
Catharanthus roseus are marketed as lyophyl- tendon reflexes, depression and headache;
isates (solutions of salts) designed for intrave- their central neurotoxic effects are convulsive
nous application. Vindesine and vinorelbine, episodes and respiratory difficulties. Other side
which are semisynthetic derivatives of vinblas- effects are many and include alopecia, gastro-
tine, are marketed as a sulphate and a bitar- intestinal distress including constipation, ul-
trate, respectively. These are prescription cerations of the mouth, amenorrhoea and azoo-
drugs in Western countries. spermia. As vinblastine decreases the total
Production and international trade In the number of white blood cells in the blood, its
United States there is a large market potential dosage must be carefully controlled. The alka-
for ornamental Catharanthus roseus bedding loids are very irritating; when extravasation
plants and pot plants. Many cultivars are being accidentally occurs there is a risk of tissue ne-
developed, and there is a recent focus on culti- crosis. It is possible to limit the side effects by
vars with resistance to fungal diseases, in or- careful dosage and administration, and inten-
der to be able to grow them under more humid sively monitoring the treatment. Vindesine, a
conditions. There is a restricted number of cul- semisynthetic derivative of vinblastine, is also
tivars available in southern Europe and Japan. a potent antimitotic. Its side effects include a
The world market consumed 510 kg of vincris- transient decrease of the number of granulo-
tine and vinblastine in the early 1990s, with a cytes in the blood and effects comparable to
total value of US$ 2550 million. In 2005 the those caused by vincristine and vinblastine,
market was estimated at US$ 150300 million. although the neurological symptoms are less
In 1991 the world market consumed 35 t of obvious. Vinorelbine (noranhydrovinblastine) is
ajmalicine, with a total value of US$ 4.57.5 synthesized from anhydrovinblastine. It acts
million. Two anticancer medicines, Oncovin preferentially on mitosis and its neurological
and Velban, derived from Catharanthus toxicity is limited. However, its haematotoxic
22 AFRICAN ORNAMENTALS
activity is substantial, so its dosage must be tured cells, so attention has turned to the pro-
carefully controlled. Vincristine (Oncovin) is duction of catharanthine and vindoline, which
indicated in the treatment of acute leukaemia, can be used as precursors for the synthesis of
Hodgkins disease, small-cell lung cancer, cer- the dimers. Multiple shoot cultures induced
vical and breast cancer and various sarcomas. from seedlings produce vindoline and catharan-
The indications for vinblastine (Velban) are thine in rather higher levels. Another possible
mainly Hodgkins disease, non-Hodgkins lym- method of vindoline production is by cultures of
phoma, Kaposis sarcoma, and renal, testicular, selected hairy roots. These hairy roots can be
head and neck cancer. Vindesine (Eldisine) is produced by infecting seedlings with Agrobac-
indicated in the treatment of acute lymphatic terium rhizogenes. Some clones not only pro-
leukaemia (especially in children) and refracto- duce levels of ajmalicine, serpentine and catha-
ry lymphomas and melanomas. Vinorelbine ranthine comparable to those of cell suspension
(Navelbine) has breast cancer and bronchial cultures, but also about 3 times more vindoline
cancer as current indications. It is now part of than usually found in cell cultures. Another
several phase II clinical trials. approach is to produce the alkaloids (or their
Roots to be used in pharmacy must contain at precursors) in other organisms such as yeast
least 0.4% ajmalicine and the closely related via gene transfer.
serpentine. Ajmalicine (Hydroserpan, Lamu- Adulterations and substitutes Vincristine,
ran) is an -adrenergic blocking spasmolytic, vinblastine and related compounds prevent
which at high doses reverses the effects of mitosis in a different way from colchicine (from
adrenaline and moderates the activity of the Colchicum autumnale L.), another potent anti-
vasomotor centres, especially in the brain tumour agent. Ajmalicine and derivatives are
stem. It temporarily increases the blood flow to also found in other Apocynaceae, such as Rau-
the brain. volfia spp.
Some of the alkaloids (e.g. catharanthine, leu- Description Erect or decumbent, deciduous
rosine and vindoline) exhibit a moderate hypo- undershrub up to 1 m tall, usually with white
glycaemic action. The fresh leaf juice though latex and an unpleasant smell; roots up to 70
shows considerable hypoglycaemic activity. cm long; stems narrowly winged, green or red,
Vinblastine markedly inhibits the in-vitro re- shortly hairy to glabrous, often woody at base.
production of Trypanosoma cruzi, the organism Leaves decussately opposite, simple and entire;
causing Chagas disease. Antiviral activity has stipules 24 at each side of the leaf base; peti-
been reported in vitro for some Catharanthus ole 311 mm long, green or red; blade elliptical
alkaloids, e.g. leurocristine, perivine and vin- to obovate or narrowly obovate, 2.58.5 cm 1
cristine. Extracts of the plants have shown 4 cm, base cuneate, apex obtuse or acute with a
fungicidal activity (e.g. against Fusarium sola- mucronate tip, herbaceous to thinly leathery,
ni that causes wilt e.g. in aubergine and Scle- glossy green above and pale green below,
rotium rolfsii that causes diseases such as sparsely shortly hairy to glabrous on both
southern blight in tomato) and nematicidal sides. Inflorescence terminal, but apparently
activity (e.g. against Meloidogyne incognita lateral, 12-flowered. Flowers bisexual, 5-
and Meloidogyne javanica). Extracts of the merous, regular, almost sessile; sepals slightly
dried flowers, dried leaves or fresh roots have fused at base, (2)35 mm long, erect, green;
shown antibacterial activity against some hu- corolla tube cylindrical, 23 cm long, widening
man pathogens. near the top at the insertion of the stamens,
Callus tissue of Catharanthus roseus can be laxly shortly hairy to glabrous outside, with a
cultured on various media, and can produce a ring of hairs in the throat and another lower
variety of monomeric alkaloids. The alkaloid down the tube, greenish, lobes broadly obovate,
spectra of root and shoot cultures are similar to 12(3) cm long, apex mucronate, glabrous,
those of roots and aerial parts, respectively. In spreading, pink, rose-purple or white with a
root cultures, ajmalicine and serpentine are purple, red, pink, pale yellow or white centre;
usually the major constituents and catharan- stamens inserted just below the corolla throat,
thine in shoot cultures. Much higher yields of included, filaments very short; ovary superior,
serpentine and ajmalicine can be produced in consisting of 2 very narrowly oblong carpels,
cell cultures than in whole plants: up to 2% on style slender, 1523 mm long, with a cylindri-
dry weight basis versus 0.3% in whole plants. cal pistil head provided at base with a reflexed
The dimeric anticancer alkaloids vinblastine transparent frill and with rings of woolly hairs
and vincristine are almost undetectable in cul- at base and apex, stigma glabrous. Fruit com-
CATHARANTHUS 23
well-drained soil and full sun. encourage branching, the top of the seedling
Propagation and planting Catharanthus can be cut off, resulting in side branches that
roseus is usually propagated by seed. Seed may are always opposite. When the main stem is
remain dormant for several weeks after ma- not topped, it will usually start branching at a
turity. The optimum temperature for germina- height of 2030 cm, but only one side branch
tion is 2025C, and the germination rate is in will then develop with subsequent branching.
general over 95% in 46 days. The seeds re- Catharanthus roseus responds well to N ferti-
main viable for 35 years. If the germination lizers, but can also grow and persist on poor
rate is low, this might be due to storage under soils. As Catharanthus roseus is drought-
too dry conditions. In production greenhouses, tolerant, excessive watering will induce stress,
growers add limestone to adjust the pH to 5.5 which will make plants more vulnerable to
5.8, as well as micronutrients and a small diseases and pests.
amount of superphosphate to the germination Catharanthus roseus is also cultivated for me-
medium. Ammonium levels higher than 10 dicinal purposes, in Africa mainly in Madagas-
ppm should be avoided. After emergence of the car. In India it is mainly cultivated as a 200-
seedlings the moisture and temperature should day crop for its leaves (for the extraction of
be reduced to avoid damping-off disease. Ferti- vinblastine and vincristine) and its roots (for
lization of seedlings should start at 5075 ppm the extraction of ajmalicine). The crop needs
nitrogen, increasing to 100150 ppm nitrogen little irrigation or fertilizer. Too excessive wa-
when the first true leaves develop. A protective tering causes yellowing of the leaves. Plant
fungicide can be applied once the seedlings spacing is 3040 cm between plants.
have all emerged. Seedlings need to be kept Diseases and pests In Africa no diseases or
rather dry and can be potted after 3 weeks. pests are known, but in Malaysia Catha-
Seedling growth can be controlled and stretch- ranthus roseus has been reported to be infected
ing prevented by application of chemical with Malaysian periwinkle yellow. Symptoms
growth retardants. This is usually not neces- include excessive yellowing of foliage, bunchy
sary with adequate light intensity, except for top and stunted flowers and leaves, suggesting
fast-growing cultivars such as Apricot De- infection by a mycoplasm-like organism. Simi-
light, Raspberry Cooler, Rose Cooler, Pacifica lar diseases have been reported from China,
Punch, Pacifica Red and the Tropicana series. Taiwan, North America and Europe. Myco-
Among the slow-growing cultivars are other plasm-like organisms can be transferred to
cultivars of the Cooler series, Pacifica Blush, Catharanthus roseus by parasitic plants of the
Pacifica Lilac, Pacifica Polka Dot and Pacifi- genus Cuscuta, and perhaps also by leafhop-
ca White. Catharanthus roseus can also be pers. Plants in the United States cultivated as
propagated vegetatively by greenwood or semi- ornamentals have been reported susceptible to
ripe cuttings rooted in a closed container with a variety of fungal diseases. Phytophthora par-
bottom heat. When rooting powder is used, the asitica, and to a lesser extent Phytophthora
cuttings will start to root after 45 weeks. Put- nicotianae and Phytophthora tropicalis, cause
ting cuttings in water will also induce rooting root rot and stem blight in outdoor plantings.
but it will take longer than in the soil. Black lesions will form on stems, causing them
Catharanthus roseus has brittle roots; rough to wilt and die back. Root rot may result in
handling should be avoided. Newly-planted reduced root systems and stunted plants.
cuttings or seedlings should be watered thor- Damping-off and root rot caused by Pythium
oughly immediately after transplanting. Ferti- and Rhizoctonia may be serious in seedbeds of
lization can be started 710 days after trans- production greenhouses and plots with newly
plantation or when the roots reach the sides transplanted plants. The soil-borne fungus
and bottom of the container. Thereafter, liquid Thielaviopsis basicola occurs commonly on
fertilizer should be given at a constant level, Catharanthus roseus in production greenhous-
with equal nitrogen and potassium but low es. These diseases are controlled by good
phosphorus to prevent stretching. High ammo- drainage, drip irrigation and by avoiding ex-
nium levels will inhibit root development. cessive fertilizer. Slow-release fertilizer is best.
Magnesium sulphate can be added to prevent Alternaria leaf spot can be a problem too, as
magnesium deficiency. well as grey mould caused by Botrytis cinerea,
Management Catharanthus roseus is usual- which is commonly seen outside during cool
ly cultivated as an ornamental. When the and humid spring weather. To prevent diseas-
plants become too tall, pruning is necessary. To es, the plants need to be watered in the morn-
CATHARANTHUS 25
plaatjes
26 AFRICAN ORNAMENTALS
ing, which allows the leaves to dry during the chophyllus (Baker) Pichon, with the F1 having
day. a high seed set and good viability when Catha-
The susceptibility of Catharanthus cultivars to ranthus trichophyllus was the female parent.
Alternaria leaf spot varies. Tropicana Rose The alkaloid profiles of the two species are
and Tropicana Bright Eye have low suscepti- different, and alkaloid production seems to be
bility, Tropicana Blush, Parasol and Little higher in hybrids than in the parent species.
Blanche have medium susceptibility and Trop- In breeding, the following characteristics seem
icana Pink, Cooler Grape, Cooler Peppermint to be dominant: purple corolla colour, dark eye
and Cooler Blush have high susceptibility. of the flower and tall and open habit. Breeding
Most popular cultivars are susceptible to aims at plants of which the corollas drop, be-
Phythopthora infections, although the Nirvana cause the old corolla will otherwise stick to the
Series has low susceptibility and Little Bright young fruit and to the new bud, which cannot
Eye and Little Pinkie have medium suscepti- develop well. The cultivars of Catharanthus
bility. In greenhouses red spider mite (Tetrany- roseus have not been registered by the Interna-
chus urticae) is very common, as well as thrips tional Cultivar Registration Authority (ICRA),
and aphids. Several cultivars are susceptible to but in 1998 an International Register of
the root-knot nematode Meloidogyne incognita. Catharanthus cultivars was published and a
Slugs and snails can be a problem in humid first supplement in 2001. Seed companies usu-
conditions. ally arrange the different cultivars in Series,
Harvesting Catharanthus roseus plants are and many Series have been developed the past
harvested for medicinal purposes by uprooting 10 years. The same cultivar name has often
the whole plant after which the roots are sepa- been used for cultivars in different Series, e.g.
rated from the rest of the plant and both parts Cooler Apricot, Cora Apricot, Heatwave
are separately processed. If only the leaves are Apricot, etc.
harvested, the plants are left in the field for a Series developed so far include: Angel Tutu
ratoon crop. Harvesting leaves is done manual- Series (sterile hybrid, ruffled petals, heat and
ly or by machine. The alkaloid content of the drought tolerant), Beauty Series, Carpet Series
plants is highest at flowering. If the seeds are (dwarf habit), Cobra Series, Cooler Series
to be harvested, fruits should be allowed to dry (compact habit, overlapping petals, tolerant of
on the plant; subsequently they can be opened cool, damp weather), Cora series (as Nirvana
to collect the seeds. Series, but propagated from seed, phytophtho-
Handling after harvest Harvested seeds ra resistant, heat tolerant), Equator Series,
need to be dry before storing them in a dark, First Kiss Series (compact habit, large flowers,
cool and dry container, preferably at tempera- heavy blooming), Heatwave Series (heat and
tures below 20C. The aerial parts and the drought tolerant), Jaio Series (compact habit,
roots of Catharanthus roseus are cleaned, after vigorous, heat and drought tolerant, disease
which they are dried at low temperatures, then resistant), Little Series (dwarf habit), Mada-
packed for shipment. Potted plants for use as gascar Series, Merlot Series, Nirvana series
ornamentals are usually traded in sealed pack- (upright and cascading types, propagated vege-
ages. They are marketable in this condition for tatively, phytophthora resistant), Solar Series
18 days, and do not require watering during (heat and drought tolerant, early flowering),
this period. Mediterranean Series (trailing habit, many
Genetic resources Although Catharanthus colour combinations, not overlapping petals,
roseus probably originated from a limited area heat tolerant), Pacifica Series (large flowers,
in south-eastern Madagascar, it is now widely overlapping petals, heat and drought tolerant),
planted and naturalized in all tropical areas, Stardust Series (compact habit, many flowered,
and is certainly not endangered. However, pro- exceptionally heat and drought tolerant), Sun
tection of the wild populations in Madagascar Devil Extreme Series (extreme heat and
is desirable to ensure the conservation of the drought tolerant, disease tolerant), Sundress
genetic diversity, which might be of interest for Series, Sunshower Series, Sunsplash Series,
breeding purposes in the future. Catharanthus Sun Storm Series (compact habit, large-
roseus is listed as an invasive plant in parts of flowered, tolerant of hot or cool weather), Titan
the United States: California, Texas and Ha- Series (bush habit, vigorous, large-flowered,
waii. many flowered), Tropicana Series (bushy habit,
Breeding Catharanthus roseus has been fast-growing, early bloomer, tolerant of humid-
successfully crossed with Catharanthus tri- ity, Tutti Frutti Series (heat and drought toler-
DAIS 27
plaatjes
IMPATIENS 29
branches greyish brown to dark brown, slightly Diseases and pests Dais cotinifolia is rec-
grooved, glabrous. Leaves opposite or alter- orded to be susceptible to pink disease, caused
nate, often clustered at the ends of branches, by Corticium salmonicolor (synonym: Erythri-
simple and entire; stipules absent; petiole (2) cium salmonicolor). Symptoms include branch
46 mm long; blade broadly lanceolate to ellip- and stem die-back due to girdling cankers,
tical, (2.5)39(15) cm (1.5)25(6.5) cm, which are characterized by gum exudation,
apex acute to obtuse, more or less leathery, cracking of the bark due to death of the cambi-
glabrous, green with slightly bluish tinge um, and abundant pink mycelial growth. Un-
above, pale green beneath, pinnately veined, der glasshouse conditions, plants are suscepti-
with midrib and lateral veins yellow or pale ble to spider mite.
green beneath and slightly raised. Inflo- Genetic resources In southern Africa trees
rescence a dense terminal head up to 4 cm in are locally destructively harvested for their
diameter, 2060-flowered; peduncle up to 8 cm bark, but there are no reports that Dais cotin-
long; involucral bracts (2)4(6), ovate to al- ifolia is threatened by genetic erosion.
most orbicular, 816 mm 514 mm, outer Breeding Dais has been registered by the
ones largest, leathery, green, becoming chest- International Cultivar Registration Authority
nut brown or black, persistent. Flowers bisexu- (ICRA), and is included in the database of the
al, regular, lilac, pink or white, fragrant; calyx American Public Gardens Association. No cul-
tube cylindrical, often slightly curved, 13 cm tivars have been registered.
long, lobes 5, narrowly ovate, unequal, 48( Prospects Dais cotinifolia has potential to
10) mm 12(3) mm, hairy outside, less so become a worldwide important ornamental
inside; petals absent; stamens 10, in 2 whorls plant, because of its stunning sight when flow-
of unequal length, inserted on the calyx tube; ering, its fragrant flowers and its uncomplicat-
ovary superior, 1-celled, style slender, 23 cm ed growth. The development of cultivars with
long. Fruit a small nut, reddish brown, en- different flower colours might be a good trade
closed by the persistent calyx tube, 1-seeded. option. The bark fibre of Dais cotinifolia is
Seed small, black, with hard and brittle seed strong and can be made into rope of excellent
coat. quality. However, detailed, quantitative infor-
Other botanical information Dais compri- mation on the fibre properties is scarce, and
ses 2 species, with Dais glaucescens Decne. ex research in this area is warranted.
C.A.Mey. being endemic to Madagascar. Major references Coates Palgrave, 1983;
Growth and development Dais cotinifolia Peterson, 1978; Peterson, 2006; van Wyk &
grows fast; in South Africa trees reach their Gericke, 2000.
full height within 45 years. Flowers are pro- Other references Bhat, 1998; Huxley (Edi-
duced on the previous years growth. The flow- tor), 1992a; Hyde & Wursten, 2009; Lovett et
ers are heterostylous with 3 slightly differing al., 2006; Medina, 1959; Pienaar, 2003; Roux &
style lengths, and they are self-incompatible. Coetzee, 2005; van der Walt, 2000; van Wyk &
Dais cotinifolia is deciduous in regions with a van Wyk, 1997; Zavada & Lowrey, 1995.
pronounced winter. It has a non-invasive root- Authors M. Brink
ing system. In southern Africa flowering is in
NovemberFebruary and fruiting in January
April. IMPATIENS NIAMNIAMENSIS Gilg
Ecology Dais cotinifolia occurs at 1200
2300 m altitude in margins of evergreen forest, Protologue Bot. Jahrb. Syst. 43: 104 (1909).
in grassland, along streams and on rocky Family Balsaminaceae
mountain sides. It is fairly resistant to drought. Chromosome number 2n = 32
Young trees need to be protected from frost for Vernacular names Parrot plant, Congos
their first two years, but older plants are frost- cockatoo, red cockies beak (En). Impatience du
hardy. Dais cotinifolia prefers a rich, well- Zare, impatience bec-de-perroquet (Fr).
drained soil and long hot periods of the year, Origin and geographic distribution Impati-
but it needs regular watering. ens niamniamensis occurs from Cameroon east
Propagation and planting Dais cotinifolia to south-western Kenya and north-western
is easily propagated by seed or semi-hardwood Tanzania, and south to Angola. It is cultivated
cuttings. in Europe, the United States, Australia and
Management Dais cotinifolia can be pruned New Zealand as an ornamental pot plant.
after flowering. Uses Impatiens niamniamensis is widely
30 AFRICAN ORNAMENTALS
plaatjes
32 AFRICAN ORNAMENTALS
in vitro and accordingly were screened for in- bracteoles, all flower parts creamy white; sep-
vivo antidiabetic activity on alloxan-induced als free, lanceolate, up to 20 cm long, long-
diabetic rats. Both extracts showed a signifi- acuminate; petals free, lanceolate, up to 15 cm
cant antidiabetic activity; the ethanolic extract long, one shorter than other 2; nectaries with
was most effective in reducing the blood glu- copious nectar; stamens 6 in 2 whorls of 3, up
cose levels during acute and prolonged treat- to 16 cm long; ovary inferior, 3-celled, style
ment. long, straight, stigma with finger-like protu-
Description Medium-sized evergreen tree berances. Fruit an oblong, woody capsule 24
up to 20(30) m tall; bole unbranched or cm long, many-seeded. Seeds ovoid, c. 0.5 cm
branched at base, cylindrical, woody, ring- long, glabrous, brown, surrounded by a blue to
scarred, olive green and smooth or grey and purple, irregularly lobed aril. Seedling with
fissured, apical third clothed by leaf bases; hypogeal germination; cotyledon single, mas-
crown fan-like, with 20 or more leaves. Leaves sive, tip remaining in the seed coat as an ab-
alternate, distichously arranged, simple; peti- sorbing organ.
ole 36 m long, stout, channeled, arising at 45 Other botanical information Ravenala com-
to axis, base cup-shaped, broadly sheathing prises a single species and is closely related to
and overlapping; blade oblong, 2.54(5) m Strelitzia.
0.81.5 m, base and apex rounded, entire but In eastern Madagascar 4 types of Ravenala
often torn at the veins, glabrous, dull green, madagascariensis have been observed. The
pinnately veined with numerous lateral veins. first type, locally called malama, is rather rare
Inflorescence an axillary panicle up to 85 cm and grows in the understorey of undisturbed
long, bearing flower clusters enclosed in disti- submontane rainforest. The juvenile phase is
chously arranged, stiff, boat-shaped bracts 20 characterized by a spiral arrangement of the
25(30) cm long. Flowers bisexual, slightly leaves, a long-decurrent leaf blade and the ab-
zygomorphic, 3-merous, subtended by keeled sence of a petiole; the adult phase has a fan-
like crown. The second type, hiranirana, is
more abundant in forest gaps and disturbed
primary forest, and the juvenile phase is more
similar to the usual fan-like type, with well-
developed petioles and a relatively wide leaf
blade, and a slight and regularly alternate ar-
rangement of the leaves, persisting in the adult
phase. The third type, bemavo, is most com-
mon, growing on deforested slopes at 300600
m altitude, and forming Ravenala forests; all
phases show a fan-like crown. This type is
mostly used for construction purposes. The
fourth type, horonorona, grows in deforested
lowland sites, and is different from the other 3
in that it stays rather small and develops many
suckers. It is the type that is most commonly
cultivated.
Growth and development The leaves at
the base of a new shoot often consist only of
sheaths. Each new leaf grows up inside the
sheath of the preceding one, the blade being
tightly rolled. A fully expanded leaf is often
slightly unequal-sided, or the base of the blade
is asymmetrical. It takes up to 10 years before
first flowering, but because travellers palm is
planted for its foliage this does not distract
from its ornamental value. Regular strong
Ravenala madagascariensis 1, plant habit; 2, winds will shred the leaves and affect its or-
inflorescence; 3, flower; 4, dehisced fruit; 5, namental look.
seed. Every 23 days, a new flower opens in an inflo-
Redrawn and adapted by M.M. Spitteler rescence, the total number of open flowers be-
34 AFRICAN ORNAMENTALS
plaatjes
SPATHODEA 35
ing variable; up to 29 have been counted. The Diseases and pests In general Ravenala
flowers normally open at night. Nectar produc- madagascariensis is considered very pest and
tion is copious, with maximum production at disease resistant. It is a host of the fungus
midnight. In Madagascar, travellers palm is Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, which causes
pollinated predominantly by several lemur leaf spot disease of, for example, areca nut
species, e.g. the ruffled lemur (Varecia variega- palm (Areca catechu L.) in India. There the
ta) and the black lemur (Eulemur macaco). roots of travellers palm are also attacked by
Lemurs appear to be highly dependent on the the root-knot nematode Meloidogyne incognita.
nectar of travellers palm during specific times Genetic resources As Ravenala madagas-
of the year. In areas outside the natural range, cariensis is widely planted throughout the trop-
flowers are often visited by large bats, such as ics, there seems to be no risk of genetic erosion,
Pteropus alecto gouldii and Macroglossus although the genetic diversity of plants in cul-
lagochilus, as well as honeyeater birds (Mega- tivation is unknown. No germplasm collections
phagidae) in Australia. Two petals are linked are known.
by interlocking papillae to form a tube around Breeding There seems to be no cultivar
the anthers. When a pollinator forces into the registration for Ravenala madagascariensis,
flower to reach the nectar, the petals separate although probably different cultivars exist in
suddenly, releasing the stamens and shedding the tropics and in the United States.
pollen onto the animal. However, studies Prospects As travellers palm is a popular
showed that Ravenala madagascariensis is a ornamental tree that is widely grown, the de-
facultative self-fertilizer, although resulting velopment of cultivars with different habits
fruits often contain few seeds. It is likely that might be a good trade option. As deforestation
the seeds with their blue to purple aril are eat- in Madagascar proceeds at an alarming rate,
en and dispersed by birds. protection of the tree from uncontrolled cutting
Ecology Travellers palm prefers sheltered, may soon be necessary.
warm and humid areas near the coast, from Major references Blanc et al., 1999; Huxley
sea-level up to 450 m altitude, but it can be (Editor), 1992b; Kress et al., 1994; Rabarisoa,
found up to 1000 m. It prefers rich, loamy soils, Bianchini & Gaydou, 1981; Sakthi Priyadarsi-
but can also be grown in sandy and clayey soils ni, Vadivu & Jayshree, 2010; Staples & Herbst,
with good drainage. It does not tolerate frost 2005.
when small and needs to be covered in regions Other references Andersson, 1998; Calley,
with occasional light frost. Braithwaite & Ladd, 1993; CSIR, 1969; Dorr &
Propagation and planting Propagation is Parkinson, 1990; Kirchoff, 1991; Marais, 1983;
by seed and suckers. The fruits need to dry on Perrier de la Bthie, 1946; Piepenbring &
the plant, before harvesting the seeds. Seed is Napp-Zinn, 1992.
best sown in a moist, sandy soil at 20C. Seed- Sources of illustration Andersson, 1998;
lings of 26 months old are planted in a rich, Petersen, 1889; Perrier de la Bthie, 1946.
deep, loamy soil in full sunlight, incorporating Authors G.H. Schmelzer
organic matter at planting to prevent drying of
the roots. Suckers grow at irregular intervals,
close to the parental stem. Rooted suckers are SPATHODEA CAMPANULATA P.Beauv.
separated at the beginning of the rainy season,
and are directly planted into fertile soil for Protologue Fl. Oware 1: 47, t. 27 (1805).
quick growth. They need partial shade until Family Bignoniaceae
they are well established. Chromosome number 2n = 26, 36, 38
Management Ravenala madagascariensis Vernacular names African tulip tree, Nan-
needs to be watered on a regular base. Howev- di flame, fountain tree, flame-of-the-forest
er, excessive watering can lead to root rot. (En). Tulipier du Gabon, arbre-flamme (Fr).
Spacing between plants is 3.54.5 m. Regular Tulipeira-do-Gabo (Po). Kifabakazi (Sw).
pruning the dead leaves at the base of the Origin and geographic distribution African
crown is recommended. tulip tree is native of West, Central and west-
Ravenala madagascariensis can be planted in ern East Africa, from southern Senegal east to
containers, which will restrict growth and ena- western Kenya and Tanzania, and south to DR
ble indoor cultivation. However, the high light Congo and northern Angola. Elsewhere in trop-
requirement is usually only met under green- ical Africa it is planted as an ornamental, e.g.
house conditions. in Cape Verde, Zimbabwe and Madagascar.
36 AFRICAN ORNAMENTALS
flowers are individually short-lived but carried year-old seedlings in Cuba. African tulip tree is
in succession over long periods. According to a host of the fungus Ceratocystis fimbriata and
some people, the flowers have an unpleasant Xyleborus beetles in Cuba, and of gypsy moth
smell. They attract many ants, which makes (Lymantria dispar) and the coreid bug Lepto-
them less suitable for flower arrangements. glossus zonatus (pest of corn, soybean, sor-
Under favourable conditions, African tulip tree ghum, cotton) in Brazil. Other insect pests in-
may flower throughout the year. In areas with clude teak defoliator (Hyblaea puera) in India
a pronounced dry season (e.g. Kenya) or cold and a leafhopper (Rabela tabebuiae) in Florida.
season (e.g. southern United States, Spain) the Genetic resources The Subtropical Horti-
trees are deciduous and have a marked peak in cultural Research Unit, Miami, United States
flowering. High temperatures during flowering has a germplasm collection of 16 accessions.
interfere with pollen development and fertiliza- Seed is available commercially from many
tion. Sunbirds feed on the nectar and serve as sources. An orange to buttercup-yellow type of
pollinators. The seeds are wind-dispersed. the species, originally from Uganda, is popular
Coppice growth is reported to be excellent; in horticulture. It is multiplied vegetatively.
trees will coppice up to at least pole size. Breeding Cultivar Aurea is comparatively
Ecology African tulip tree occurs naturally small and has amber to golden yellow flowers.
in forest fringes, riverine forest, secondary In Hawaii the yellow-flowering Kona Gold is
scrub, wooded savanna and open savanna, up commonly planted. The International Cultivar
to 2000 m altitude and in areas receiving Registration Authority (ICRA) for Spathodea is
13002000 mm annual rainfall. In secondary the American Public Gardens Association, New
forest, few juvenile trees are found as the spe- York, United States.
cies is not shade tolerant. It prefers warm, Prospects African tulip tree will remain
moist conditions but on deep soils it withstands important as a park and street tree, valued for
drought. African tulip tree is frost tender when its shade and spectacular flowers. However, its
young. It does not produce seed at high tem- shallow roots may damage foundations of
peratures or low relative humidity. buildings and pavement. Its use in agriculture
Propagation and planting Propagation is and forestry and as a medicinal plant deserves
mostly by seed. Seeds do not require treatment; more attention. It also has potential for greater
they are recalcitrant and their viability is use in rehabilitating disturbed lands on ac-
short. One kg contains about 125,000 seeds. count of its pioneering ability and rapid
Cuttings can also be used for propagation, growth. The fact that African tulip tree may
larger diameter cuttings (up to 10 cm) giving behave as an invasive species that is difficult to
the best results. Saddle and side grafting are eradicate because of its wind-dispersed seeds
sometimes used to multiply desirable ornamen- and root suckers should be taken into consid-
tal types, such as those with yellow flowers, eration before planting it.
with higher success rates for side grafting (75% Major references Bekele-Tesemma, Birnie
vs. 25%). However, saddle-grafted plants have & Tengns, 1993; Bidgood, 1994; Burkill, 1985;
better growth. Root suckers can also be used Consoli et al., 1988; Gentry, 1984; Ilodigwe,
for propagation. Akah & Nworu, 2010; Liben, 1977; Makinde,
Management The wood is soft and brittle, Amusan & Adesogan, 1990; Niyonzima et al.,
so planting should only take place where fall- 1999; Salim et al., 1998.
ing branches will not cause damage. In windy Other references Amihan, 1959; Amin &
regions, trees need to be pruned regularly to Upadhyaya, 1976; Chandler, 1982; Chauhan,
restrict rapid growth and breaking of branches. Yadav & Yadav, 1987; Consoli et al., 1989;
Large trees constantly drop leaves, twigs, flow- InsideWood, undated; Irvine, 1961; Isla &
ers and seeds, and thus produce much litter. Ravelo, 1993; Magilu, Mbuyi & Ndjele, 1996;
Because of its fast growth African tulip tree Makinde, Amusan & Adesogan, 1988; Mendes
has the potential to become weedy under fa- et al., 1990; Menninger et al., 1975; Montes-
vourable conditions, and in Hawaii and other Belmont, 1990; Ngouela, Tsamo & Sondengam,
tropical islands it is considered to be very inva- 1988; Niyonzima et al., 1990; Niyonzima et al.,
sive. 1991; Pablo, 1986; Rivera & Aide, 1998; Rock-
Diseases and pests African tulip tree is wood & DeValerio, 1986; Toledo, 1977.
affected by leaf blister in Kenya and is suscep- Sources of illustration Bidgood, 1994;
tible to butt and heart rot. Fungal diseases Liben, 1977.
(Diplodia and Corynespora spp.) attack 12 Authors C.H. Bosch
SPATHODEA 39
plaatjes
40 AFRICAN ORNAMENTALS
plaatjes
42 AFRICAN ORNAMENTALS
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49
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PROTA in short
The Plant Resources of Tropical Africa (PROTA) programme was initiated in 2000
and developed into an international partnership of 11 institutions in 11 countries
during the Preparatory Phase 20002003. Since 19 February 2003, PROTA operates
as an international foundation domiciled in Wageningen, Netherlands.