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Designer's guide to EN 1997-1 Eurocode 7: Geotechnical design - General rules

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DESIGNERS
G U I D E S T O T H E
EUROCODES
This series of guides is intended to
assist all designers in the
implementation of the Eurocodes. The
structural Eurocodes are a set of unified
international codes of practice for
designing buildings and civil
engineering structures, and are
replacing national codes in the
European Union.
The Eurocodes aim to:
Promote the functioning of the
internal market by establishing
common rules for the design and
execution of structures
Provide common technical rules for
the coordination of procedures for
the award of public contracts
Increase the efficiency of the
European construction and allied
industries and professions in
markets outside the EU by offering
modern technology and advanced
design concepts
This series provides comprehensive
guidance in the form of design aids,
indications of the most convenient
design procedures and worked
examples. The books also include
background information to help the
designer understand the reasoning
behind and the objectives of the
provisions.
ThomasTelford
Designers Guide to EN 1997-1
Designers Guide to EN 1997-1
Eurocode 7: Geotechnical design DESIGNERS
General rules G U I D E S T O T H E
R Frank, C Bauduin, R Driscoll, M Kavvadas, N Krebs Ovesen,
T Orr and B Schuppener
EUROCODES
Series editor Haig Gulvanessian
Designers Guide to EN 1997 1 Eurocode 7: Geotechnical design
General rules presents a detailed guide to the new Geotechnical Design
Eurocode. As such it gives an invaluable insight into a code that, for the
first time, provides a comprehensive design philosophy that is not only
applicable to all forms of geotechnical problems but also shares a
Designers Guide to EN 1997-1
common philosophy with the design methodology for structures of all the
commonly-encountered construction materials.
Throughout, the book describes and explains the many unique features of
Eurocode 7: Geotechnical design
ground engineering that require special design attention to ensure safety and
adequate performance. Comprehensive checklists of aspects to be considered
General rules
in design are given in Eurocode 7 and are emphasised in this book.
Frank, Bauduin, Driscoll, Kavvadas, Krebs Ovesen, Orr and Schuppener
This Designers Guide contains comprehensive worked examples covering R Frank, C Bauduin, R Driscoll, M Kavvadas, N Krebs Ovesen,
the determination of characteristic values and application of Eurocode 7
for the design of spread foundations, pile foundations, anchorages, T Orr and B Schuppener
retaining structures and the design for overall stability. It explains how
these geotechnical designs satisfy the requirements for structural design Series editor Haig Gulvanessian
using the other material Eurocodes.
This guide is essential reading for:
civil and structural engineers
code-drafting committees
clients
structural-design students
public authorities
in fact, everyone who will be affected by the Eurocodes.
Roger Frank is Professor of Geotechnical Engineering at Ecole Nationale des Ponts et Chausses, Paris. He
has been involved in many standardisation activities in France and in Europe. He was the Chairman of the CEN
Committee for Eurocode 7 from 1998 to 2004.
Christophe Bauduin is Project Manager at BESIX Design Department in Brussels and Associate Professor at
the Free University of Brussels. He was a member of the Project Team for Eurocode 7 Part 1 (General rules).
Richard Driscoll, Consultant, was the Head of Geotechnics at Building Research Establishment (BRE). He is
Chairman of the BSI Committee responsible for the British geotechnical Codes and Standards. He was a
member of the Project Team for Eurocode 7 Part 1 (General rules).
Michael Kavvadas is Associate Professor of Civil Engineering at the National Technical University of Athens.
He was a member of the Working Group for the conversion of the ENV version of Eurocode 7 Part 1 (General
rules) into a full EN standard and has translated it into Greek.
Niels Krebs Ovesen, Consultant, has been Professor in Geotechnical Engineering at the Danish Engineering
Academy and Managing Director of the GEO-Danish Geotechnical Institute. He was the Chairman of the CEN
Committee for Eurocode 7 from 1981 to 1998.
Trevor Orr is Senior Lecturer in Geotechnical Engineering at Trinity
College, Dublin. He has been involved in Eurocode 7 since the first
committee was established in 1981. He was a member of the
Working Group for the conversion of the ENV version of Eurocode
7 - Part 1 (General rules) into a full EN standard.
Bernd Schuppener is Head of the Geotechnical Department of the
German Federal Waterway Engineering and Research Institute
(BAW). He participated in the work of the Project Team for
Eurocode 7 Part 1 (General rules). In June 2004 he became the
Chairman of the CEN Committee for Eurocode 7.
 TTL Book Foreword Completed with HG comments by RD 11-3-04 Completed 23-3+6-4+23-4-2004
page 1 of 11

Foreword

1. Introduction

The foreword to EN 1997-1, Eurocode 7 Part 1: Geotechnical design General rules

consists mainly of clauses which are common to all the parts of all the Eurocodes, i.e.
clauses on:

the background to the Eurocode programme

the Eurocode programme
the status and field of application of the Eurocodes
National Standards implementing the Eurocodes
links between Eurocodes and harmonized technical specifications (ENs and
ETAs) for products

It also includes two short clauses on:

additional information specific to Eurocode 7

the National Annex for EN 1997-1.

For detailed comments on the clauses common to all the Eurocodes, the reader may
refer to the Introduction in the Designers' Guide to EN 1990 Eurocode: Basis of
structural design (Gulvanessian et al., 2002). There the reader will find information on
the implementation and use of the structural Eurocodes in the EU member states. An
essential background paper to this is the Guidance Paper L (concerning the
Construction Products Directive 89/106/EEC), Application and Use of Eurocodes by
the European Commission (2001). In addition, Appendix A of the Designers Guide to
EN 1990 gives detailed information on the Construction Products Directive, the EU
directive with which all the national building regulations in the EU member states must
comply. Where applicable, the national building regulations for a country will refer to
the Eurocodes stating that buildings complying with them and the appropriate National
Annexes will be deemed to satisfy the building regulations with regard to mechanical
resistance and stability, and safety in case of fire.

2. The Eurocode programme

The complete set of structural Eurocodes will comprise the following codes, each
generally consisting of a number of parts, which are in different stages of development:

EN 1990 Eurocode: Basis of structural design

EN 1991 Eurocode 1: Actions on structures
EN 1992 Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures
EN 1993 Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures
EN 1994 Eurocode 4: Design of composite steel and concrete structures
EN 1995 Eurocode 5: Design of timber structures

00a Foreword - Completed 23-4-04.doc+ + 23-4-2004

TTL Book Foreword page 2 of 11

EN 1996 Eurocode 6: Design of masonry structures

EN 1997 Eurocode 7: Geotechnical design
EN 1998 Eurocode 8: Design of structures for earthquake resistance
EN 1999 Eurocode 9: Design of aluminium structures.

The remaining sections of this Foreword concentrate on the development of and

background to Eurocode 7 and on its implementation in the CEN member countries. The
topics treated in the remaining sections of this Foreword are:

3. The development of Eurocode 7

4. The content of Eurocode 7
5. The three Design Approaches
6. National implementation of Eurocode 7
7. Application of informative annexes
8. Time schedule
9. Packages of EN Eurocode Parts
10. National tasks for implementation.

3. The development of Eurocode 7

Before World War II, codes of practice for structural and foundation engineering were
used only in a small number of countries. These codes were aimed at describing good
engineering practice and were not very systematic in their approach to design.

The postwar boom in the construction industry led to a widespread rethinking of the
whole civil engineering design process. In the early fifties, for example, the Institution of
Structural Engineers (1955) in the United Kingdom set up a committee to report on
safety in structural design. In their report, the committee noted that the main body of
evidence regarding the safety of a structure will usually take the form of design
calculations and they proposed that two particular ratios should dominate the design
calculations:

- the ratio of the ultimate load to the appropriate working load, known as the
ultimate load factor,
- the ratio of the limiting load to the appropriate working load, known as the
limiting load factor.

The ultimate load was identified as that causing collapse while the limiting load was
intended to define the onset of excessive elastic deflections, limits to which may be set
by aesthetic considerations or by some resulting interference with the proper use of the
structure, (similar comments regarding excessive) permanent deflections, (and the)
development of local defects, such as cracks.

In 1956 Brinch Hansen used for the first time the words limit design in a geotechnical
context. He described limit designs in the following way: in the design of any structure
two separate analyses should in principle be made: one for determining the safety
against failure and another for determining the deformations under actual working
conditions. Brinch Hansen (1956) linked the limit design concept closely to the concept
of partial factors, and he introduced these two concepts in Danish foundation engineering
practice.

During the 1960s and 1970s a number of European technical associations and
committees initiated work on model codes for various building materials. An early
example of the result of this work is the British Standard CP110, The Structural Use of
Concrete, published in 1972. The most important innovation was the explicit use of
TTL Book Foreword page 3 of 11

probability theory in the selection of the characteristic values of strength which,

according to some notional or measured distribution would be exceeded in at least 95%
of standardized tests.

In 1976 the European Commission agreed to sponsor the development of a set of

European codes of practice for building structures. The purpose of these was to
encourage free trade between member states.

In 1980, an agreement was reached between the Commission of the European

Communities (CEC) and the International Society for Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical
Engineering (ISSMGE), according to which the Society should undertake to survey
existing codes of practice for foundations within the member states and to draft a model
code which could be adopted as Eurocode 7. In 1981, the ISSMGE established an ad hoc
committee for this task. Following many consultations and international meetings, this
committee produced in 1987 a Draft Model for Eurocode 7.

The CEC sponsored further work on this draft code for three years to 1990, after which
the work on all Eurocodes was transferred for further development, issue and
maintenance to the European Committee for Standardization (CEN), with agreement that
the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) secretariat would also support the work.
CEN/Technical Committee (TC) 250 was therefore set up, and this committee has
overseen the development of Eurocodes since 1990.

A sub-committee (SC) of CEN/TC 250 is responsible for each Eurocode, that for
Eurocode 7 being CEN/TC 250/SC 7. Under the auspices of this sub-committee a project
team produced a draft of Eurocode 7 - Part 1 which was ratified as ENV 1997-1 in 1993.
After a period of 3 years an inquiry was held among the CEN member states asking for
comments on ENV 1997-1. These comments were considered by CEN/TC 250/SC 7 and
a project team subsequently produced several drafts of EN 1997-1. The final draft was
subjected in 2004 to formal vote by the member organisations of CEN the National
Standards Bodies. This vote resulted in approval of European Standard EN 1997-1:
Eurocode 7 Part 1: Geotechnical design General rules.

4. The content of Eurocode 7

Eurocode 7 Geotechnical design consists of two parts:

- Part 1, General rules devoted to the general rules of geotechnical design (or ground
engineering, where ground can be any soil or rock).
This part is the subject of this Designers Guide.
- Part 2, Ground investigation and testing concerned with the use of field
investigations and laboratory testing for geotechnical design. This part is in
preparation.

Eurocode 7 Part 1 describes the general principles and requirements for geotechnical
design, primarily in order to ensure safety (strength and stability), serviceability and
durability of supported structures, i.e. of buildings and civil engineering works, founded
on soil or rock. As such, it should be used in conjunction with Eurocode: Basis of
structural design and Eurocode 1: Actions on structures, for direct application with one
or several of the material design Eurocodes (Eurocodes 2 to 6 and Eurocode 9).
Eurocode 8 is intended to complement structural and geotechnical design in seismic
regions. In particular, Part 5 of Eurocode 8 is devoted to foundations, retaining structures
and other geotechnical aspects.

Eurocode 7 Part 1 may also serve as a reference document for other aspects of
geotechnical design such as the design of dams, tunnels and slope stabilization, or the
TTL Book Foreword page 4 of 11

design of foundations of special construction works, such as nuclear power plants and
offshore structures, which require provisions additional to those provided by the
Eurocodes.

5. The three Design Approaches

When the work on Eurocode 7 began in 1981, a decision had already been taken by
those experts involved in drafting the material Eurocodes, Eurocode 2 to Eurocode 6 for
design of concrete, steel, timber and masonry structures, to base these codes on the
Limit State Design format with the use of Partial Factors. For the experts responsible for
drafting Eurocode 7, this presented quite a new way of thinking since almost no
experience with these concepts had been gained in the majority of the countries
involved. In most countries geotechnical design had until then been almost exclusively
based on the working stress format with the use of Overall Factors of Safety (OFS).

The work in the drafting panel revealed other obstacles to change and thereby to
harmonization - in the approach to the design of geotechnical structures. Apart from an
inherent opposition in human nature to changes in behaviour and routines, the following
two features turned out to represent major obstacles to the introduction of the limit state
design format and partial factors in geotechnical design:

- the geology and thereby the ground conditions vary from one region of Europe to
another. This has led to pronounced differences in methods of field and laboratory
investigations and in calculation methods and design procedures. For example the
use of pressuremeter testing and the use of design provisions based on the results of
such tests is more or less state-of-the-art practice in central Europe, whereas in
northern Europe the design provisions are commonly based on parameters from
laboratory testing, SPT and vane test results;
- in 1981 the experts responsible for drafting the material Eurocodes had already
chosen to use the numerical value 1,35 for the partial factor on unfavorable
permanent actions including the self weight of structural materials for ultimate
limit state (ULS) design in persistent and transient situations. In geotechnical design
the self weight of the ground is often the dominant action; however it is very often
difficult to determine precisely which part of the weight of the ground contributes a
favourable action and which part contributes an unfavourable action. The references
to the single source concept in some of the subsequent Chapters and worked
examples in this guide bear witness to such difficulty.

In the ENV-version of Eurocode 7 the difficulties described above were solved by

proposing that the ultimate limit state design of a geotechnical structure should involve
two calculations, each with different sets of partial factors:

- Calculation 1, in which the partial factors on permanent actions exceed 1,0, while
the partial factors on geotechnical material (ground) strength parameters are set
equal to 1,0
- Calculation 2, in which the partial factors on geotechnical material (ground)
strengths parameters exceed 1,0, while the partial factors on permanent actions are
set equal to 1,0.

For all ULS designs in persistent and transient situations, checks were thus required in
principle for two sets of partial factors, applied in two separate calculations. The
calculations for the two combinations were termed Case B and Case C respectively in
the ENV-version of Eurocode 7 Part 1.

It may be noted that in Case B the proposal was to apply the structural partial factor of
TTL Book Foreword page 5 of 11

1,35 on unfavourable permanent actions for ULS designs in persistent and transient
situations and also on the weight of ground. Calibrations indicated that, if traditional
safety levels for geotechnical design were going to remain more or less unchanged, this
left virtually no room for partial factors greater than 1,0 on the ground
strength/resistance side. It was consequently decided to introduce also Case C with
partial factors on the ground strength/resistance side greater than 1,0, while the factors
on permanent actions are set equal to 1,0.

The national comments on the ENV version of Eurocode 7 Part 1 revealed, however,
some dissatisfaction with the way in which the Code prescribed design checks for
ultimate limit state designs in persistent and transient situations. Two major proposals
for changes were made, which were:

- to attempt to reduce the perceived number of calculations (e.g. from two cases to
one)
- to introduce partial factors also on resistances and effects of actions rather than just
on material (ground) parameters and actions.

Lengthy deliberations ensued, with the result that the EN version of Eurocode 7 Part 1
and Eurocode: Basis of structural design include, as options, the following three
different Design Approaches for ULS designs in persistent and transient situations:

- Design Approach 1, which is virtually identical to the design provisions from the
ENV version of Eurocode 7 as described above. Two calculations involving two
sets of partial factors are in principle required; where it is obvious that one of these
sets governs the design it will not be necessary to carry out calculations for the
other. Generally, DA-1 may be termed an action and material factor approach
with factors applied at the source, e.g. to actions, rather than to the effects of actions
and to shear strength parameters, rather than to resistances, though with two
exceptions: for the design of pile foundations and for the design of anchorages,
where the partial factors are applied to resistances.

- Design Approach 2, which requires a single calculation where partial factors are
applied to either actions or effects of actions and to resistances. Design Approach 2
may be termed an action (effect) and resistance factor approach. Design Approach
2, by applying partial factors to the effects of actions, does not deviate significantly
from the conventional Overall Factor of Safety (OFS) Approach.

- Design Approach 3, which requires a single calculation where partial factors are
applied to actions or effects of actions from the structure and to ground strength
parameters. Design Approach 3 may be termed an action (effect) and material factor
approach.

The need for the inclusion of the three Design Approaches was very clearly
demonstrated by the discussions in CEN/TC 250/SC 7 and among European
geotechnical engineers: quite a number of CEN member bodies were strongly in favour
of one (or sometimes two) of the three Design Approaches but would not be able to vote
positively for the introduction of Eurocode 7 Part 1 if one of the other approaches
were introduced as the only option.

It is a consequence of this situation that complete harmonization of geotechnical design

in Europe will not be achieved at present through the introduction of Eurocode 7 Part
1. However there is hope among many of the experts involved in the development of
Eurocode 7 that the experience gained during its actual use in the various countries will
result in the three Design Approaches being merged into one at some time in the future.
TTL Book Foreword page 6 of 11

6. National implementation of Eurocode 7

The determination of the levels of safety for buildings and civil engineering works and
parts thereof, including aspects of durability and economy is, and remains, within the
competence of the member states of CEN.

Possible differences in geographical, geological or climatic conditions, or in ways of life,

as well as different levels of protection that may prevail at national, regional or local
level, have been taken into account by providing choices in the EN Eurocodes for
identified values, classes or alternative methods, to be determined at the national level
(named Nationally Determined Parameters NDPs). In this way the member states are
allowed within certain limitations to choose the level of safety, including aspects of
durability and economy, applicable to works in their territories.

The concept of Nationally Determined Parameters and the National Annex is defined in
the Foreword of Eurocode: Basis of structural design and is repeated in the Foreword of
Eurocode 7 Part 1. What the National Annex may contain is stated as follows:

The National Annex may only contain information on those parameters which are left
open in the Eurocode for national choice, known as Nationally Determined Parameters,
to be used for the design of buildings and civil engineering works to be constructed in the
country concerned, i.e.:

values and/or classes where alternatives are given in the Eurocode,

values to be used where a symbol only is given in the Eurocode,
country specific data (geographical, climatic, etc.), e.g. a snow map,
the procedure to be used where alternative procedures are given in the Eurocode

It may also contain the following:

decisions on the application of informative annexes,

reference to non-contradictory complementary information to assist the user in
applying the Eurocode.

It is the responsibility of each National Standard Body (NSB) (e.g. the British Standards
Institution (BSI) in the UK and Danish Standard (DS) in Denmark) to implement
Eurocode 7 - Part 1 as a national standard. Figure 1 illustrates the way in which a
national standard implementing a Eurocode is compiled. It will comprise, without any
alternations, the full text of EN 1997-1 and its annexes as published by CEN. This text
may be preceded by a National Title Page and by a National Foreword and may be
followed by a National Annex, which is not the same as the annexes to Eurocode 7 Part
1.

It is the current objective of the European Commission that National Annexes will be
published separately from EN 1997-1.
TTL Book Foreword page 7 of 11

a
b
c
d

e
a National Title Page
b National Foreword
c EN Title Page f
d EN Text
e EN Annex(es)
f National Annex

Fig. 1. National standard implementing a Eurocode

Eurocode 7 Part 1 allows national choices in design through a number of clauses listed
in the Foreword of the Code. The choices relate mainly to the selection of one or more of
the 3 alternative Design Approaches and the selection of the numerical values of the
partial factors and other factors, referred to as Nationally Determined Parameters.

When the EN Eurocodes are used for the design of construction works, or parts thereof,
the Nationally Determined Parameters of the member state on whose territory the works
are located must be applied.

It should be noted that the concepts of boxed values and National Application
Documents introduced during the so-called ENV-period of the Eurocodes have been
abandoned for the EN Eurocodes.

It is important to note that a National Annex cannot change or modify the content of the
Eurocode 7 Part 1 text in any way other than where it indicates that national choices
may be made by means of Nationally Determined Parameters.

It should also be noted that if a member state does not choose any Nationally Determined
Parameters, the choice of the relevant values (e.g. the recommended values) or
alternative procedure, i.e. Design Approach, will be the responsibility of the designer,
taking into account the conditions of the project and the National Provisions which are
national laws, regulations and administrative provisions, imposed by all levels of public
authorities, or private bodies acting as a public undertaking.

The National Annex has an informative status. The content of a National Annex can be
the basis for a national standard, via the NSB, and/or can be referred to in a National
Regulation.
TTL Book Foreword page 8 of 11

No alternative application rules may be given in a National Annex. Alternative

application rules to those given in the relevant Eurocode can be specified in a country
through its competent authority.

As mentioned in Section 5 of this Foreword, the differences in geology and thereby in

ground conditions from one region of Europe to another has led to pronounced
differences in geotechnical investigation and calculation methods. On the basis of
lengthy discussions in CEN/TC 250/SC 7, Resolution N87 was adopted by CEN/TC 250
on 6 September 1996 stating:

- CEN/TC250 accepts the principle that EN 19971 might be devoted exclusively to

the fundamental rules of geotechnical design and be supplemented by national
standards.

This resolution provides for the following possibility at the national level: if some
guidance on a specific subject contained in Eurocode 7 Part 1 is required, then a
document can be published, separately from the National Annex, and be referenced in
the National Annex as a complementary non-conflicting reference. So, in that case, the
National Annex would contain the following reference:

- The subject of (item) is covered in reference (name of publication typically a

National Standard).

It should be noted that such complementary documentation in all respects must comply
with the principles of Eurocode 7 Part 1. It should also be noted that resolution N87
was accepted by CEN/TC250 only with some reluctance. CEN/TC250 accepted that
harmonization within geotechnical design in Europe at present is only possible to a
certain degree. In order to promote further harmonization it is therefore important that all
documents complementary to Eurocode 7 Part 1 are written by the various countries in
such a way that they create, envisage and provide the opportunity for further
harmonization. It is the firm belief of the authors of this Designers' Guide that the
European geotechnical profession, through their participation in the future work of
CEN/TC250/SC7, will play an active and positive role in this.

National Provisions (national laws, regulations, etc.) should avoid replacing any
Eurocode 7 Part 1 provisions, e.g. Application Rules, by national rules (codes,
standards, regulatory provisions, etc.) as such variation is against the recommendation of
the Guidance Paper referred to in the introduction of this Foreword. When, however,
National Provisions do provide that the designer may deviate from or not apply the EN
Eurocodes or certain provisions thereof (e.g. Application Rules), then the design will not
be called a design according to EN Eurocodes.

7. Application of informative annexes

The National Annex may give the decision of a particular country about the application
of the informative annexes of Eurocode 7 Part 1 in that country. To do that, the
National Annex must state, depending on the case, if:

- The informative annex X shall be regarded as normative at national level

- The informative annex X shall not be used at national level.

If the National Annex is silent on the use of an informative annex, it remains part of the
standard. If some guidance on the same subject as that contained in the informative
annex is required, then a document can be published, separately from the National
Annex, and be referenced in the National Annex, as a complementary non-conflicting
TTL Book Foreword page 9 of 11

reference. So, in that case, the National Annex would add:

- The subject of (item) is covered in reference (name of publication and source

typically a National Standard).

8. Time schedule

The most important steps in the introduction of Eurocode 1 - Part 1 are summarized in
the following paragraphs.

After the formal vote and ratification, the Date of Availability (DAV) of the approved
European Standard is fixed by CEN as the date, a number of months after the formal
vote, when the final edited official version of the code text is published by CEN and sent
to the National Standards Bodies.

The translation of Eurocode 7 Part 1 into the official CEN languages may be started, at
the latest, when the National Standards Bodies have received the code from CEN (DAV).
The maximum time allowed for translation is 12 months after DAV.

A National Calibration Period of two (2) years after DAV is the maximum time allowed
to agree the Nationally Determined Parameters and to prepare the National Annexes. At
the end of this period, each member state must publish its national version of Eurocode 7
Part 1, with its National Annex, which will include the Nationally Determined
Parameters. At the same time the member state should have adapted its National
Provisions (national laws, regulations, etc) so that this national version of Eurocode 7 -
Part 1 can be used in its territory. The National Annexes must be sent to the EC services
for information.

During the Coexistence Period, which starts at the end of the National Calibration
Period, Eurocode 7 Part 1 can be used, just as the former national system (codes and
provisions) can also be used. The Coexistence Period of Eurocode 7 - Part 1 and the
former national system can last, in principle, for a period of three (3) years (see Section 9
of this Foreword). At the end of the Coexistence Period, the NSBs must withdraw all
conflicting national standards, and the member states must make sure that the Eurocode
can be used without ambiguity on their territories by adapting their National Provisions
as necessary. Thus all conflicting National Standards should be withdrawn a maximum
of 5 years after the DAV of Eurocode 7 Part 1.

9. Packages of EN Eurocode Parts

Several parts of different Eurocodes are normally needed for the design of a specific
structure. Therefore the concept of Packages of EN Eurocode Parts has been introduced.

The purpose of defining packages, by grouping Parts of EN Eurocodes, is to enable a

common Date of Withdrawal (DoW) for all of the relevant parts of national standards
that are needed for a particular design. Thus conflicting national standards must be
withdrawn by the end of the Coexistence Period, when all of the EN Eurocodes of a
package will be available, together with their National Annexes. Publication of the
individual parts in a Package is likely to occur over a long period of time so that, for
many parts, the Coexistence Period will be much longer than the period given in Section
8 of this Foreword. When a national standard has a wider scope than the conflicting
Eurocode Package, only that part of the national standard whose scope is covered by the
TTL Book Foreword page 10 of 11

Package has to be withdrawn.

The list of the EN Eurocode Parts for each of the main materials, i.e. concrete, steel,
composite concrete and steel, timber, masonry and aluminium, contained in the various
Packages for the different structures, and their respective target dates, will be updated
and made available through the CEN/MC web-site (Address:
http://www.cenorm.be/sectors/construction/eurocode.htm). No parts from the EN 1991,
EN 1997 or EN 1998 series form a package in themselves; those Parts are placed in each
of the Packages, as they are independent of the material used for the super-structure.

10. National tasks for implementation

The national tasks for the implementation of Eurocode 7 Part 1 may be summarised as
follows. Each NSB must implement Eurocode 7 Part 1 as a national standard by
publication of an equivalent text (i.e. a version translated into another language) or by
endorsement of one of the 3 language versions (English, French and Germany) provided
by CEN within the timescale agreed for publication.

The National Standards Bodies should normally publish a National Annex, on behalf of
and with the agreement of the national competent authorities.

The Foreword of Eurocode 7 Part 1 indicates where in the text of the Code Nationally
Determined Parameters are left for national determination. These Nationally Determined
Parameters may be grouped as follows:

1. Parameters related to the choice of one (or more) of the three Design Approaches
(clause 2.4.7.3.4.1(1)P), values for partial, model and correlation factors introduced
in the main text and recommended values for partial and correlation factors as given
in Annex A (normative) in Eurocode 7 - Part 1. These parameters constitute by far
the majority of the choices in the Code left for National Determination.
2. Parameters related to permitted foundation movements (clause 2.4.9(3)P).
3. Parameters related to minimum requirements for geotechnical investigations,
calculation procedures and control checks (clause 2.1(8)P).
4. Parameters related to design by means of conventional and generally conservative
rules (clause 2.5(1)).

Member states are encouraged to co-operate to minimize the number of cases where the
recommendations for a value or method are not adopted for their Nationally Determined
Parameters. By choosing the same values and methods, the member states will enhance
the benefits of harmonization.

The Nationally Determined Parameters laid down in a member state should be made
clearly known to the users of the EN Eurocodes and other parties concerned, including
manufacturers. In a recent announcement, the European Commission (2003) has urged
member states to adopt the Eurocodes and, where possible, to use the values of NDPs
recommended in them.

Any reference to a Eurocode 7 Part 1 design should include the information on which
set of Nationally Determined Parameters was used, and whether or not the Nationally
Determined Parameters that were used correspond to the recommendations given in
Eurocode 7 Part 1.

On the Date of Withdrawal for Eurocode 7 Part 1, all specifications previously existing
in any national collection of standards that conflict with the new standard have to be
withdrawn and the National Provisions have to be adapted to allow the legitimate use of
Eurocode 7 Part 1.
TTL Book Foreword page 11 of 11

References

Brinch Hansen, J. (1956). Limit Design and Safety Factors in Soil Mechanics (in Danish
with a summary in English). Bulletin No 1, Danish Geotechnical Institute, Copenhagen.

European Commission (2001) Guidance Paper L (concerning the Construction Products

Directive 99/106/EEC). Application and Use of Eurocodes. EC, Brussels

European Commission (2003). Commission Recommendation of 11 December 2003.

Document No. C(2003) 4639. Official Journal of the European Union, EC, Brussels

Institution of Structural Engineers (1955). Report on Structural Safety. The Structural

Engineer, 33, May, pp 141-149. London
Preface LE 2 - Finished - 19-1-04+editing 4-2-2004 completed 22- 3- 2004 Page 1 of 2

Preface
EN 1997-1, Eurocode 7 Part 1: Geotechnical design General rules is the document of the
Eurocode suite concerned with the general geotechnical aspects of the design of structures. It
applies the principles of EN 1990, Eurocode: Basis of Structural Design by setting the rules
for determining the geotechnical actions and for checking the acceptability of the geotechnical
resistances.

Aims and objectives of this guide

The principal aim of this Designers Guide is to provide guidance on the use and
interpretation of EN 1997-1.

Eurocode 7 assumes that the user has an adequate knowledge and understanding of soil
mechanics and geotechnical engineering. The reader of this Guide is also expected to be a
geotechnical engineer or to be familiar with conventional geotechnical design.

Throughout this Guide emphasis is placed on everyday practice, avoiding complicated

geotechnical design cases, in order to ease the understanding of the new concepts and rules
for geotechnical design appearing in EN 1997-1. Comment is made only on material in EN
1997-1 that is felt to differ from traditional practice.

For many aspects, this Guide aims to be a self-sufficient document but, as the clauses of
EN 1997-1 are repeated only when strictly necessary, the reader should read the Guide in
conjunction with the Code itself.

Layout of this Guide

EN 1997-1 has a Foreword and 12 Sections together with nine Annexes; this Guide has the
same structure, with Chapters corresponding to Sections. Annex A of EN 1997-1 gives the
partial factors and their recommended values for checking ultimate limit states in persistent
and transient situations. All the other Annexes of EN 1997-1 relate to a specific Section and
are thus dealt with in the corresponding Chapter of this Guide. Each Chapter of the Guide
follows the order of its corresponding Section of EN 1997-1 unless this is found to be
unhelpful for providing guidance on the use and interpretation of EN 1997-1 (this is
particularly the case for Section 6 and, to some extent, for Section 8).

Worked examples are given for the determination of characteristic values (Chapter 2), for
spread foundations (Chapter 6), for pile foundations (Chapter 7), for anchorages (Chapter 8),

1
 Preface LE 2 - Finished - 19-1-04+editing 4-2-2004 completed 22- 3- 2004 Page 2 of 2

for retaining structures (Chapter 9) and for overall stability (Chapter 11). These examples are
intended to highlight issues relevant to the application of EN 1997-1.

All cross-references in this Guide to sections, clauses, sub-clauses, annexes, figures, tables
and expressions of EN 1997-1 are in italic type. The references to chapters, paragraphs,
appendices, figures, tables and expressions in this Guide are in normal type. New expressions
introduced in this Designers' Guide are identified by the prefix letter D.

Acknowledgments
This book would not have been possible without the successful completion of EN 1997-1,
Eurocode 7 Part 1: Geotechnical design General rules. Those involved in the process
included :

The Project Team for converting ENV 1997-1 into EN 1997-1.

The Working Group for converting ENV 1997-1 into EN 1997-1.
The Project Team for ENV 1997-1 (1994).
The chairman and members of the ad hoc group of the European Commission who in
1988 drafted the first model code for Eurocode 7.

The important contributions of the following in the development of Eurocode 7 Part 1 are
also acknowledged :
The National Geotechnical Societies of the European Community countries (who are
members of the International Society for Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering,
ISSMGE) for their support, especially in the early years of the development of Eurocode 7;
National delegations to CEN/TC 250/SC7, and their National Technical Contacts, for their
valuable and constructive comments;
Members of the Project Team for EN 1990, Eurocode : Basis of structural design for their
contributions to the clauses in EN 1997-1 relating to soil-structure interaction.

This Guide is dedicated by its authors to their colleagues mentioned above. The authors also
wish to thank :

Their wives: Vassilia Frank, Bndicte Bauduin, Liz Driscoll, Kitty Kavvadas, Hanne
Krebs Ovesen, Diane Orr and Jutta Schuppener for their support and patience.
Their employers: CERMES (ENPC-LCPC) Paris, BESIX Brussels, BRE Garston, NTUA
Athens, GEO-Danish Geotechnical Institute Lyngby, Trinity College Dublin and BAW
Karlsruhe.

R Frank
C Bauduin
R Driscoll
M Kavvadas
N Krebs Ovesen
T Orr
B Schuppener

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