TOOLS AND THEIR USE RELATED TRAINING FOR HEP ELECTRICAL AND MECHANICAL APPRENTICE Released by + DEPARTMENT OF WATER RESOURCES Division of Operations& Maintenance « Techsizel Development SactionraTOOLS AND THEIR, USES Introduction Tools and their uses are very important to a mechanic, Therefore, the subject of tools is the logicat starting point of any maintenance training “program, ‘The use of handiools and of portabls power tools is basic to any main- tensnee job classification, For the person whe dasires to become a sidlled mechanic it is essential for him to develop his abilities to properly select, use, handle, and care for the hand and power tools made available for him to use in the performance of his work. This chapter is designed to present, in a concise form, the basic operations required for the performance of a wide variety.of jobs. Few jobs consist of a single operation, but when the separate operations are properly learned, it becomes a fairly simple matter to combine separate operations so as to meet the requirements of specific jobs. For exataple, the overhaul and repair of a damaged pump requires the knowledge of several operations; measuring, threading, layout, cutting to size, and use of a variety of tools, ‘The mechanic trainee who nas learned to do the individual operations should have no trouble with the various combinations of operations necessary to perform the overall job, ‘The individual operations described in this chapter cover the following broad areas: measuring skills; layout skills such as testing, checking, and setting; woodcutting siills; grinding and ‘fling: and metal cutting skills, A description of how this chapter may be used to the best advantage by the maintenance trainee ia shown below: 2, When you are assigned a job that involves the use of any of the handtools covered, study the text material relating to the operation and study the illustrations. 2, Study the description, illustration, generel uses, and meintenance procedures for the toal or tools involved in the jeb. 3. If possible, practice each operation for a few times, before starting the job, Have an experienced mechamic check your performance after you have practiced each operation. 4, As you perform in each skill area, keep track of your newly developed proficiencies until you have successfully covered all of the normal operations involving the use of Handtools and portable power tools.5. Some of the hand or power tools described in this chapter may neither be avallable nor needed in certain job classifications, Some of the operations and skills relating fo the use of a particular tool may either be not permitied or not accepted as standard practice in certain areas because of a conflict in craft responsibilities. Always check with your supervisor in these doubiful cases. 6. The last step is cereful practice, until you have mastered the various skillg involved, ‘The end result must be that you become Capable of perform- ing the required operations, and of meeting the standards established by your supervisors. Remember--tools ere a mochouic!s best friend if treated as such, but if mistreated or misused through ignorance or carelessness, they will not oaly be short-lived, but can prove to be dangerous adversaries. MISTREAT US coo WILL YOU?COMMON HANDTOOLS ‘There are certain tools that ace common to many jobs. Regardless of what your classification {2, you should become familiar wich the coumon tools and thefr uses, Sonetime during your career ycu probably vill be called upon to do a job where one or wore of tha tools discussed here will have te ve used. ” HAMMERS A voolkic would noc be complete withoot at least one hamsr, and in most cases tvo of three hamers are included, Hammers sre destguared according to weight without tha handle, and style or shape, ‘The shape Will vary according tothe werkfor ‘which they are intended, For the purpose ofthis: Aiseussion hammers will ba hroken Into three classes; machinists hammers, cazpeater’s hammers, and mallets and slecges. MACHINISTS EAMMERS Machinist's hammers are used primarily by people who work with metalor arcund machinery. Machinist’s hammers maybe further drvidedinto two classifications HARD-FACE and SOFT FACE, ‘Tne hard-face hammer is made offorgedtoal steel, The best general purpess mechinist's hammer {s the ball-peen hammer. (See fie, 1-2-1.) The Alatend ofthehead is called the face. ‘Tnis end ts used for most ofthe hammering fobs you will have. The other end of the hammer is, called te peen. The pegn end Ls smaller in dl- ameter than the face and 1s therefore useful for striding areas that ere too small for the face to enter. The peenisatsc useful for bradding rivets. Ball-peen hammers are made in differert weignts, usually 4, 6, 8, an 12 ounces and 1, 11/2, and 2 pounds. For most work-a 11/2" Ball-peen hammer. “1 pound and a 12-ounce hammer will suifice. How. ever, a 4 or -ounce hammer will oflenbe used for light work and especially useful for gutting gaskets out of sleet gasket matecial, ‘There are variations of the peening hammer such as the croas-pcen and the straight-peenas shown in Zig. 1-1-2. The soft-taced bammers, used bypeople whe are working with metal or around macbinery, ar kammers that have a head made from brace, lead, or atightly rolled strip of rawnite. Plastic- tipped hammers, or solid plastic withalead core sor added weight, are becoming increasingly popular. Softtaced hammers, (fig. 1-1-3) should be used when thare is danger of damaging the sur— face of the work, 2s whenpounding ona machined surface. Most soft-faced hammers have heads that can be replaced as the need arises, Lead- faced hammers, for Instance, quickly become wattered and must bo replaced, but have tha advantage of striking a solid, weavy nonrebound- ing blow that is useful for such jobs as dniving shaits into or out of tight holes, If a son-paced hammer is not available, the surface tobeham- mered may be protected by covering it with a piece of soit brass, copper, or hard wood, Figure 1-1 -—Variations of the tatl-peen hammer. Simple as the hammer is, ters is a right and wrong way of using It. (ee Mg, 1-1-4.) The most common fault is holding the haniie too close to the head. This is kaown a3 choking the hammer, and reduces the force of the blow. It also makes it harder to old the head in an up- Tight position. Except for light blows, bold the handle close to tho end to increase the lever arm an¢ preduce a more effective blow. Try to Ht the object with the full face of the haramer.Figure 1-1-3.~Soft face hammers. Hold the hammer at such an angle that the face of the hammer arid the surfaceof the object baing it Wul be parallel. This distributes the force of theblow over the full face and prevents damage ta boll the surface being struck and tha face of the hammer, Figure 1-1-4.—Right and wrong way touses ‘all-peen hammer. CARPENTER’S HAMMER ‘The carpenter’s hammer is either a curved- claw or straight-claw hammer, The aco maybe either a bell-taced or plat faced. (Gee fig. 1-1-5,) The carpenter's hammer generally used a3 the curved claw, bell-faced ham mer, Tho hammers may have either a steel or wooden handle; however the stenl handle is most common, The primary use of the car- penter’s haminer ia to drive ordras (pall nails, Figure 1.1.5 —Bell-faced and plain faced claw hammers. MALLETS AND SLEDOES ‘The mallet ia a short-handled tool used to drive wooden-iandied chisels, gouges, wooden pins, oF small ataliog, It is alac used to form Gr saape sheet metal where hard-face nammers would mar or injure the finished work. For example a rubber-faced mallet is used for imocking out dents in an automobile. Its heads are nude from a voit material, usually wood, ravhide, or rubber, It is cylindrically shaped with two Gat driving facea that are reinforced ‘with iron bands, (See fig, 1-1-6,) The maltetana hammer are used in the samo way. Never use a mallet to drive nalls, screws, oF any object that may eause damage ta the face. The sledge is a steet headed, heavy duty driv- ing tool that ean be used for a number of pitr= poses. Short-nardled sledges are used to drive bolts, driftpins, and large nacls, end to strike cold chisels an small hang rock drills. Long: handled sledges are used (o break rockandcon~ crete, to drive spikes, bolts, or stakes, and to strike rock drills and chisels. Ths hoad of a sledge le ganerally made of a high carton steel and may weigh trom 6 to 16 tb. Tha shape of the head will vary according 10 the Job Jor Which the sledge fs designed.Figure 1-1-5.—Steel reinforeed wooden mallet. MADSTENANCE OF STRIRING TOOLS Hamers, sledges, or mallets should be cleaned and repaired 4f necessary before they ave stored, Hammer and siedge faces should be free from of] or other material that would cause the tool to glance off mils, apikes, or stakes, ‘The hammer heads should be dressedto remave any battered edges, Inspect the handles of strik- ing tools an¢ make sure they are secure to the head and do not bave any cracks or splintors. Never leave a wooden or rawhide mallet 1m the sun, as it will dey ovt and may cause the head to erack. A light {lm af off should be left on the zaltet to maintain a little moisture in the head, Replace Hammer Handle ‘When 2 hammer handle becontes damaged or loose in the nammerhead, it should be replaced befora the hammer.is used. A serious injury to yoursell can result from using a hammer that has a bad handle, ‘The first step fn replacing a hammer haadle ig to remove the old handle. Ifthe handle is tight in the head, aaw off the old handle nex! to the head, Gee fig. 1-1-7,)Do not saw the handile off soclose to tha head that the 2aw tooth will touch te head ville sawing, thus damaging the set of the saw. A acksaw may also be used for this PUrpOse. Place the head of the hammer In a visa and diffi a hele in the part of the bande that re- mains in the head. Remove the restatihe handle by driving it trom the head, ‘The new handle should fit snugly in the ham- merhead, Use wood rasp to shape the handle to tit the head. Check the fit of the head on the handle cceasiona!y, and make sure you do not Femove too much material from the newhandle, ‘After the correct fit hac been altained, seat the handle fiemiy in the head by hitting the end of the handle with a mallet. (See fig. 1-1-6.) saw off the projecting portion of the handle, and use a smal! wood chisel to cut slits for the wedges, if wooden wedges are used. Either wooten or metal wedges may te utllized. When the wedges have been driven in the handle, grind the end of ‘the handle even with the head. COMMON MISUSES Never strike 2 hardened size] surface with a hammer, This misuse Is a serious satery hazard. Small pieces of sharp, hardened steal aay break from the hnamner and also from the hardened steel. Besides causing damage to the work and/or the hammer, 2 serious eye injury may resul:. Do act useahammer hendie forbamping parts to assembly, and never use as a pry bar-Such abuses will Catse the handle to oplit, anda split Jundle can produce bad cuts or pinches. when a handle splits or eracks, do not tr7to ropair it by binding with string of wire. REPLACE IT. WRENCHES A wrensh ia a basic tool thatia used to exert a twisting force on bolt heads, nuts, and studs, ‘The special wrenches designedtadocertainjots are In amost cases variations of the basic wrenches that wiT he deseribed in this aection, Some ratings will naburslly have mare use for. ‘wrenenes in doing their jobs than other ratings; however, practically all ‘will have cecasion, irom time to time, to use wrenches, It is necessary, therefore, that all hands have 2 baste understanding of the des- eription and uses of wrenches. ‘The best wrenches are mude of CHROME- VANADIUM STEEL. Wrenches made of this material ere light in wolght and almost un breakable. This is an expensive materizl, how~ aver, s0 the most common wrenches are made of forged carbon steel or molybdenum steel. These Iatier materials make gaod wrenches, but they are geverally built a little heavier and bulider in Order to achieve the same degree of sirangth. ‘The size of any wrench used onbolt-neags or nute is determined by tho size of the opening between the jaws of the wrench. The upentug ofa wrench ig manufacturered slightly larger than the bolt head or nut that it Is designed to fit. Hex-nuts (sirsided) and heads are measured across opposite fats, A wrench that isdesigned to fit 2 3/€-inca mut or bolt usuallynas a ciear- ance of from § to 8 thoxsandths of an ineb. This, clearance allows the wrench to slide on ard ott the nut or bolt with a minimum of play.” If the ‘wrench is too large, the points of themut or bolt hoad will be rounded and destroyed. OPEN-END WRENCHES Solid, nonadjastabls wrenches with openings. in ore or both ends are called open-end wrenches. g Gee fig. 1-1-0.) Usually they come in sets offrom 6 to 10 wrenches ranging from 5/18 to Linch, Wrenches with small operingaare usually shorter than wrenches with large openings. This proportions the lever advantage of the wrenca te the boit or stud and helpsprevent wrenen break- age or damage to the bolt or stud, ‘Open-end wrenches may have their ;awspar- allel fo the handle or at anglas anywhere op to 90 degrees. ‘The average Is about 18 degrees. Handles are uswlly straight, but may be curved. These with curved handies are called S-wronches, Other open-end wrenches may have offset Handles, to reach aut or bolt heads that are surk below the surface. Figure 1-1-0.—Seating hammer handle in head, ‘One af the wrenches show: In gure 2-1-9 nas us that are set ona lt-segree ane tothe EigdoTae one lta Is on 40-degreeangla. The Tiree tty the yates ave plased at a1 angle De= Sense? Syrioua ven you hare to work ix clase aces , ‘There are apecial open-end wrenches, called ‘TABBRT WatsueHES, wnisn are Yer? tha and re ere Long bandied. Pheyare used to aust the” appets "ot engine valves, These tarpot BS aches ave of ght constraction ad te [ots SEER concn Sil Spread eusty,iberefore, they Sea never be used for any purbase other tha fat tor which they ave incondea. open ~ eno WHENGH 1 is DISTANCE ACROSS (A riers — \ ACO Ey RIGHT ANGLE i WRENGH Figure 1-1-9.—Open-end wrenches. ROX-END WRENCHES Box-ead wrenches nave either 8, 8, 12, cr 16 points inside the head. (See fig. 1-1-10.) The number of points determine the strength of the Read, SIX aid eight polat wrenches are used for heavy duty, 12 for medium duty and 18 for Light Guty work. The 12 point box-ead wrench is the mast common and can be used with a tmin'— mum sing of 20 degrees. There is little chance of the box-end wrench slippisg off the nut when the proper size wrench is used, Because the sidesof the “box” opening are so thia, this wrench is suitable for tarning auts which re art to get at with an open-enit wreneh. The offset bex.end wranch (fig.1-111) 1s especially useful in dhls-respect. ‘There is one disadvantage ta using box- ard wrenches, You lose time if you use itto tura the nut afl the way off the bolt once it is broken loose. You must lift the wrench completely off the nut after each pull, then place it back an in Figure 1-1-11,—Box-end and combinatin “wrenches, another position. The only time this procedure fg not necéssary 1s whea there is room to spin the wrench ina complete circle. ‘After a tight nut ia broken loose, ft canbe onsereved much mare quickly with am open-end wrench then vith a box wreneh. This 1s where 2 combination box-open end wrench comes in handy. (See fig. 11-11.) You can use the tex ‘end {oF breaking uuts loose or for smugging them dour, and the open end for faster turning. For heavy-cuty work, there are lorg-handled, single box-end wreache’s. They are made only In the larger sizes, and you can apply all the pressure you need. ‘Tha cerrect use of open-end and box-end omencies can be summed up in a few simple rules, most important of whieh is tobe aure that the wrench properly fits te nut or belt head. ‘When you have to pull hard on the wrercn, as in loosening a ightavt, make surethe wrench ig seated squarely on the Hats of the nu. PULL oa the wrench—DO NOT PUSH. Dush Ang a aeeneb 1s 2 gocd way to skin your knuckles Hf the wrench slips or the out breaks loose un- expectediy, Itt 1s inpossible topull the wcexeh, and you must posh, do it with the palm of your hand aext hole Your palm open.of ‘Orly actual practice will telt you ir you are using the righ! amourt of force ox the wrench. The best way tw tighler a aut fs to turn it until the wrench taza firm, solid feel This ill turn the aut 10 proper tightness without stripping the threads or twisting off the bolt. This feel 1s developed by experience alone, Practied until you have mastered the feel. Hammering on wrenches ia strictly taboo— with one exception, ‘There 1s 2 special type of bor wrouch, made strong and heavy oo that you ean hammer on it, The handle 1s snort and has a steal pad on which the aammer-blows are struck. This wrench Is nownag a sl or striking wrench. Never place 4 piece of pipe over the handle of a wrench to increase leverage. This practice will damage the wrench and/or the gut or belt that you are trying to tighten ar leesen. SOCKET WRENCHES Early models of sockets were square or hexagonal _scekets integral with 2 T or offset handle, Gee fig, 1-1-12,) This type wrench 1s still in use but 1s generally made inlarge sizes. Socket sets presently used contain anassortment of individvat sockets made to fit different handles, There are several types ofhandlesand exensions (fig, 1-t-13), such as the T-handle, ratchet handle, soreudriver grip handle, and 2 ‘Speed handle. These handles artsucketsean ha aasembled in combirations that will do most any job quickly ar easily. Ps Figure 1-1-12.~Socket wrenches. ‘Thonut opening ofthe seckeat fs usually Bor 12 points similar to the box-end wrenen, Six~point sockets are still used for extra heavy-duty sockets or for large sockets, The end of the socket opposite the nut opening (fig. 1-1-14)has a square hole into which the handiefits, The size Of the socket set is designated by the size of the square on the drive ond of tha bardle, A apring toadled ball on the handle snaps into a groave ir the socket to prevant {t from falling off. Sockets are usually furnished In sets for a range of different size nuts. The standard sizes are 3/8, 7/16-, 1/2- and 3/4-inch drive, The Jarger sizes bave sockets that are desizned for eavier work and larger size outs, For oxtra- heavy-duty Jos larger size sets are available. Sockets with thin walls may be obtained for use in extremely close quarters, but their Use is not recommonded for general ork. A universal joint (hg. 1-115} mequeatty comes im handy when working cn mute in places ‘where a straight wrench canact be used. The universal is placed between the handle ard the socket and enables you to work the wrench handle at an angie to the socket. This comes in ‘very handy wen working in close places. Large socket wrench sets also contain a sot of extra deep sockeis, generally 3 to 5 inches Jong, These sockets are especially useful wien removing or replacing spark plugs cr when re- moving or replacing nuts that are a long wey down on the bolt, ‘Torque Wrench An accessory for the socket wrench ia a handle for the sockets that measures the aincunt ef pall you exert on the wrench, This is calted a “torque wrench.” (See fig, 1-1-16.) ‘This ‘wrench is not supplied with the regular socket sagt but may bavpurchased separately. Yost modern-day machinery 1s assembled with closetolerances,therefore it is important that the correct amoust ofpressureteputon the ruts and belts that hold it together, Mamfse- turers! manmala generally specify the amount of torque that Is to be appliedtothe nuts. A torque ‘wrench enablog you to tell whonthoss specitica— tlens have been met, The accuracy of torque-measvring depends a let on how accurately the threads are cut, and the cleanliness of the threads, Make sure you inspect and lubricate threads in order togot the most accurate torque reading possible. + ADJUSTABLE WRENCHES A handy all-round wrencn that fs generally 3ncluded fn. avary toolbox Is the adjust=ble epen- end wrench. (Sez nig, 1-1-17,) This wrench 19 not intended to take the place of the rogular ‘solid open-end wrench for steady, bard service. One Jaw of the adjustable open-end wrench 19) Soxed; thy other jaw Is moved along a slice by a screw adjustment. The angle between te jaw opening and the handle ie 22.1/2 degrees. The wrenches are available in varying stzes ranging from 4 to 18 inches in length. ‘When using the adjustable ead wrenchte sure te pall on the side of the handle attached to the fixed jaw, Make sure the jawso{ te wrenck are adjusted to closely ft the mut, A Jose fit on the nut ‘all tend to round off the corners of the nut. Wren rolatiag round work 2n adjustable pire ‘wren (Sdllson) may deused, (Seeflg. 1-1-18.) Ta movable ja on a pipe wrench is pivoted to(Ges J, TD TF Nur sons CN im = aTCHET HED, Socket end oriva end Figure 1-1-14.-12-point sockets. permit a fripping action on the work. These tools must be used with digeretion, as the jaws are serrated and always make masks on the work. The jaws should be adjusted so the bite cu ihe work will be taken at about the center of the Jaus. A digferent type pipe wrench, usad mostly on large sizes of pipe, is the ehainpive wrench, Gee fig. 1-1-19.) This tool works inone diree- tion only, tut can be backed partly around we “6+ tT BE r cues sont Socket wrench ratehets, kanties and extensions. Work and a fresh hold taken without freeing the chain. To reverse the operation the grip Is taken on the epposite side of thebead. The head 4s double ended and can be reversed when the teeth on ane end are worn out. The strap type plve wrenca is sometimes used for tuning pipe, Tt is similar to the chain pipe wrenen but uses a Leavy web strap in place Of tho chain, ‘This aranch is used where you do not want t mar the surface of the work such as fittings. and pipe that are chromium plated. ‘The old fashioned monkey wrench (fig. 1-1- 20) te still used. It ‘works well on large square ruts, but is too bxliey for most small joos. ‘The Jaws makean angle of £0 degrees with the handia, and should zlwaye point in the direction of pull. Insame modezs at Thr monkey wronchffsjawsareséfustedby turn ing & knurled vu, la others the kandle is turned. SPANNER WRENCHES Spanner wrenches axe wrenches that aro used on special nuts. They are not generally jnclided in a teolldt but are leptin 2 centralFigure 1-1-15_—Universal jcint for sockets. Maes SE eA ae ‘Figure 1-1-19.—Chain pipe wrench. ~ . toot en, Theycanbe dram afar ase wen he 5g) GEO ae ee ane trea number ef types of a 3 spanner wrenches. The HOOK SPANNER (tis. fence nf TR) co nian snes eS sou we of notches cutinits outer surface. The hook (ug) cnet ee thee nlcbos and te tae Eats Wooden oc tanta be it Fig oi-72 SE A aor i ieearqpamée, he Bot wise seesea unsgedasctnatt wil Be vars Figure 1-1-16.—Torque wrenches ‘or use with {oun sizes of nuts wet Figure 1-1-21,—Kook Spanner wrench. Figure 1-1-1 Figure 1-1-22.—Adjustable hook spanner wrench. Figure 1-1+20.—Monkey wrench,HEX. WRENCHES (ALLEN) In some places itisdecirable to useracessod heads on setscrews and capserewa, This type Screw is used extensively on office machines ‘and im machine sueps. Recessed head scraws usually have a hex shaped (six-sided) recess. To remuve or Ughten fs type scraw requires a special wrench that will OF In the recess, This wrench fa called an Allen-type wrench. Allen-type wrenches are imaile trom hexagonal L-shaped bara of tool steel. They range in size from 1/8 to 3/4 inob. When using the Allen-type wrench make sure you une the correct size to preven: rounding or spreading the head of the serew, NONSPARKING WRENCHES Nonsparking wronches are wrenches that will not cause sparks to be geaerabed when working Qin steck nuts and bolts, They are generally le from a copper alloy (broue). Hoxever, thoy may be ade from other nonsparking ma~ terlals, Nonsparking wrenches must be usedinzreas where Hatameble msforiais ore present. These fools are used extensively wnen Working around gascline-carrying vehicles and when working around aireralt. RULES FOR WRENCHES ‘There are a few basic rules that you should eep in mind when Using Wrenches. They aze: 1, Always use a wrench that fits the nut properly. 2. Keep wrenches clean and free from of), Otherwice they may slip, resulting in possible serious injury (0 you or damage to the work. 3. Da aot ineréase the leverage of 2 wrench, ‘py placing a pipe over the bandio. Increased Joverage may damage the wrench or the work. “4. Provide some sort of kit or case for all wranehes. Return them witat the completion of each job. ‘This savas time and troubleand facil- tates selection of tevis for the wext ob. Most important, st eliminat. sthe possibility cs leaving them where they can ez ae infury or.damege to mis or equipment. 3. Determine which way 2 nut should be tuned hafore trying to loosen it. Mostnuts are turned counterclockwise for ramoval, This may seem obvious, but even expertenced men have bon observed straining af the wrench in the tightening direction when they wanted to loosen tk 6, Learn to select yaur wrenches to it the type of work you are doing. If you are not fa~ miliar with these wvenches, maice crrangaments to visit a shop that has most of them anc get acquainted. METAL CUTTING TOOLS ‘There are many tyyes of metal cutting tools used by akilled mechenics of allratings. As you become better acquainted with vour rating, you will probably discover many tools that you ase for cutticg metal that are not described in this tex, Sh this text, only the basic hand metal cutting tools Will ne considered, No matter how technical your work ix you will find that certain jobs are done better anc quicker with the basic Randiool, The hoy todo certain jobs will be explained in a later Section of this text SMFS One of the handiost tools for cutting light sheet metal is the hand stip (lin snips). The STRAIGHT HAND SNIPS shown in fig, 1-1-23 have blades tat are straight and cutting edges that are shazpened ig an 85-cezree angie. Snips Like tte can be gblained in different sizes ranging fram the small 6-inch sntp to the large TMeinch, They ace designedto cut sheet metal wp to one-sixtzenth inch in thickness, They will also work ou slightly heavier gages of soft metals ‘such as aluminum alloys. Snipa will net ‘remove any metal when a cut is made, ‘There 1s danger, though, of causing minute motal fractures alorg the edges of the metal during Whe shearlsg process. For ‘his reason it is hatter act to cut exactly on the lay~ Out line In an attempt to avoid too auch finish work. Cutting extsemely heavy gage metal always presents an opporcunity to spring the blades, Gace the blades ara spring, rand snips are useless. Use the rear partion of the blades only, when cutting neavy material, This not onty avolis tie possibility of springing the bladas ‘but alao gives you greater cutting leverage. Figure 1-1-23.—Straight hand snips. Never use tin snips to cuthardened steel wire or other similar objects, Such use will dent or nick the cutting edges of the blades. It is hard to cut circles or smal] ares with straight snips, There are snips expecially designed for circular cutting., They are calledCIRCLE SDIPS, HAWKS-BILL SNIPS, TROJAN SNIES, and AVIATION SNIPS, (Seo fig. 1-1-24.) Use these snips in the same manser as you would use straight snips and observe the same precautions. Like straight snips they come in many different sizas. ‘Many snips have small serrations (notches) on the cutting edges of the blades. This tends to HAWKS-BILL SNIPS TROJAN SNIPS AVIATION SNIPS Figure 1-1-24.—Snips for cutting ciretes and prevent them from sligping backwards when a out is being made. Althouga this feature does make the actual cutting much easier, (timars the edges of the metal slightly. Yor can remove these small cutting marks if you allow proper clearance for dressing the meta! to size. There are many other typea of hand snips used for special jobs. The snips discussed here can be used for almost any common type of work. Learn to use snips properly, ‘Thay should always be olled and adjusted to permit eaze of cutting and to produce a surtace thatisires trom purrs. H the blades bind, or if they are too far apart, the snips should be adjusted, Never use snins as screwdrivers, hammers, or ary bars. Thoy break casily, De not attempt to cub heavier materials than te snips are de- signed for. Never toss snips in atoolkox where the curing edges can come into contact with Other tools. This dulls the cutting edges and may even break the blades. When snips are not in use, bang them on hooks or lay them en an uncrowded shelf or bench, HACKSAWS Haskeaws are used te out metal thet iz too heavy for snips, Such things as bolts snd metal bar stock ean be cut with hacksaws, There aro two parts to 2 hacksaw; the frameand the blade, Common haeksaws have sither an adjustable or solid frame, Gee fig.1-1-25.} Since hacksaw blades are made in different lengths, masthack= sans are of the adjustable frame type. Adjustable frames can be made to held blades trom 4 to 16inehes long, while thoco swith solid frames take only the lengtn blade sor which they are made. This length is the dis- Figure 1-1-23,—Hacksaws, tance between the two pins that hold the blade la place, Hacksaw blades are mado of high-grade tocl. steel, hardened ard tempered, There are wo types, the all-hard and the ‘Sesible, All-hard Dlades are hardened throughout, whereas ony the teath of the flexitle blades ara hardaned. Hack- saw blades are about one-half inch wide, have irom 14 to i2 teeth per inch, and are from 6 to 16 inches long, Tae blades have a hole ai each end which hooks to a nin in the frame, All hacksaw frames whichhold the blzdes either par- allel or a( right angles tothe frame are provided with 2 wingnat or serew to peradit tghtening or removing the blade. The SET in 2 saw refers to how much the teeth are pushed out In opposite directions from the sides of the blade. ‘The four different kinds of set are ALTERNATE set, DOUBLE ALTER. NATE set, RAKER set, and WAVE set. Three of these are chown in figure 1-1-28.Goole ALTERNATE SET Sooo RaKER SET ooo ooo WAVE SET Figure 1-1-28.-"'Set" of hacksaw blade teeth. ‘Tue teoth in the alternate set are staggered, one 1g the lest and one to the right throughout the Teagth of tha blade. On the daubla-alternate set blade, two adjoining teeth are staggersd to the right, two fo the leit, and so om, On the raker set blade, every third tooth remains straight and the other two are set alternately. On the -vave (uindulated) scthlade, short sections, of teath are bent in opposite directions. ‘The main denger in using hacksaws Isinjury to your hand if the blade breaxs. The blade will break if too much pressure is applied, when the saw is twisted, or when the culing speed is to0 fast. [the werk is nct tight in the vise, it will Sometimes sip, twisting the blade enough to ‘preale it. CHBELS Chisels are teals that can bo used for chip- ping or cutting metal. They are made from a Jou! grade tool steel with a hardened outtlag edge an a beveled head, They will cut any metal, that Ig cotter than matarials of which they are made, When it is skiZifully used, the chisel can be made to do most any job that a milling ma- chine can do, although itis perhaps less accurate and requires greater time aad en2rgy. ‘Usually the Ear stock from which 2 chisel ia forged is octagonal (etght-sided), Cold chisels are elasaified according t the shape of their Poluts, and the width of the cuiting edge denstes their size, The most common shapes of cutsels are flzt (cold chisel), caps, round nose, and lamond point. (Gee fig. 1-1-2.) —— —— Figure L-1-27.—Metal-working ehisels. ‘The type chisel most commonly used is the ft cold chisel, which serves ta cut rivets, split mits, chip’ castings, and cat thin metal Sheets, Also used for special jobs is the cape chisel for cutting keyways, narrow grooves ant square corcera, the round-nose chisel for gemi- cireular grooves and lor chtpping inside corners with a fet, and the diamond-point for cutting ‘V-graoves afd sharp carners. ‘Aa with other taols there {s 2 correct tech. niqle J9r uying 4 chisel Select chisel that 1s Jarge enough for the Job. Be sure to use a ham ‘mer that matches tha chisel; that is, the larger the chisel, the heavier the hammer. A heavy chisel will absorb the blows of a light hammer and will do virtually no cutting. ‘As ageneral rule, hold the chisel in the left hand with the thumb and frst flnger about 1 nen, trom the top. Tk should be hold stzadily iat net tightly. The Linger muscles should be relaxed, 40 sf the hammor strikes the hand st will slide own the tool and lessen the effect of the law, Keep the oyes on the cutting edge of the chisol, not on the head, and swing the hammer in the same plane as the body ofthe chisel. If you have at of chiseting lo do, slide a piece of rubber hase over the chisel. This willlessan the shock lo your hand, ‘When using a chisel for chipping, always wear goggles to protect your eyos. ifoihor mon are working elase by, see Matthey are protected from flying chips by erecting 2 screan ar shield to contain ihe chips. Remember that the Une to take these precautions is before you start te Job. FILES ‘There are a number of citferent types of iiles in ccmmon use, areleachtrpe may range im length from 3 to L# Inches. They are graded according lo the degree of fineness, and accord ing fo whether they are single~ or double-cat. ‘The length of @ Mle is the distance from the ip to tha heel, aad docs act include the tang. (Seo fig. 1-128.) Taye senor — Figure 1.1-28.~File nomenelsture. In eelecting + file for 2 job, the shane of the finished work must be considered. Files come in different shapes, hoth culline and cross Sectional shape. Same of the crocs sectional Shapes are shown in fig, 11-29. i! CJTRIANGULAR files are tapered Congitudi- nally) cn all three sides. ‘They are used to ile foute interas] angles, and to clear out square corners. Special triangular Mlesareused tome sa teeth, MILL fies are tapered io both width and thieknass. One edge has no teeth and is noun, as a SAFE EDGS, Mill fies ere used for smoothing lathe work, drawfiling, and other fine, precision work, Mill files are always ainglo-cut. FLAT files are general-purpose files ant may be efther single- or double-cut, Thay are tapered In widta and thiciness, HARD files, not chown, are somewhat thicker than flat tiles. ‘They taper slightly tn thickness, put thelr edges ave parallel. 4 8 sik sie Ss Figure 1-1-29,—Crass-sectional shapes of files. SQUARE files are tapered ou all four sides and are used to enlarge rectangular-shapedholes and slets, ROUND files serve the same purpose for round openings. Small round files are often called ‘rstial?” Silos. ‘The HALF ROUND tile ts a gener2)-purzose tool, ‘The rounded side is used for curved sur- faces aod the Mat face oh flat surfaces. When you file an inside curve, use a round or half round file whose curve most cearly matches the curve of the work, Kits of amall files, often called Swieg Pat tern or Jewelers tiles, are used to Htparts of delicate mechznisms, and for filing work on jastcuments, Haradle these stall Mes carefully because they break easily. Cuts and grades of files vary greatly, As mentioned before, they have either single-cut or double-cut teath, ‘Tho difference is apparent ‘when you ccmpare the files in fig, 1-1-30, ocustz cur Figure 1+1-30.—Slagle and double-cut ites. Single-cut tes have rows of teeth eat par- allel ta each other. These testh are set at an angle of about 65 degrees with: the centerline. ‘You willuse single-cut les for sharpening toots, Einish {ling, and drawfiling, They are also the nest tools for smootning the edges of sheet metal, Files with erisserossed rows of teeth are double-cut files. The double cut forms tecth that are diamond-shaped and fast cutung. You will use couble-cut files for quick removal af metal, and for rough work, Files are also graded acrarding to the spac- tg and size of thelr teeth, or their coarseness, anil fineness. Some of thesegradesarepictured ia fg, 1-1-31. In addition to the three grades shown, you may use some DEAD SMOOTH ities, which have very fine teeth, and some ROUGH files with very coarse tecth, ‘The fineness or coarseness of filo teeth te also influenced by the length of te Me. When you nave a chance, compare the actual size cf the festh of 6inch, single-cut smooth fle and 4 12-Inch, singte-cut smooth file; you will notice the Bainch file has Bore tee por inch tan the Lz-iueh ie swcuton = Be Be 22 oe aousitoo Figure 1-1-31.—Grades of file teeth. The fat or hand Jes mostoftenusedare the double-cut second cut file for rough work and ‘the single-eut, stacolh file for finish work. For smoathing soft metals, suchasaiumiaum aud bearing metal, you may be supplied with a FLOAT-CUT file, ‘It has large curved testhand is Worked with » planing action, ‘Never use a file unless it 15 equipped with 2 tight-fitting handle, I! you use 2 file without the handle and tt bumpa someting or Jams toa sul- den stop, the tang m2y be driven tnto your hand. To put @ handle Ona file tang, dil) « hole in the handle, slightly smatier than the tang. Insert the tang end, and then tap the end of the hanéle to seat it firmly, Make sure you get the rancle on straight. ‘As you file, the teeth of the file may loz we with some of the metal filings and seraten ‘Gur work. This condition is known as PINNIDG. You ean prevent pinning vy Feeping thefile teeth clean, Rubbing chalk between the teeth tl help prevent pining, too, kur the best method is to clean the Mle frequeatiy with a FILE CARD or brash. 2 file card ifig. 1-1-32) has Ane wire bristles. Brush with a pulling motfon, holding the eard parallel to the rows of teeth, 4. Before ehanging any setup, stop the 2, 5, For all operations, adjust thoblade guard down ta the materizl. Periodical cleaning, greasing, and oiling of all moving parts are necessary. This should be done in acecrdance with the manufacturer's manual and is generally controlled by the petty officer in cherge of the shop in whlch the saw 1= installed. Each morning before starting opera~ tions with the cut-off saw, you should clean the tracks inside the arin by wiping, Occasionally, Giean thesa traeks with an approved cleaning fluid to remove grease and dict, FASTENING DEVICES Fastening devices arenct tools; however, you ‘will be using tools to inslalland remove them on any top that requires asseratly or disassembly af equipment or structures. Fastening devices, scch as bolts, mts, serews, and nails simuld be known by their names, $1223, and shapes. They are usually opt in storeroomé or tool cribs and areissued when needed. When getting a faatonor, youshould know wast you want so you can get the correct Item in a wainimaum of Hime. WOODWORKING FASTENERS Befare the development of nail_making, serew-making, and bolt-making machines, wooden members were held together by various types of interlocking Joints that werersinforced with glue and wooden dewels, A dowel iss ¢¥~ Lindrical bardwood pin which is deivac into a hole bored ta receive it, and waich serves much the same purpose 29 2 nail. Glued joints and joints fastened with wooden dowels arenow eon Bnod mainly to furniture. Metal dowels arest{ll used to fasten joints im window sasbes, door membare, 2nd the Ife. NAILS Figure 1-2-1 shows the more common types of wire nalls The, BRAD and the FINISH NATL both tave a DEEP COUNTERSINK tead that 15 designed 2 be “sel” below the surface of tho ‘Bork. The CASING nail nas a FLAT COUNTER SINE head, which may be driven flush and left ‘tat way oF whick may also be “set.” The other nails sown tre all FL.aT-HEADED tails. ‘The COMMON na is he one most widely Used in general wacd constriction, Nails with LARGE ELAT heads ave used for nailing roofing paper, plaster beard, and similar tun op soft materl- iis. DUPLEX or DOUBLE-HEADED NAILS are used cor naling temporary structures, such 2 Scaffelis, which are aventually fobe dismantled. ‘A duples: cal has an upper and lower head. The hall is driven to the lower head; itean be easily drawn by setting the claw ofahammer under the upper head. Besides nails with the usual tyne of shank (count) there ave various more or loss special~ purpose nails with axanks of otter types. Nails SS A ° € Ot ‘ Figure 1-1-1.—(A) Brad, (B) Finish rail, (C) Casing nai, (b) Box naf, (2) Common atl, (F) Spike Gargor than 604), (C) Duplex head nail. with SQUARE, TRIANGULAR, LONGITUDI- NALLY GROGVED, and SPIRALLY GROOVED shanks beve = tauch grester holding power thon wire nails of the same size. CONCRETE and MASONRY nails, dosigned to be driven into con- crete of masonry, are hurdehed-steel wails when sometimes have longitudinally grooved shanks, A spirally grooved nail is called a SCREW nail. ‘The lengths of the most commonly used natis are designated by the PENNY system, This sys- tem originated in England, where the abbrevia~ Hon for the word “penny” is the letter d (from DENARIUS, the Latin name of a Roman coin). ‘Thus, the expression “a 2d nail® means “a two- penny nail.” The thickiess of a nail mcreases: ‘with the penny size and the number cf naits per pound decreases. A box or casing nail of the same cormon nail penny size ts thinner, and it takes more of then to waigh the same amount, ~88~C\ ‘ne peniy sizes 2nd corresoonding Jeagth, tidelmessex (in gage sizes! and mumbers per pound of the most conmmonly used malls aze shown in figure 1-3-2. Nails larger than 60d (which aze called spikes), and nails swialler then 2d are designated by their lengths in inches or tn ractions of an inch. WOOD SCREWS Weod screws are designated as to types by the type of head (fig. 1-3-3} and material, a Sqlathead brass," *roundhead steel ar blua? and 50 ui, Mast wood screws are made of cither steel or brass, but there are copper aad bronze wend screws as well, To distinguisd the ordi- nary type of head from the Phillips head, the former ie ecDed a SLOTTED head. A LAG screw ts 2 heavy tron screw with aaquare bolt type head; lag screws are used reatnly for fas~ tening hearry Umbers. ‘Ihe stze of an ordinary vood screw is des- ignated by the length and the BCDY DIAMETER (untireaded part) of the screw. Body diameters are designated by GAGE NUMBERS running from 0 (ier about a 1/16-in, diameter! to24 tur about a 3/8-in. dizmeter}. Lengths range trom 1/4in. to § in, The length and gage number are printed on the Dox, a5 “1 1/4-8." This means a No. 9 gage screw 1 1/4-inohos long. Note that for a nail, @ large gage oumber means « small nafl; but for a screw, a large gage number means a. large serew. BOLTS A BOLT is dintinguished trom a wood acrew by the fact that ft dees not thread into the waod, ‘but goes throwgh and is held by a NUT threaded onto the end of the Lolt, Figure 1-3-4 shows the four common types of baits used in vsodwork- ing. STOVE Yolts are rather small, ranging In length from 2/8 in. to4tn., andin body diameter from 1/6 in. to 8/0 in. CARRIAGE AND MA- CHINE bolts ruz from 4/4 in. to 20in. long, and trom 1/16 in, to 2/4 in. in diameter. Ths car- Tage bolt has a square section below the nead, which is imbedded in the wood topr evont turning: as the nut 1s drawn up, The machine bolt haa a solare head which is held with a wrenehto pre vent it from tuning, METAL FASTENING DEVICES Meoy mechanisms aad devices are held lo- gether with matalfasteners. Only the mare com moaly used fasteners will be discussed here so you wi) know when, where and how they should be used. Ia fist point aetscrewwas used where specifications celled for a cone point an im- portent installation might fai] at 2 crucial ‘Mets! parts cen be fastened together with various fastening devices, such as rivets, bolts, screws, etz. Rivets anc riveting are explained im angthor ggction. Bolts and screws are rede im many shapes and sizes, Only the more com- mox onge vill te diseuesed in this course, ROUGH and SEMIPIMSHED bolts and screws are pressed, haramered, or punched out of cold or hot «etal. FINISHED bolts and screws are ut out of a bar of stes] by machine. Bolts and sorevs are used to fasten to- gether parts that may have to be taken apart later, A bolt is used whare you can get at both sides of the work witn Wrenenes. A screw 15, used where only one side can be retebed with a wrench ar screwdriver, STANDARDIZED At one time cach manufacturer made es many threads per ineh on bolts, serews, and muts as suited bis own particular nosds. For oxample, one made 12 threads per inck an 1/2" bolts while anothar might put on 18 or 15 threade per inch, Tuus the bolts of one manufseturer woud not fit the nuts made by another, The NA- TIONAL SCREW THREAD COMMISSION was established to study this problem and suggest a sclutien. This commfttés decided to standardize on a tWouthread series, one called tae NA~ TIONAL COARSE THREAD SERIES [NC) and the other the NATIONAL FIVE THREADSERIES ANF). Ths SOCIETY OF AUTOMOTIVE ENGI- NEERS decided to standardize on some EXTRA FINE (EF) thraads to bs usedin airplanes, auto- mobiles, and other places where extra fine threads are needed. Figure 1-2-9 shows the numbor of threads per inch for NC, NE, and EF Uvead sizes up ta | inch an diameter. Thera have been four classes of fits ea- tablished by the National Screw Thread Com mission. They are: Class J, lcose.ft; Clase Tl, free fit; Class II, medium fit; and Class 1¥, close fit. The [ose fit is for threaded parts that can ther quickly anc easily even when the iy Eruiged or dirty, and when 2 considerzile amount of shake or looseness ig not objectionsble. The free fitie for threadad parts tha: are to ‘ve put together nearly oF entirely with the fingars and a Little shake or looseness is not objectionetle, This includes most of the screw thread work. The mecium fit is for the higher grade of tarcaded parts. This the same as tree fit, excert that the it is some- what closer. ‘The cloro fit is for the Hnest threaded Work where Tery little shake orloose- nage is desirable and where 2 scrcudeiver or wrench may be necessary ig put the aris to- gether. Tha manufachire of threaded parts be- Ionsing to this cleas requires te use of fine tools and gazes. This fit should, therefore, be used cals where requirements are exacting or where special concitions reguire screws having fine, snug fit. -63-COMMON WIRE NAILS ize 3 ‘ADDFOE. ze | Le e ‘Approx. size | Lengta Gage approx: | size | Lensth Cons ie. DLL wo) Ne Lae TD-[ aint No. 5 ss ape ds ape 2 ca ape Ea ie _[ 3-1/2 3 49 57 TZ 20D | 6 3 ee Taye iar 3p Tye 34 | oie aye 16 ToS ae 3D] 2-1/2 0-174 [108 sep_| 3-172 [3 xc op 23a [toe 98 oD {2 3 FLOORING BADE FINISHING NATE soften | oe | Sy (ee fine | oe TR @ 2B. | Nar 137 mpd er | Ree tea7a | 1982 1 ies 00 a | pals i 139 et ar a | 21/2 10 9 sD ae i 300 ; Le iB 30g 90 | 23/4 10 2 | 27a a 256 sop | 3 a 60 ap | 2-172 ei7z|_ 188 pee ia-/e [tte wp | s-1/4 a Ba 2 dea | Jeo | #72 7 a ap [ 3-178 nea/eT 13 160 {at a [0 woo [4 8 3. zo a a CASING NAICS SHOOEH © SARSED BOX NAILS 7 sanToR size | Length Gage Approx: | Size | Lenett No. te Lbs to Le wT [riots Dip. | Neo -i72 [wie apa 835 sp aad [ea a Dee a7 ap [1721 a a7 aA a6 Daa cs 208 wz (te el 2 q2-a/a | 336 1D_| Ba [attr [21/4 Wee 20 imap e172 Tis ep paa/e a V/21 3p 8-378 oz Ta 72 wes 3 wots I 30-172 | 4, ep Tse BE tp ase) d0-372 Ter agp 3-72) itt FC cc | BE 20D | # 2 T ez a0 1 4-1/2 EG 30D Ai7t of #6 op_\5 | 38 Figure 1-3-2, Sizes of most commonly used nails. STN QD ® © MACHINE SCREWS Xt - The"term ‘machine sorey” is the general term used to designate smal screws used in tapped holes for the ascombly of metal parts. ST Machine serews may Ue used with nuts, but 5 seuilly thoy are serewed into holes thet have Popa gE item fe nem keer ot Figure 1-J-3,—Coramon types of wood screws. been tapped vith matching threads, Most machine screws are made of steel or brass. They may ve plated to help prevent cor~ vosicn. Speciil machine screws mads 0% alu- minum or stzinleas steol are obtainable; the latter are very strong and highly resistant ta tho oorrosive action of silt water. A great variety of diameters, lengliis, and head shapes are mennfactured. ‘The complete description of machine serews must include the LENGTH in inches, THREAD-DIAMETER, AEAD SHATE, MATERIAL from which made, 70Cy ROUND HEAD STOLE BOLT WEASURE FROW SOTTOW OF WEKD | FLAT HEED STOVE BOLT , MEASURE OVERALL y | CARRIAGE BOLT [7 HERSURE FROM BOTT OH OF FD. SQUARE HEAD NACH| NE BOLT MEASURE FROM BOTTOM OF HD, | Figure 1-2-4. Common types of bolts. Diameter Bia Eo Devimat veo. | snes | Bitten | wo | we | we ° 0800 a 1 ‘oreo “ea | 12 2 tease | ae | 2 3 ‘ogc | 48 | 56 4 ize | fo | is 5 ‘ao | to | as 5 tinge | a2 | a8 a tao | az | 30 2 i300 | | 2 2 “iso | is | 22 vi | le00 | io | a | as sie | ‘2s | in | a | ae 3/3 | farsa | ae | 24 | 32 aie | ‘ams | ta | 0 | 28 a2 ‘3000 | aa | ao | as ore | iss | taf in | 2a se | leo | on | is | at 3 | sco | 0 | as | 20 ma | temo | ’o | ie | 1 | sooo a Las | 2 Figure 1-3-5.—Sorew threads per ine, and FINISH. Here is a typical example—1/2 inch, 8-22, round head, brass, chromium plated, machine scrav.” The “B-22" means that the screw gage ig No, 8 and that it bas 02 threads par inch. Machine seraws are driven vith a serow- driver or wrench, depending on the Type af screw head. Holes for PILLISTER-WEAD machine screws must be conterbored so that the heads wil] be flush with or below the turface, ‘Most cf the time you vill use the common types of machine screws shown ix ‘igure. 1-3-5, ba you may have occasion to use some of the special types shown in figure 1-2-7. Note that some cf these speclal machine screws require specia] tools for driving and removing. These tools are usually included in a Mi that comes with the machine or installation on whieh the screws are used. Nuts are seldom used on machine screws, but squire or hoz nuts may be, When a rut is needed, make sure te threads of the bolt and nuit are the same gage and pitch. bee Gem foe Seen FLAT ROUND FRUSTER OVAL HERO HEAD «HEAD MEAG Migure 1-3-6,—Common types of machine ‘serews, Figure 1-9-1, Special machine screws. CAPSCREWS . Capsorews (fi, 1-3-8) are usually used with out mits, io hold parta of machines and engines together. They are screwed into tapped holes, and are sometimes roferved to an fap bolts, Threads may be efiher NF or NC. Capscrews perform: the same functions as machine screws, but come i larger sizes for heavier work, Sizes range up to lineh in diameter and 6 inches in Jongth. “T+