PALEOCEANOGRAPHY, VOL. 18, NO. 2, 1033, doi:10.

1029/2002PA000877, 2003

La Nina-like conditions in the eastern equatorial Pacific

and a stronger Choco jet in the northern Andes
during the last glaciation
Ignacio Martnez,1 Lloyd Keigwin,2 Timothy T. Barrows,3 Yusuke Yokoyama,4
and John Southon5
Received 30 December 2002; revised 30 December 2002; accepted 11 February 2003; published 14 May 2003.

[1] Six deep sea cores from the eastern equatorial Pacific (EEP) were analyzed for planktonic foraminifera
and stable isotopes in order to reconstruct sea surface temperatures (SST) for the last 40 ka. South of the
Equatorial Front the abundance of Globorotalia inflata increased, and SST decreased by >5
C (core
ODP846B), creating a stronger SST meridional gradient and advection of the Peru Current than present for
the 1635 ka interval. A sharper SST meridional gradient forced stronger Choco jet events and a moisture
increase in western Colombia, which supplied, through the San Juan River and the south-flowing equatorial
and the Peru-Chile countercurrents, abundant hemipelagic quartz over the northern Peru basin (core TR163-
31B). The Choco jet, and its associated mesoscale convective cells, provoked an increase in snow
precipitation over the Central Cordillera of Colombia and the advance of the Murillo glacier. In synchrony
with the intensified Choco jet events, the dry island effect over the Eastern Cordillera of Colombia
intensified, and the level of Fuquene Lake dropped. INDEX TERMS: 1599 Geomagnetism and Paleomagnetism: General
or miscellaneous; 1620 Global Change: Climate dynamics (3309); 1635 Global Change: Oceans (4203); 4840 Oceanography:
Biological and Chemical: Microbiology; KEYWORDS: La Nina, eastern equatorial Pacific, Panama Basin, planktonic foraminifera,
modern analogue technique, last glacial maximum

Citation: Martnez, I., L. Keigwin, T. T. Barrows, Y. Yokoyama, and J. Southon, La Nina-like conditions in the eastern equatorial
Pacific and a stronger Choco jet in the northern Andes during the last glaciation, Paleoceanography, 18(2), 1033,
doi:10.1029/2002PA000877, 2003.

1. Introduction Equatorial Front was significantly larger than 2
C sug-

gested by CLIMAP [1981] for the LGM. In particular,
[2] A number of studies have addressed the problem of
Pisias and Mix [1997], Mix et al. [1999] and Feldberg
reconstructing accurate sea surface temperatures (SST) over
and Mix [2002, 2003] argued that their estimate of a 5
C
the equatorial ocean in an effort to reconcile marine and
cooling of SST was in good agreement with the continental
continental estimates of paleoclimate for the last glacial
records of paleoclimate. In this paper we go a step further
maximum (LGM; e.g., CLIMAP [1981]; Barrows et al.
by exploring the climatic implications of a stronger SST
[2000]). After almost three decades of research, and despite
meridional (N-S) gradient in the EEP and its possible
the use of new SST proxies (e.g., Sr/Ca in corals and
k teleconnections with other marine and continental records
alkenones U37 ), results still remain controversial when
of paleoclimate.
compared with palynological and snow line data [e.g.,
[3] The EEP is a critical region for the understanding of
Colinvaux et al., 1996; Bush et al., 2001; Porter, 2001].
global climate change because it receives a large volume of
This paper contributes to recent eastern equatorial Pacific
fresh water derived from the atmospheric transfer of mois-
(EEP) SST reconstructions based on radiolarians and plank-
ture by the trade winds from the Atlantic Ocean. This
tonic foraminifera that show that cooling south of the
transfer of 0.3 Sv (1Sverdrup = 106 m3 s 1) of fresh
water regulates the interoceanic sea surface salinity differ-
1
Departamento de Geologa, Grupo de Ciencias del Mar, Universidad ence which ultimately drives the thermohaline circulation of
EAFIT, Medelln, Colombia.
2
the ocean, i.e., the so-called conveyor belt [e.g., Broecker
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole, Massachusetts, and Denton, 1989]. Long ago, Weyl [1968] proposed that
USA.
3
Department of Nuclear Physics, Research School of Physical Sciences
this fresh water flux, across Central America, might have
and Engineering, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT, Australia. been responsible for the initiation of Ice Ages. Fresh water
4
Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Graduate School of in the EEP is also supplied by runoff and precipitation from
Science, University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan. the northern Andes through the Choco jet, a low-level
5
Earth System Science Department, University of California Irvine,
Irvine, California, USA.
atmospheric jet that transports large amounts of moisture
from the EEP into the South American continent [e.g.,
Copyright 2003 by the American Geophysical Union. Poveda and Mesa, 1997, 2000]. The relative influence of
0883-8305/03/2002PA000877$12.00 each moisture source on the EEP in the past depends on the

11 - 1
11 - 2 MARTINEZ ET AL.: LA NINA-LIKE CONDITIONS DURING THE LAST GLACIAL
mean latitudinal position of the Intertropical Convergence
Zone (ITCZ). However, there is no consensus concerning
the past mean position of the ITCZ. In different models it is
placed either in a northern [e.g., Martin et al., 1997] or a
southern position [e.g., Mora and Pratt, 2001] apparently
explaining particular paleoclimate events. In no case, how-
ever, have previous studies used multiproxy data, nor have
marine and continental records been compared.
[4] According to oceanic and continental paleoclimate
models it has been argued that mean tropical climate change
results from Milankovitch (precessional) forcing on sea-
sonal and interannual periods, which in turn affect the
frequency and intensity of El Nino-Southern Oscillation
(ENSO) phenomena at glacial/interglacial and millennial
timescales [e.g., Clement et al., 1999; Mommersteeg, 1998;
Beaufort et al., 2001; Koutavas et al., 2002; Stott et al.,
2002]. Forcing during the northern hemisphere summer,
when the ITCZ is in its northern position results in La Nina-
like conditions and, conversely, forcing during winter, when
the ITCZ is in its southern position results in El Nino
conditions [Clement et al., 1999]. Here we explore the
possible relationships between paleoclimate records on the
EEP and the northern Andes for the last 40 calendar years
(cal) ka, and demonstrate that glacier advances in the
Central Cordillera of Colombia are related to the SST
meridional gradient in the EEP through changes in the
strength of the Choco jet.
1.1. Present Climatology of the EEP and
Northwestern South America: The ITCZ
and the Choco Jet
[5] Climate in Colombia is controlled by the seasonal
position of the ITCZ and the Choco jet, whereas inter-
annual variations are driven by ENSO, NAO (the North
Atlantic Oscillation) and decadal-scale variations. Influen-
ces of ENSO/NAO phenomena are approximately equal
and opposite [e.g., Poveda and Mesa, 1996, 1997; Enfield
and Alfaro, 1999]. The Andean region of Colombia is
considered as a rain shadow or dry island surrounded Tomczak and Godfrey, 1994]. In February the stronger
by precipitation induced by the orographic uplift of
Atlantic and Pacific winds [e.g., Lopez and Howell,
1967; Mesa et al., 1997]. Even though dry conditions
are normally correlated with ENSO years, there are
exceptions such as the strong El Nino in 1982 83 that
did not produce dry conditions. These anomalies suggest
the episodic operation of nonlinearity in the precipitation
response [e.g., Poveda and Mesa, 1997]. Precipitation in
western Colombia is strongly influenced by the strength of
the southeast Trade winds which, north of the equator, are
westerly deflected to the continent, i.e., the Choco jet
which enters the continent at 5
N carrying large amounts
of moisture (Figures 1a and 1b). The strength of the Choco
jet depends on the meridional SST gradient along the EEP
(El Nino 1 + 2 regions). The Choco jet is strongest (6 to
8 ms 1 at 925 hPa) during October November when the
SST gradient, between El Nino 1 + 2 regions and the
Panama Bight, is 3 5
C at 925 1000 hPa [Poveda and
Mesa, 2000]. Advection of moisture by the Choco jet into
the continent is calculated from the product of the wind
velocity and the air mixing ratio and is of the order of
0.08 ms 1. When the Choco jet reaches western Colom-
bia it is forced to rise by topography resulting in oro-
graphic lifting and mesoscale convective cells with
accompanying intense precipitation in western Colombia,
one of the rainiest localities on Earth. The Choco jet
reaches the Central Cordillera of Colombia through the
Mistrato Pass, a depression located at 5
N and continues
its interaction with high-level winds coming from the
Atlantic thus influencing climate as far east as the western
Amazon basin [Poveda and Mesa, 2000].
[6] Along with the stronger Choco jet in the latter part of
the year, when the ITCZ is in its northerly position, the EEP
is bathed by the cold, nutrient-rich Peru Current and the
warm and less nutrient-rich Equatorial Countercurrent that
meet along the Equatorial Front [e.g., Wooster, 1969; Pak
and Zaneveld, 1974; Poveda and Mesa, 2000]. Because of
the quasiperiodic disruption of the SST meridional pattern
caused by the ENSO phenomenon in the EEP, the Choco jet
generally weakens causing dryness in the northern Andes.
Dryness in northern South America also shows a good
correlation with the cold tongue index [e.g., Dettinger
et al., 2001], whereas precipitation also shows a good
correlation with the Southern Oscillation Index (SOI),
SST at El Nino-3 and -4, and wind velocity at El Nino-4
[Poveda and Mesa, 1997].
1.2. Physical Oceanography of the EEP
[7] The EEP is located in the eastern extreme of the
equatorial current system in the Pacific Ocean (Figures 1c
and 1d). Surface currents in the region include, the Trade
winds driven, west-flowing North and South Equatorial
Currents (NEC and SEC) and their corresponding, east-
flowing countercurrents (NECC and SECC), plus the Peru
Current [e.g., Tomczak and Godfrey, 1994]. They are
strongest in the winter of their respective hemisphere, i.e.,
the NEC transports 45 Sv (Sverdrup = 106 m3 s 1) of water
with a speed of 0.3 ms 1 in February; whereas the SEC
transports 27 Sv with a speed of 0.6 ms 1 in August [e.g.,
influence of the northeast Trade winds also prevents warm
water from the NECC reaching the Panama Bight. Con-
versely, in August, the northeast Trade winds are weaker
(the southeast Trade winds stronger) and the NECC reaches
the Panama Bight. Due to the stronger influence of the
southeast Trade winds, upwelling is a common phenom-
enon in the EEP in August [e.g., Wyrtki, 1974].
[8] Upwelling caused by divergence (Ekman transport) is
an important component of the SEC and affects the upper-
most 200 m of the water column. Despite this, the vertical
speed of water is only 0.02 mh 1, a rather low speed
compared to other coastal upwelling regions, the net trans-
port of water reaches 47 Sv [e.g., Wyrtki, 1981; Tomczak
and Godfrey, 1994]. Upwelling, though weaker, is also a
common phenomenon in the Panama Bight during Febru-
ary March when it moves at a speed of 45  10 4 cms 1
[Stevenson, 1970], and fosters a primary production of 100
to 900 mgCm 2 d 1 [Bishop and Marra, 1984; Bishop et
al., 1986].
[9] The NECC originates in the western Pacific Ocean
and transports 45 Sv in the west to 10 Sv east of Galapagos
 MARTINEZ ET AL.: LA NINA-LIKE CONDITIONS DURING THE LAST GLACIAL 11 - 3

Figure 1. Climatology and physical oceanography of the EEP: (a) extreme seasonal wind speeds and
directions (m/s; Fiedler [1994]), (b) vertical distribution (hPa) of the zonal component of the wind speed
(m/s) at 80
W and between 15
N and 5
S for October [Poveda and Mesa, 2000], (c) sea surface currents
(in black), the Equatorial Undercurrent (in gray), upwelling (in shading) and core locations (asterisks),
and (d) structure of the upper water column along 170
W; westward currents (in blank) and eastward
currents (in hatching; Tomczak and Godfrey [1994]). NEC and SEC, North and South Equatorial
Currents; EUC, Equatorial Undercurrent; NECC and SECC, North and South Equatorial Counter-
currents; SSCC, North and South Subsurface Equatorial Countercurrents; EIC, Equatorial Intermediate
Current; and CC, Colombian Current. Note the location of the Choco jet at 5
N and at 850 hPa.

(Figures 1c and 1d). The NECC ends in the Costa Rica
Dome where the thermocline depth is at a minimum [e.g.,
Wyrtki, 1964]. The SECC transports 10 Sv of water at a
speed of 0.3 ms 1 [e.g., Tomczak and Godfrey, 1994]. At the
eastern extreme of the NECC (the Panama Bight), the north-
flowing Colombia Current (CC) has a speed of 1.0 ms 1 in
August and 0.6 ms 1 in February [e.g., Stevenson, 1970].
The sharp boundary between the cold (15
19
C), saline
(35) west-flowing SEC and the warm (>25
C), fresher
(<33.5) east-flowing NECC is referred to as the Equatorial
Front [e.g., Okuda et al., 1983] (Figure 1c).
[10] The east-flowing equatorial undercurrent (EUC) runs
along the equator at 200 m and 40 m water depths in the
western and EEP respectively (Figure 1d). The EUC is
400 km wide, 200 m thick, has a speed of 1.5 ms 1, and
transports 8 Sv of water of southern hemisphere origin
[e.g., Toggweiler et al., 1991; Tomczak and Godfrey, 1994].
The transport of water by the EUC increases toward the east
where it reaches 35 40 Sv [e.g., Tomczak and Godfrey,
1994]. The EUC can be identified by the deflection of
isotherms and a salinity maximum. The EUC is stronger
during January June and weaker during July December
[e.g., Tomczak and Godfrey, 1994] and feeds the south-
flowing Peru-Chile Countercurrent and the Peru Under-
current [Huyer et al., 1991]. Other subsurface currents in
the region include the Equatorial Intermediate Current (EIC)
and the North and South Subsurface Countercurrents
(NSCC and SSCC; Figure 1d), of which the NSCC seems
to play an important role in the formation of the Costa Rica
Dome [e.g., Tomczak and Godfrey, 1994].
[11] The meridional shift of the Intertropical Convergence
Zone (ITCZ), between 9
N in August and 1
S in February,
causes changes in SST and sea surface salinity (SSS).
Average SST in March reaches <28
C northwest of the
Panama Bight and <24
C in front of Ecuador [Levitus,
1994]. Conversely, in September, the 28
C isotherm moves
to the northeast, whereas a minimum of 21
C is found in the
southwest (at 2
S). The maximum SST gradient is found at
4
N in September, thus reflecting the position of the
Equatorial Front. The mixed layer reflects these SST varia-
11 - 4 MARTINEZ ET AL.: LA NINA-LIKE CONDITIONS DURING THE LAST GLACIAL
Table 1. Core Locations
Cores Latitude Longitude Depth, m
TR163-11 6.45
N 85.822
W 1950
ODP677B 1.202
N 83.737
W 3461
ODP506B 0.61
N 86.092
W 2711
TR163-38 1.337
S 81.583
W 2200
TR163-33 1.913
S 82.568
W 2230
ODP846B 3.05
S 90.49
W 3307
tions and is >10 m deep in the northwest in March and
>22 m deep at 2 4
N and south of the Equatorial Front in
September. SSS is always lower in the easternmost EEP
than farther west because of the vapor transport from the
Atlantic by the trade winds. In September, SSS from the
Panama Bight to 4
N, west of the San Juan delta, is as low
as 29 [Levitus, 1994], making those waters as fresh as the
coastal Bering Sea. By contrast, SSSs increase to 32 in
March. Even though there is a SSS increase toward the
equator, the SSS delineation of the Equatorial Front is rather
poor.
1.3. Methods
[12] Six deep sea cores (Table 1 and Figure 1c) collected
in the Panama and Peru Basins were selected for study.
These cores were recovered from between 1950 and 3461 m
water depth, thus minimizing carbonate dissolution effects,
at least for those cores collected above 2800 m, i.e., the
present sedimentary lysocline level [e.g., Thunell et al.,
1981]. The uppermost 2 m of each core were sampled at 2
to 3 cm intervals to cover the last 40 cal ka with a time
resolution of 0.5 to 1 ka. Samples were soaked in dilute
hydrogen peroxide until any reaction ceased. Samples were
wet sieved at 63 and 150 mm, and dried at 40
C. Counting
of specimens was done on a subsample of 300 specimens
obtained with the aid of an Otto microsplitter from the
>150 mm size fraction.
[13] As with an accompanying paper on recent planktonic
foraminifera [Martinez and Bedoya, 2001], we follow a
conservative approach to taxonomy of grouping a number
of species as variants of the more common species [e.g.,
Parker, 1962]. This assumption might not be completely
valid because recent DNA sequencing studies have shown
the existence of cryptic species of planktonic foraminifera
indistinguishable on morphological basis [e.g., Pawlowski,
2000; Darling et al., 2000]. Dissolution of planktonic fora-
minifera (percentage abundance) was evaluated by counting
the ratio of fragments to whole specimens in the split.
[14] Chronostratigraphic control was provided by oxygen
isotope analyses and 14C dates by accelerator mass spec-
trometer (AMS). For the former analyses, 15 specimens of
Neogloboquadrina dutertrei >200 mm were washed in
alcohol in an ultrasonic bath and individuals or groups of
individuals were analyzed at Woods Hole Oceanographic
Institution (Table 2). Eleven AMS14C analyses were con-
ducted on 80 specimens of Neogloboquadrina dutertrei
>200 mm and analyzed at Lawrence Livermore National
Laboratory and the University of Arizona (Table 3). Quoted
14
C dates in Table 3 are expressed in radiocarbon years
using the Libby half-life of 5568 years and following the
conventions of Stuiver and Polach [1977]. We calibrated
14
C results to calendar ages considering a one standard
deviation uncertainty (1 s confidence interval) for all ages
and applying a 400 years reservoir effect correction. Ages
were obtained using CALIB 4.2 [Stuiver et al., 1998] or the
polynomial of Bard et al. [1998]. When we refer to the
radiocarbon timescale, we use 14C ky BP, otherwise we
refer to the calendar timescale (ka).
[15] Therefore the age model used herein is based on the
d18O records and calendar dates when compared with
Loubere et al.s [2003] modified SPECMAP curve using
Analyseries [Paillard et al., 1996]. In this scheme, isotopic
stage boundaries 1 2 and 2 3, and the LGM are located at
13.4, 27 and 20 ka (calendar years) respectively. The
timing of the LGM between 19 and 21 ka is close to a
recent proposal by Yokoyama et al. [2000] and EPILOG
workshop [Mix et al., 2001]. For cores ODP677B and
ODP846B, the precise location of the LGM was determined
from the d18O benthonic records [Shackleton and Hall,
1989; Mix et al., 1995].
[16] Sea surface temperatures were estimated from the
planktonic foraminifera assemblage data using the modern
analog technique (MAT), in conjunction with the AUS-
MAT-F3 analog database. This database represents an
upgrade of the AUSMAT-F2 analog database [Barrows et
al., 2000]. Instead of the Prell [1985], the database is now
based upon the core top collection of Prell et al. [1999],
together with data from AUSMAT-F2, Mix et al. [1999],
and Martinez and Bedoya [2001], for a total of 2449 global
core tops. Each SST estimate was calculated as the mean of
the best 10 analogs from the global database, using the
square cord distance as the dissimilarity coefficient. The
distance to the nearest analog, the mean distance and
the standard deviation were also calculated to assess the
quality of the analogs.
2. Results
2.1. Stable Isotope Records, AMS14C Dates,
and Age Models
[17] Figure 2 displays the stable isotope records for the
six cores in the depth domain. Holocene d18O values
fluctuate between 0.5 and 0.5% except for the early
Holocene (at 30 cm) in ODP Core 677B where there is
a peak in excess of 1.0%. Last glacial maximum (LGM)
d18O varies between 1 and 2%, and the glacial-interglacial
difference (Dd18O) varies between 1.4 and 1.9%, reflect-
ing a sedimentary/bioturbation bias affecting LGM samples
in most cores. LGM points, in Figure 2, are located at d18O
maxima in accordance with nearby radiocarbon dates (and
calendar ages as reported in Table 3). Radiocarbon dates
suggest sedimentation rates as high as 5 cm/ka, except for
core TR163-11 where they are possibly <2 cm/ka. Of our
six cores, d18O in the time domain show that ODP677B and
TR163-38 have the highest temporal resolution (Figure 3a).
2.2. Planktonic Foraminifera
[18] Carbonate dissolution, as indicated by the percentage
abundance of planktonic foraminifera fragments, is high
throughout the last 40 ka thus causing a potential bias to
foraminiferal assemblage composition (Figures 2 and 3b).
In accordance with Pacific carbonate preservation records,
 MARTINEZ ET AL.: LA NINA-LIKE CONDITIONS DURING THE LAST GLACIAL
late Holocene fragmentation is high (>40%), whereas for
the late part of isotope stage 2 and the deglaciation interval,
fragmentation is minimal (10% in ODP846B), in a car-
bonate preservation spike. Even though there is no system-
atic relationship between fragmentation and d18O curves, in
some cores a general parallel tendency is observed, i.e., in
core TR163-38 (Figures 2 and 3b). The fragmentation
minimum (the carbonate preservation spike) occurs between
16 and 18 ka, close to a previous 14 14C ky BP
estimate for the western equatorial Pacific [Berger, 1977].
The uncertainty of its position is due to foraminiferal
processing, statistical counting errors, age models and the
imprecision of fragmentation as a proxy of dissolution. It is
noteworthy that fragmentation minima in our cores roughly
corresponds to d13C minima in N. dutertrei (Table 2), except
for core TR163-38. Recently, it was suggested that the d13C
minima is a synchronous event that occurs at 15.9 ka [Spero
and Lea, 2002].
[19] Similar to foraminiferal assemblages from core-tops
samples [Martinez and Bedoya, 2001], downcore assemb-
lages are dominated by Neogloboquadrina dutertrei (Figure
3b). For stage 1, the percentage abundance of N. dutertrei
varies between 40% in the north (core TR163-11) to
>70% in the south (core ODP846B), whereas for stage 2
it fluctuates between 30% and 65% with minimum
values close to deglaciation. Fragmentation is displayed
together with N. dutertrei, a dissolution-resistant species,
to explore the effects of dissolution on foraminifera count-
ing. Even though there is no systematic relationship
between the two variables, there are portions of both curves
that show a parallel tendency, e.g., in core TR163-11.
However, in some cores this is not the case for the late
Holocene, e.g., in core ODP506B. Similarly, Globigeri-
noides sacculifer and G. ruber tend to increase in abun-
dance during the late part of stage 2 and deglaciation
(Figure 4a) and seldom exceed the 10% of the fauna even
when fragmentation is minimum.
[20] Globorotalia inflata is abundant in the late part of
stage 3, most of stage 2, and almost disappears after 14 ka.
G. inflata also displays a north-south increasing abundance
trend (Figure 4b). Maximum values for G. inflata vary from
the northernmost core (TR163-11) where it is <1% to the
southernmost core (ODP846B) where it is >40% in abun-
dance for stages 2 and 3. The most conspicuous change
occurs along the Equatorial Front where this species peaks
between 20 and 25 ka (Figure 4b). Farther south, at ODP
846B, G. inflata abundance peaks appear to concentrate at
35 25 ka and 22 16 ka (Figure 4b). This is clearest
when comparing cores ODP677B and ODP846B.
[21] As expected, the percentage abundance of Globiger-
ina bulloides is high for the glacial interval, although it only
surpasses 20% in core TR163-33 (Figure 4b). G. bulloides
increases immediately after the LGM only to steadily drop
during the early Holocene. This decreasing trend is most
pronounced in cores ODP506B, TR163-38 and ODP846B
(Figure 4b).
2.3. Sea Surface Temperature Estimates
[22] The SST estimates in all of the cores except ODP846
and RC11-238 have mean squared chord distances of <0.2.
11 - 5
This indicates that the samples have good analogs in the
AUSMAT-F3 database. For the other two cores, all SST
estimates have distances <0.3 indicating that although the
number of good analogs are fewer, the samples are still not
in a no-analog situation. The relatively low squared chord
distances, and a similar LGM SST difference to that derived
by Mix et al. [1999] indicates that a comprehensive modern
core-top database confers a similar advantage to the down-
core method of Mix et al. [1999], reducing the no-analog
problems and providing more precise SST estimates. High
distances for RC11-238 can be partly explained by the
taxonomy chosen by Faul et al. [2000]. The precision of
mean SST estimates for modern core tops using the AUS-
MAT-F3 database is 1.0
C.
[23] The SST estimates closely reflect the percentage
abundance of G. inflata (compare Figures 4b and 5a).
Cooling in the cores north of the Equatorial Front does
not exceed 1
C for the LGM, compared to cores south of
the Front that show a 4 to 5
C decrease. Despite the change
in SST in the northernmost cores being within the error of
the technique, there is a small deflection of values, partic-
ularly for cores ODP677B and ODP506B for the LGM. The
lack of significant Holocene SST variation for most of the
cores is conspicuous.
[24] In Figure 5a, we have included our SST estimates for
core RC11-238 (1.8
N, 94
W) using Faul et al.s [2000]
data, and the MAT SST curve for core ODP847 (0.2
N,
95.32
W; McKenna et al. [1995]). Despite the timing
differences in the SST curves for cores south of the
Equatorial Front, there is a general pattern that suggests
cooling was greatest in the 35 to 16 ka time interval;
particularly during the 24 ka and 21 to 16 ka intervals
especially in core ODP846B. Differences between the cores
can be attributed to age model uncertainties rather than
regional variations. This suggestion seems to be supported
by the preservation spike location, probably a synchronous
event (Figure 3b) and a tie point, that properly aligned at
15.9 ka (in accord to ODP846B chronology and Faul et
al. [2000] and Spero and Lea [2002]) will make the last
cooling interval to appear more synchronous, i.e., ending at
16 ka. Despite this, there are significant differences
k
between our MAT SST and the U37 SST reconstructions
for core ODP846 [Emeis et al., 1995], where there is only a
small SST decrease for stage 2 (Figure 5a).
[25] Cooling during the 35 to 24 ka and 21 to 16
ka intervals is 4 and 4.5
C and 5
C lower than at
present, respectively. Seasonality is also higher south of the
Equatorial Front where is greatest during the 35 to 16 ka
time interval, varying between 5.2
to 10
C (Figure 5b).
SST data as displayed in Figure 5 reveals a meridional SST
gradient that was stronger than today during the 35 to
16 ka time interval. The paleoclimatic implications of a
stronger SST paleogradient will be discussed below.
3. Discussion
3.1. Microfaunal Distribution:
Advection or Upwelling?
[26] At present, G. bulloides, G. cultrata, and N.
dutertrei are associated with the equatorial eutrophic
 11 - 6

Table 2. Age Models and Isotope Analyses for EEP Coresa

TR163-38 ODP846B ODP506B ODP677B TR163-33 TR163-11
Depth, Age, Depth, Age, Depth, Age, Depth, Age, Depth, Age, Depth, Age,
cm ka d18O d13C Sample cm ka d18O d13C Sample cm ka d18O d13C Sample cm ka d18O d13C cm ka d18O d13C cm ka d18O d13C
0.5 0.00 0.50 1.76 1 1:5 6 5.5 0.00 0.65 1.79 1 1:0 6 0 0.00 0.16 1.72 1 1:0 1 0 0.00 0.36 1.33 0.5 0.00 0.23 1.65 0.5 0.00 0.15 1.56
5.5 1.20 0.21 1.28 1 1:14 15 14.5 4.08 0.32 1.94 1 1:10 13 11 2.00 0.45 1.99 1 1:3 5 3 0.77 0.04 1.51 2.5 0.37 0.81 1.58 2.5 1.23 0.32 1.55
9.5 2.16 0.36 1.58 1 1:18 19 18.5 5.89 0.20 1.96 1 1:16 18 17 3.08 0.30 2.04 1 1:7 8 7 1.80 0.47 1.97 4.5 0.74 0.12 1.65 4.5 2.45 0.37 1.68
11.5 2.64 0.63 1.52 1 1:26 27 26.5 9.52 0.15 1.66 1 1:22 25 23 4.17 0.13 1.94 1 1:10 12 11 2.82 0.16 1.82 6.5 1.12 0.05 1.75 6.5 3.07 0.3 1.66
15.5 3.60 0.38 1.33 1 1:30 31 30.5 10.27 0.57 1.74 1 1:29 30 29 5.26 0.02 1.83 1 1:14 15 14 3.59 0.07 1.75 10.5 1.86 0.13 1.76 10.5 4.30 0.18 1.65
17.5 4.08 0.28 1.76 1 1:37 38 37.5 11.59 0.27 1.83 1 1:35 37 36 6.53 0.43 2.12 1 1:16 18 17 4.36 0.27 1.38 12.5 2.23 0.33 1.61 12.5 4.91 0.14 1.58
19.5 4.56 0.56 1.12 1 1:45 46 45.5 13.09 1.26 1.60 1 1:40 43 41 7.44 0.49 1.97 1 1:20 21 20 5.13 0.09 1.56 14.5 2.60 0.10 1.95 14.5 7.44 0.51 1.89
25.5 6.00 0.09 1.62 1 1:49 50 49.5 13.84 0.25 1.67 1 1:46 48 47 8.95 0.08 1.89 1 1:22 24 23 5.90 0.19 1.85 16.5 2.98 0.09 1.69 16.5 8.85 0.01 1.54
27.5 6.48 0.03 1.64 1 1:56 57 56.5 15.16 0.50 1.80 1 1:53 54 53 10.47 0.29 1.58 1 1:26 27 26 6.67 0.66 2.05 20.5 3.72 0.40 1.66 20.5 11.67 0.32 1.53
29.5 6.96 0.61 1.47 1 1:60 61 60.5 15.72 0.93 1.65 1 1:58 60 59 11.98 0.08 1.74 1 1:28 30 29 7.44 1.23 2.3 22.5 4.09 0.07 1.72 22.5 13.08 0.31 1.7
31.5 7.44 0.20 1.68 1 1:66 67 66.5 16.56 0.98 1.43 1 1:64 66 65 13.18 1.12 1.41 1 1:32 33 32 7.94 0.62 1.44 24.5 4.46 0.45 1.69 26.5 15.00 0.58 1.74
35.5 7.97 0.20 1.47 1 1:70 71 70.5 17.12 0.94 1.95 1 1:69 72 70 14.18 0.99 1.37 1 1:34 36 35 8.45 0.01 1.7 26.5 4.84 0.05 1.78 30.5 16.91 0.59 1.82
37.5 8.24 0.35 1.47 1 1:77 78 77.5 18.11 1.10 1.55 1 1:76 79 77 15.58 0.93 1.75 1 1:38 39 38 8.95 0.81 1.19 30.5 5.58 0.18 1.56 32.5 17.87 0.93 1.75
39.5 8.51 0.80 1.28 1 1:81 82 81.5 18.67 1.12 1.43 1 1:83 85 84 16.99 0.07 1.55 1 1:40 42 41 9.46 0.44 1.49 32.5 5.95 0.27 1.65 34.5 18.83 0.61 1.77
41.5 8.78 0.96 0.87 1 1:85 86 85.5 19.23 1.01 1.72 1 1:89 92 90 18.19 1.22 1.57 1 1:44 45 44 9.96 1.03 1.19 34.5 6.32 0.29 1.62 36.5 19.79 0.98 1.83
45.5 9.31 0.22 1.52 1 1:89 90 89.5 19.79 1.14 1.95 1 1:97 99 98 19.03 1.06 1.91 1 1:46 48 47 10.47 0.51 1.46 36.5 6.70 0.02 1.76 40.5 25.34 0.66 1.86
47.5 9.58 0.66 1.32 1 1:93 94 93.5 20.58 0.53 1.77 1 1:100/1 100 20.09 0.99 1.72 1 1:49 50 49 10.80 0.67 1.47 40.5 7.44 0.02 1.31 42.5 28.12 0.03 1.62
49.5 9.84 1.06 1.06 1 1:97 98 97.5 21.20 0.87 1.75 1 1:102/4 103 20.55 1.15 1.83 1 1:52 54 53 11.48 0.65 1.96 42.5 7.76 0.27 1.45 44.5 28.71 0.42 2.13
50.5 9.98 0.26 1.25 1 1:104/5 104.5 24.30 1.53 2.07 1 1:110/1 110 21.61 1.05 1.59 1 1:56 57 56 11.98 0.5 1.79 44.5 8.09 0.69 1.53 46.5 29.30 0.58 1.87
55.5 10.64 0.57 0.96 1 1:108/9 108.5 24.85 1.09 1.80 1 1:114/5 114 22.22 0.98 1.56 1 1:58 60 59 12.48 0.63 1.64 46.5 8.41 0.17 1.43 50.5 30.47 0.39 2.03
57.5 10.91 0.05 1.39 1 1:115/16 115.5 25.81 1.05 1.98 1 1:118/9 118 22.83 1.37 1.42 1 1:62 63 62 12.98 1.49 0.91 50.5 9.06 0.34 1.62 52.5 31.06 0.69 1.91
59.5 11.18 0.77 1.36 1 1:119/20 119.5 26.36 1.14 2.32 1 cc:4 5 129 23.64 0.78 2.05 1 1:64 66 65 13.47 0.9 1.38 52.5 9.39 0.55 1.73 54.5 32.19 0.37 1.86
61.5 11.45 0.36 1.26 1 1:127/28 127.5 27.53 0.92 1.73 1 cc:9 10 134 24.01 0.91 1.81 1 1:68 69 68 13.97 1.17 1.55 54.5 9.71 0.84 1.55 56.5 33.32 0.21 2.1
65.5 11.98 0.17 1.27 1 1:131/32 131.5 28.12 1.25 1.55 1 cc:13/4 138 24.30 0.98 1.91 1 1:70 72 71 14.47 1.16 1.66 56.5 10.03 0.68 1.57 60.5 35.58 0.45 1.59
67.5 12.27 0.54 1.11 1 1:137/38 137.5 28.48 1.04 1.78 2 1:10 11 160 28.12 0.18 1.87 1 1:74 75 74 14.97 1.37 1.6 60.5 10.68 0.92 1.38 60.5 35.58 0.24 1.95
69.5 12.56 0.61 1.46 1 1:141/42 141.5 28.72 0.64 2.37 2 1:15 16 165 29.10 0.37 1.87 1 1:76 78 77 15.46 1.4 1.53 62.5 11.01 0.90 1.31
75.5 13.44 0.72 1.34 1 1:148/49 148.5 29.15 1.06 2.05 2 1:19 20 169 29.88 0.65 2.07 1 1:80 81 80 15.96 1.55 1.08 64.5 11.33 0.64 1.69
77.5 13.73 0.61 1.59 1 2:2 3 152.5 29.69 0.85 2.27 2 1:25 26 175 31.06 0.78 1.53 1 1:82 84 83 16.46 1.02 1.44 66.5 11.66 0.94 1.51
79.5 14.02 0.81 1.35 1 2:6 7 156.5 30.68 0.86 1.95 1 1:86 88 87 17.12 1.2 2.19 68.5 11.98 0.63 1.54
81.5 14.32 1.21 1.32 1 2:13 14 163.5 32.95 0.90 1.79 1 1:90 91 90 17.62 1.97 1.06 70.5 14.03 0.81 1.29
84.5 14.75 1.05 1.42 1 2:17 18 167.5 34.24 0.96 1.83 1 1:92 94 93 18.41 1.09 1.52 72.5 16.07 1.20 1.26
86.5 15.05 0.78 1.26 1 2:21 22 171.5 35.53 0.93 1.87 1 1:100/2 101 18.91 1.25 1.72 74.5 18.12 1.57 1.43
MARTINEZ ET AL.: LA NINA-LIKE CONDITIONS DURING THE LAST GLACIAL

88.5 15.34 1.11 2.1 1 2:25 26 175.5 36.82 1.00 2.01 1 1:104/5 104 19.20 1.28 1.68 76.5 19.79 1.56 1.65
90.5 15.63 1.17 1.47 1 2:33/4 183.5 39.58 1.01 2.23 1 1:106/8 107 19.50 1.15 2.01 78.5 19.99 1.18 1.28
Table 2. (continued)
TR163-38 ODP846B ODP506B ODP677B TR163-33 TR163-11
Depth, Age, Depth, Age, Depth, Age, Depth, Age, Depth, Age, Depth, Age,
cm ka d18O d13C Sample cm ka d18O d13C Sample cm ka d18O d13C Sample cm ka d18O d13C cm ka d18O d13C cm ka d18O d13C
94.5 16.21 0.97 1.51 1 2:40/1 190.5 40.34 0.63 1.95 1 1:110/1 110 19.79 1.76 1.39 82.5 20.38 1.36 1.62
96.5 16.51 1.32 1.8 1 2:44/5 194.5 40.87 0.32 2.01 1 1:112/4 113 20.89 1.49 1.36 84.5 20.58 1.25 1.62
98.5 16.80 1.15 1.5 1 1:116/7 116 21.99 1.94 1.37 86.5 20.77 1.22 1.61
100.5 17.09 1.34 1.53 1 1:118/0 119 23.08 1.62 1.28 88.5 20.97 1.37 1.57
102.5 17.38 1.48 1.32 1 1:122/3 122 24.18 0.97 1.76 90.5 21.16 1.30 1.70
104.5 17.67 1.04 1.52 1 1:124/6 125 25.11 1.29 1.79 92.5 21.36 1.32 1.61
106.5 17.97 1.33 1.17 1 1:130/1 130 28.12 0.15 1.87 94.5 28.12 0.96 1.97
108.5 18.26 1.51 1.48 1 1:132/3 132 28.23 0.45 2.06 96.5 29.39 0.94 2.08
110.5 18.55 1.39 1.82 1 1:134/6 135 28.40 0.66 1.79 98.5 31.06 1.51 1.39
113 18.91 1.00 1.86 1 1:139/40 139 28.62 1.18 1.62 100.5 33.32 1.00 2.02
117 19.50 1.76 1.27 1 1:140/1 140 28.67 1.33 1.36
119 19.79 1.28 1.43 1 1:143/4 143 28.84 1.69 0.9
123 20.62 1.14 1.51 1 1:146/7 146 29.00 0.74 2.41
125 21.04 0.76 2.22 1 1:149/50 149 29.17 1.27 1.57
127 21.46 0.60 1.79 1 2:0 1 150 29.22 1.63 1.63
129 21.87 1.29 1.66 1 2:3 4 153 29.12 0.88 1.57
131 22.29 1.28 1.27 1 2:7 8 157 30.23 1.39 1.53
133 22.71 1.64 1.31 1 2:11 12 161 31.06 1.85 0.85
135 23.12 0.95 1.94 1 2:15 16 165 32.26 1.12 1.82
137 23.54 1.73 1.44 1 2:19 20 169 33.46 0.75 1.5
139 23.96 1.55 1.35 1 2:23 24 173 34.65 0.29 1.88
141 24.37 1.34 1.87 1 2:27 28 177 35.85 0.35 2.17
143 24.48 0.60 2.18 1 2:31 32 181 37.00 0.79 1.58
147 26.37 0.61 2.10 1 2:35 36 185 39.41 0.98 1.56
149 27.17 1.33 1.49 1 2:49 50 199 40.87 0.06 1.73
151 27.96 1.57 1.58
153 28.75 0.85 1.81
157 30.34 1.97 1.36
159 31.13 1.61 1.54
161 31.92 1.49 1.15
163 32.71 0.99 1.99
165 33.51 1.44 1.35
167 34.30 1.02 1.75
MARTINEZ ET AL.: LA NINA-LIKE CONDITIONS DURING THE LAST GLACIAL

169 35.09 1.37 1.58

a 14
Calendar years derived from AMS C analyses (from Table 3) in bold.
11 - 7
11 - 8 MARTINEZ ET AL.: LA NINA-LIKE CONDITIONS DURING THE LAST GLACIAL

14
Table 3. Accelerator Mass Spectrometer (AMS) C Analyses and Calendar Ages for EEP Coresa
14
ID Sample; Size, cm cmbsf C Age Calendar Age, Years
AA41922 ODP677B; 1 1:93 95 94 15,910 130 18,410 280
CAMS70909 ODP677B; 1 1:124 125 124 21,710 180 25,110 210
CAMS70910 ODP677B; 1 2:3 4 153 25,200 220 29,120 250
CAMS70911 ODP677B; 1 2:31 32 181 32,240 960 37,000 1050
AA41921 ODP506B; 1 1:97 99 98 16,450 150 19,030 340
AA41919 TR163 38; 120 122 121 16,510 150 19,100 340
AA41920 TR163 38; 142 144 143 21,170 220 24,480 260
AA41918 TR163 33; 92 93 92 18,180 170 21,020 380
CAMS70912 ODP846B; 1 1:97 98 97 18,330 130 21,200 360
CAMS70913 ODP846B; 1 2:3 4 153 25,700 450 29.690 510
CAMS70914 ODP846B; 1 2:33 34 183 34.600 1600 39,580 1730
a
Abbreviations are as follows: CAMS, Center for Accelerator Mass Spectrometry, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory; AA, NSF Arizona AMS
Facility, University of Arizona; cmbsf, centimeters below sea floor.

cold tongue in contrast to the mixed layer dwellers G.
sacculifer, G. ruber and G. conglobatus that are associ-
ated with subtropical, oligotrophic regions [e.g., Watkins
et al., 1998; Martinez and Bedoya, 2001]. The former
taxa are mostly herbivorous and either symbiont-barren or
symbiont-facultative species, bearing diatoms or chryso-
phytes, whereas the latter species are dinoflagellate bear-
ing and mostly carnivorous [e.g., Hemleben et al., 1989].
In the EEP, diatoms, as a base of the food web, are
replaced by dinoflagellates during El Nino years [e.g.,

Figure 2. Core isotope (d18O) stratigraphy on N. dutertrei (curve in bold), planktonic foraminiferal
fragmentation (% in dash), and radiocarbon dates (AMS14C) against depth. LGM, last glacial maximum;
ps, preservation spike.
 MARTINEZ ET AL.: LA NINA-LIKE CONDITIONS DURING THE LAST GLACIAL 11 - 9

Figure 3. Oxygen isotope (d18O) stratigraphy (a) and N. dutertrei, and planktonic foraminifera
fragmentation (%) (b) against time (ka) and latitude. Age model (from Table 2) produced by comparing
the modified SPECMAP* template of Loubere et al. [2003], eleven AMS14C analyses, and the d18O
patterns (from Table 2). Note the apparent synchroneity of the preservation spike (ps) at 16 18 ka.
LGM, last glacial maximum; 1, 2, and 3, isotope stages.

Rojas de Mendiola et al., 1985]. This is reflected in the [27] The cold tongue bioprovince in the EEP corre-
presence of abundant G. sacculifer, G. ruber and G. sponds to phytoplankton production levels in excess of
conglobatus in the EEP during El Nino years [e.g., 700 mgC/m2/day [Owen and Zeitzschel, 1970]. These
Watkins and Mix, 1998]. high productivity levels result from upwelling that favors
11 - 10 MARTINEZ ET AL.: LA NINA-LIKE CONDITIONS DURING THE LAST GLACIAL

Figure 4. Percentage abundance of warm water (a) and cool water indicators (b) against time (ka) and
latitude. Note the abrupt reduction of G. ruber and G. sacculifer, and the conspicuous increase of G.
inflata (between 35 to 16 ka) south of the Equatorial Front, respectively. LGM, last glacial maximum; 1,
2, and 3, isotope stages.

the presence of G. cultrata and N. pachyderma around the
Panama Bight and the Costa Rica Dome, and N. dutertrei,
N. pachyderma and G. inflata south of the Equatorial
Front [Martinez and Bedoya, 2001]. The difference is due
to upwelling intensity that results in different food webs
[e.g., Owen and Zeitzschel, 1970; Honjo, 1982]. Therefore
a reduced percentage abundance of N. dutertrei, together
with the increased abundance of G. bulloides and G.
inflata, in cores TR163-38, TR163-33 and ODP846B
for glacial stage 2 (Figures 3b and 4b) suggest that
advection rather than upwelling was the main oceano-
graphic mechanism in the region. This interpretation
agrees with previous suggestions [e.g., Faul et al.,
2000; Loubere, 2000, 2001; Feldberg and Mix, 2002].
More precisely, however, G. bulloides preferentially
increased during the deglaciation interval (e.g., in core
TR163-38; Figure 4b) rather than the LGM thus favoring
the interpretation of stronger upwelling intensity for the
deglaciation interval [e.g., McKenna et al., 1995]. It
should be emphasized, however, that the association of
G. bulloides and G. inflata, in glacial stage 2 is unusual
when compared to the present and unlike a typical La
 MARTINEZ ET AL.: LA NINA-LIKE CONDITIONS DURING THE LAST GLACIAL 11 - 11

Figure 5. (a) Modern analog (MAT) sea surface temperature (SST) reconstructions and (b)seasonality,
against time (ka) and latitude. Note the conspicuous decrease in SST and the larger seasonality south the
Equatorial Front for the 35 to 16 ka time interval. MAT SST reconstruction and seasonality for core
ODP847 are also included [McKenna et al., 1995]. LGM, last glacial maximum; 1, 2, and 3, isotope
stages.
11 - 12 MARTINEZ ET AL.: LA NINA-LIKE CONDITIONS DURING THE LAST GLACIAL
Nina scenario [e.g., Watkins et al., 1998]. The strong
seasonality could be responsible of this mixing of faunas.
[28] Globorotalia inflata is a species that presently dwells
in the intermediate to deep waters under the thermocline
where it shows some correlation with temperature at 200 m,
but also shows some correlation with SST in the 5 to 24
C
range with an optimum at 17
C [e.g., Hemleben et al.,
1989; Hilbrecht, 1996]. Hilbrecht [1996] suggested that
G. inflata inhabits poorly stratified regions in contrast to
Loubere [1981] who suggested that the species preferen-
tially occurs in stratified regions. At present G. inflata is
found abundantly (8.3 and 13.2%) only in TR163-34 and
-35 core-top samples located on the eastern end of the
Carnegie Ridge [Martinez and Bedoya, 2001]. These are
extreme northern occurrences when compared with their
nearest previously reported occurrence in the V19-41 core-
top sample (14.1
S; 96.1
W; Thompson [1976]). Parker
[1962] indicated that G. inflata occurs south of 3
S but
preferentially south of 25
S. This might imply episodic
pulses (advection) of the Peru Current offshore Ecuador, a
process that was apparently more common at 35 16 ka as
shown herein (Figure 4b). The 35 16 ka G. inflata event
was already noted in a number of cores from the southeast
Pacific (e.g., V19-28, V19-29, V19-41, V21-30, V21-33,
RC13-113; DWBG114, Y71-6-12, ODP846 and ODP847)
[Blackman and Smayajulu, 1966; Luz, 1973; Thompson,
1976; Le et al., 1995; McKenna et al., 1995; Loubere, 2001;
Feldberg and Mix, 2003]. G. inflata did not migrate north of
2
N and west of 110
W thus tracking the possible path
of advection in the EEP region. It is of interest to note that
in the western Pacific Ocean G. inflata also occurs, though
in very low numbers (<1%) at ODP828A (15.79
S;
166.28
E) at the LGM [Martinez, 1993].
[29] Luz [1973] argued that G. inflata, at present, is a
species typical of the transitional province (20
to 60
S) that
occurs as far north as its distribution is not limited by
mixing and the absence of oxygen at intermediate depths,
i.e., the oxygen minimum zone (OMZ) in front of Peru. It
was proposed that for the last glacial period the OMZ was
weaker probably due to a more efficient supply of oxygen
from high latitudes and/or a more intensified Equatorial
Undercurrent (EUC; Luz [1973]). Also it has been claimed
that the nutrient content in the EEP is controlled by the EUC
and ultimately by its source area in the southwest Pacific,
i.e., the Subantarctic Mode Water (SAMW; e.g., Toggweiler
et al. [1991]; Loubere [2000]). The dynamics of the SAMW
in its source area also determine the nutrient content of the
EUC. The apparent nutrient reduction of the EUC for the
LGM is supported by the reduced strength of the SAMW in
the southwest Pacific, north of the Tasman Front, for the
past 150 ka [Martinez, 1997].
3.2. SST Patterns and a Stronger SST Meridional
Gradient in the EEP
[30] As indicated above, G. inflata is dominant at inter-
mediate to deep water depths under the thermocline where it
shows some correlation with temperature at 200 m, but also
shows some correlation with SST in the 5 to 24
C range
with an optimum at 17
C [e.g., Hemleben et al., 1989;
Hilbrecht, 1996]. However, the lack of a major Dd18O
difference between G. sacculifer (a shallow-dwelling spe-
cies) and N. dutertrei (a deep dwelling species) in core
ODP847 located west of Galapagos for the last 100 ka
seems to indicate that there was a limited thermal change in
the upper water column [Farrell et al., 1995], though the
lack of temperature contrast is interpreted as the result of
intensified upwelling rather than advection [Farrell et al.,
1995].
[31] Other SST reconstructions in the region include Lea
et al. [2000, 2002], Pisias and Mix [1997], Mix et al.
[1999], Feldberg and Mix [2002], and Koutavas et al.
[2002]. SST reconstructions by Pisias and Mix [1997],
Mix et al. [1999] and Feldberg and Mix [2002] are in
agreement with our MAT SST reconstructions. A sharper
meridional SST gradient in the EEP would have resulted in
a stronger wind field regime, increased equatorial upwelling
and the formation of SAMW that presumably would have
favored the ventilation of the upper thermocline [McKenna
et al., 1995]. The implications of this sharper meridional
SST gradient in the EEP are discussed below.
[32] SST reconstructions by Lea et al.s [2000, 2002] and
Koutavas et al. [2002] are based on Mg/Ca in planktonic
foraminifera from cores TR163-19 and V21-30, located on
the Cocos Ridge and within the Galapagos Archipelago
respectively. In core TR163-19, the LGM decrease in SST is
2.8
C, a value larger than our estimates for cores north of
the Equatorial Front. Preceding the LGM drop in SST there
is a second peak at 30 ka [Lea et al., 2002]. Despite the
lower resolution of Lea et al.s [2002] cores, their study
seems to be in agreement with our SST reconstruction for
cores located south of the Equatorial Front. In contrast, in
core V21-30, the SST decrease for the LGM is 2
C
[Koutavas et al., 2002]. This low reduction in SST at
Galapagos has been attributed to proximity to land which
affected upwelling and the depth habitat and seasonality of
planktonic foraminifera, rather than to ENSO events [Feld-
berg and Mix, 2002]. We add that because core V21-30 was
collected under the present Equatorial Front, any minor
latitudinal migration of it through time would result in
misleading SST estimates for the cold tongue. Even though,
SST estimates for the Holocene in core V21-30 [Koutavas et
al., 2002] seem to agree with El Nino sedimentary record of
Bainbridge Crater Lake from Galapagos [Riedinger et al.,
2002] and other records from Peru [e.g., Sandweiss et al.,
2001], they show significant differences with the Pallcaco-
cha core from the Ecuadorian Andes (2.77
S; 79.8
W, 4060
m.a.s.l.) [Rodbell et al., 1999; Moy et al., 2002]. Riedinger
et al. [2002] interpretation of ENSO strength is based on the
assumption that siliciclastic laminae are deposited when
precipitation intensifies and erodes the crater walls during
El Nino events. The possibility exists for an alternative
interpretation where intensified precipitation would foster
abundant vegetation stabilizing crater walls, preventing the
sedimentation of siliciclastic laminae [Riedinger et al.,
2002]. Furthermore, the periodicity of Bainbridge Crater
Lake laminae, calculated on 1 ka intervals, varies between 6
and 76.9 yr for the last 6 ka [Riedinger et al., 2002], which
is lower than the periodicity of 2 to 8.5 yr for the present
and the interpreted late Holocene El Nino events in Pallca-
cocha core [Rodbell et al., 1999]. Moy et al. [2002] add that
 MARTINEZ ET AL.: LA NINA-LIKE CONDITIONS DURING THE LAST GLACIAL
El Nino events were more frequent and intense from 7 ka
onward, and that a La Nina state was dominant in the early
Holocene in the Ecuadorian Andes.
[33] Aside from these contrasting SST evidences, still we
are confronted to a peculiar scenario where a saltier and
slightly cooler western Pacific warm pool [e.g., Martinez et
al., 1997; Stott et al., 2002] coexisted with a fresher and
cooler cold tongue [e.g., Feldberg and Mix, 2002]; both are
suggestive of strong El Nino- and La Nina-like scenarios
respectively [e.g., Stott et al., 2002, this study].
3.3. SST, SSS, and Glacier Advances
in the Northern Andes
[34] A 4 5
C SST cooling, for the region south of the
Equatorial Front for the LGM, presented herein is in agree-
ment not only with previous EEP SST estimates based on
marine microfossils [e.g., Pisias and Mix, 1997; Mix et al.,
1999; Feldberg and Mix, 2002, 2003], but also with snow
line depressions in the northern Andes [e.g., Porter, 2001],
and oxygen and hydrogen isotopes in soils from the Eastern
Cordillera of Colombia [Mora and Pratt, 2001].
[35] Our SST estimates, however, show two major cool-
ing episodes in the 35 to 24 ka and 21 to 16 ka time
intervals. This marine cooling chronology seems to corre-
spond to the Early and Late Murillo glacier advances as
recorded in the Central Cordillera of Colombia [e.g.,
Thouret et al., 1996; Clapperton, 2000]. The age bands
for the Early and Late Murillo glacier advances are consid-
ered to be <33.7 to >25 ka and 21.5 to 19 ka respectively
[Clapperton, 2000; Clapperton and Seltzer, 2001], which
are based on a re-assessment of Thouret et al.s [1996]
radiocarbon data. However, it should be emphasized that
these age estimates are based on some few corrected radio-
carbon ages on peat overlying till beds, and therefore they
are still broad and represent minimum ages for glacier
advances. It also should be noted that the reasons for the
Murillo advances are not known.
[36] A factor that would act to synchronize periods of
colder SST and glacier advances on the Central Cordillera is
a more frequent and stronger paleo-Choco jet and, perhaps,
accompanying colder air temperatures. The sharper meri-
dional SST gradient shown herein would have triggered a
stronger Choco jet thus transporting large amounts of
moisture into western Colombia. Similarly to today, the
Choco jet bypassed the Western Cordillera through the
Mistrato Pass and reached the Central Cordillera where
orographic uplift resulted in extensive precipitation and
glacier advance. An increase in precipitation, as opposed
to a significant decrease in air temperature, is suggested
here as the major cause of the Murillo moraine advance.
This suggestion agrees with modeling results by Hostetler
and Clark [2000].
[37] It has been suggested from a number of sources,
that the mean position of the ITCZ moved slightly to the
north during the LGM [e.g., Martin et al., 1997]. This
suggestion is in agreement with a stronger Choco jet and
a Nina-like scenario. By contrast, it has been suggested
that the ITCZ weakened or moved to the south during
the LGM [e.g., Seltzer, 1994; Hughen et al., 1998; Mora
and Pratt, 2001]. It might be that the mean LGM
11 - 13
position of the ITCZ took a more meridional orientation
along central Colombia and actually was located south
and north of its present position in eastern and western
Colombia, respectively.
[38] The Murillo glacier advance, however, is not the
major glacier event in the Central Cordillera. The early
Rio Recio advance dated in >48 ka extended to 3300
3200 m, approximately 100 m below the Murillo event
[Thouret et al., 1996]. Our study does not cover this
timescale, but Emeis et al. [1995], Le et al. [1995] and
Feldberg and Mix [2002, 2003] studies show a SST
decrease and a G. inflata percentage increase for stage 4.
This information seems to indicate that our Choco jet
model might also apply to stage 4.
[39] An increase in precipitation in western Colombia
would imply a corresponding decrease in SSS in the EEP.
Glacial minus present d18O values on N. dutertrei seem
to support this suggestion as they display an increasing
trend from 0.4% in the north to >1% in the south
[Loubere, 2001]. Core-top, LGM, and glacial minus
present d18O values measured herein broadly fit Lou-
beres [2001] d18O pattern. As pointed out by Loubere
[2001] this pattern could reflect increased advection of
fresher waters by the Peru Current or dilution by increase
precipitation in the Panama Basin. Data presented here
seem to indicate that, at least, SSS was preferentially
controlled by precipitation on western Colombia. Addi-
tional evidences for increased precipitation in a La Nina-
like event in western Colombia for the LGM is discussed
below.
3.4. Paleoclimate Teleconnections and La Nina-Like
Events in Late Stage 3 and Stage 2
[ 40 ] When our MAT SST reconstruction for core
ODP846B is compared with: (1) the modeled number
of warm events in 500 yr in the Nino-3 area [Clement et
al., 1999], (2) hemipelagic/eolic quartz and arboreal
pollen percentage abundance records for core TR163-
31B (3.61
S, 83.97
W) [Boven and Rea, 1998; Heusser
and Shackleton, 1994], (3) glacier advances from the
Central Cordillera of Colombia [Clapperton, 2000], and
(4) the dryness index and the percentage abundance of
grass paramo pollen for core Fuquene VII from the
Eastern Cordillera of Colombia (5.42
N, 73.75
W; Mom-
mersteeg [1998]), a number of correspondences are evi-
dent (Figure 6).
[41] Clement et al.s [1999] experiment was run with a
Zebiak-Cane ENSO model [Zebiak and Cane, 1987] over El
Nino-3 area (150
to 90
W and 5
S to 5
N) and depicts: (1)
a precessional control on the frequency of ENSO events,
and (2) a reduced frequency of warm events (<60/500 yr)
for the 16 32 ka interval (Figure 6). However, modeled
warm events per 500 yr are of the order of 0.4
C [Clement
et al., 1999], compared to our annual mean SST reconstruc-
tion of several degrees. Therefore the comparison shows
that ENSO events were not only less frequent but also had a
reduced effect on the annual mean SST in the 16 32 ka
interval.
[ 42 ] Hemipelagic relative to aeolian quartz in core
TR163-31B dominates at 21.5 to 28 14C ka BP and 15 to
11 - 14 MARTINEZ ET AL.: LA NINA-LIKE CONDITIONS DURING THE LAST GLACIAL

Figure 6. Regional comparison of paleoclimatic records. EEP records: (a) MAT-SST reconstruction of
core ODP846B (bold line; this paper) and number of warm events in 500 yr (thin line; Clement et al.
[1999]), and (b) percentage of aeolian/hemipelagic quartz (bold line; Boven and Rea [1998]) and arboreal
pollen (thin line; Heusser and Shackleton [1994]) in core TR163-31B. Central Cordillera record: (c)
moraine glacier advances [Clapperton, 2000]. Eastern Cordillera record: (d) dryness index (bold line) and
percentage of grassparamo pollen in core Fuquene VII (thin line; Mommersteeg [1998]).

17.5 14C ka BP [Boven and Rea, 1998] corresponding to
25 to 33 ka and 18 to 21 ka ages respectively.
Similarly, the percentage abundance of arboreal pollen
decreases together with these peaks, though the relationship
is more evident for the deglaciation interval. Glacier advan-
ces in the Central Cordillera dated at <33.7 to >25 ka and
21.5 to 19 ka bracket these time intervals, whereas the
dryness index, based on the sum of Cyperacea, marsh and
aquatic elements, and the percentage abundance of grass
paramo palynomorphs in core Fuquene VII dominates at 18
to 22 ka and 32 to 36 ka (Figure 6).
[43] Differences between TR163-31B, ODP846B and
Fuquene VII records could be mainly due to uncertainties
in age models, though we do not reject the idea that
regional differences might exist. Accepting a correspond-
ence between the records we should look for an explan-
ation. The hemipelagic quartz record of core TR163-31B
would mainly reflect alluvial supply by the Guayas River
from the Ecuadorian Andes. However, Holocene laminated
sediments from Laguna Pallcacocha indicate that major
clastic delivery to the lake, and the whole Guayas basin,
occurs during El Nino years [Rodbell et al., 1999]. An
intensified La Nina during the early Holocene [Moy et al.,
2002], and presumably during the LGM, would make the
Guayas basin drier. This might appear as an opposing
scenario to the one we are proposing. As an alternative
explanation, the large hemipelagic quartz content of the
EEP could have been carried from western Colombia into
the Peru Basin by the south-flowing branch of the EUC
and the Peru and Peru-Chile Countercurrents. At present,
clay minerals are supplied to the Panama Basin following
an anti-clockwise path that originates in the Colombian
margin with the San Juan River as its major source [e.g.,
van Andel, 1973; Martnez, 2002]. The presence of mid-
water flows [e.g., Asper et al., 1992] and abundant
suspended material around the Carnegie Ridge [e.g., Plank
et al., 1973] suggests that during an intensified La Nina-
like scenario the supply of hemipelagic material, including
organic matter of continental origin, to the northern Peru
Basin might have been larger.
 MARTINEZ ET AL.: LA NINA-LIKE CONDITIONS DURING THE LAST GLACIAL 11 - 15

Figure 7. Schematic paleoclimate LGM model depicting the influence of a sharper SST meridional
gradient in the EEP and the interaction between the Choco jet and the northeast trade winds over northern
South America (adapted from models by Lopez and Howell [1967] and Poveda and Mesa [2000]). The
relative location of ODP846B, TR163-31B, Murillo moraines, and Fuquene VII core are also indicated.

[44] Pedersen et al. [1991] argued in favor of an increase
in organic carbon content of planktonic origin in the Panama
Basin at the LGM. The close correspondence of the organic
carbon peak at core P7 (2.6
N; 84.0
W) with the content of
dust in Vostok ice core, and the low C/N ratio at the LGM
favors a planktonic origin rather than a continental one.
However, organic geochemical analyses on core ODP677
for the Miocene-Pleistocene interval on a much coarser
resolution [Kawahata and Ishizuka, 1989] showed that there
is a significant amount of organic matter of continental
origin. Pyrolysis analysis show that kerogen is mainly of
types II III which suggest a mixed source, and that there is
some content of glutamic acid which is common in coastal
sediments [Kawahata and Ishizuka, 1989]. Similarly it is
argued that some organic matter might be absorbed in the
lattice of clay minerals thus favoring its scavenging to the
seafloor [Kawahata and Ishizuka, 1989]. Recently this
mechanism has been extended to explain the sedimentation
of black shales, independent of surface productivity and
oxygen content at the seafloor [Kennedy et al., 2002].
Furthermore, higher glacial accumulations of clay minerals
in core P7 are suggested by aluminum fluxes in excess of
100 mg.cm2.ka 1 for 18 27 ka [Yang et al., 1995].
[45] The above mentioned mechanisms might explain the
21 to 16 ka hemipelagic peak in core TR163-31B, but not
the previous one at 35 to 24 ka. Nor flooding of the
Guayas River at a time of less frequent warm events can
easily explain the 35 to 24 ka hemipelagic peak, unless
we recall arguments like the one by Simpson [1975] who
proposed that the temperature contrast between land and sea
in front of Peru during the LGM must have been similar to the
present southern hemisphere summer scenario, thus explain-
ing the increase in precipitation in the higher Andes and
supporting intensified upwelling and/or advection in the EEP.
[46] Additional evidences of an increase in precipitation
in the Andean region, and the descent of the Andean tree
line, for the 19.8 40.2 ka interval are suggested from the
palynological record of core ODP932 from the Amazon fan
[Haberle and Maslin, 1999]. The assumption is that paly-
nological records from the Amazon fan reflect the extent of
the source vegetation that is controlled by precipitation and
temperature [Haberle, 1997]. Amazon fan palynological
evidences would fit any of the explanations we have
suggested, i.e., quartz supply from western Colombia or
the Ecuadorian Andes.
[47] As indicated above, at present, the advection of
moisture by the Choco jet into the continent is 0.08 ms 1
when the meridional SST gradient is 3 5
C at 925 1000
hPa [Poveda and Mesa, 2000]. If we assume that the
relationship is linear, moisture in western Colombia would
have increased in at least a 20 30% for the LGM. Even a
modest estimate would appear almost unrealistic in a
region where today we have the highest annual precipita-
tion values of the globe, i.e., between 8000 and 13000 mm
[Poveda and Mesa, 2000]. In a LGM scenario, when the
western Pacific warm pool was saltier and slightly cooler,
the effects of El Nino-4 over precipitation in northern
South America were possibly lower than today, thus
reducing, perhaps, the availability of moisture in the EEP.
Figure 7 schematically displays the path of the Choco jet
over western Colombia and the relative location of oceanic
and continental records of paleoclimate for the LGM. The
dry island effect [Lopez and Howell, 1967] was partic-
ularly intense over the Eastern Cordillera, which resulted
from the interaction of a moisture-exhausted Choco jet
(from the west) and the Atlantic Trades (from the east) that
left most of their moisture on the eastern flank of the
northern Andes. It is important to note that even though
11 - 16 MARTINEZ ET AL.: LA NINA-LIKE CONDITIONS DURING THE LAST GLACIAL

our evidences suggest a moister Choco Jet for the last
glacial, the water carrying capacity of this atmospheric mass
was probably reduced (compared to the present) due to the
regional descend in air temperature. Under these conditions,
a slightly moister Choco jet could have left most of its water
content in the Western and Central Cordilleras before reach-
ing the Fuquene Lake that is located 400 km away from the
Pacific coast. Our model, therefore: (1) demonstrates a
possible teleconnection between the EEP and the northern
Andes, (2) argues in favor of a stronger Choco jet as a
connecting mechanism and, (3) highlights the importance of
the region in relation to climate dynamics between the
Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.
4. Conclusions
[48] Our planktonic foraminiferal study shows that:
[49] 1. G. inflata anomalously increased south of the
Equatorial Front for the 16 35 ka interval, which
together with a SST drop of >5
C (in core ODP846B),
indicates the influence of advection rather than upwelling
over the EEP.
[50] 2. There was a stronger SST meridional gradient that
forced stronger Choco jet events (or La Nina-like events),
and a significant moisture increase in western Colombia for
late stage 3 and stage 2.
[51] 3. The increase in precipitation over western Colom-
bia resulted in a higher supply of hemipelagic quartz on the
northern Peru basin (core TR163-31B), from the San Juan
River, by the south-flowing branch of the EUC and the Peru
and Peru-Chile Countercurrents. Aluminum content and
organic geochemistry from the western Panama Basin
(cores P7 and ODP677) seem to support this suggestion.
[52] 4. The Choco jet, and its associated mesoscale
convection cells, provoked an increase in snow precipitation
over the Central Cordillera of Colombia and the advance of
the Early and Late Murillo moraines.
[53] 5. Synchronously with the intensified Choco jet
events, the dry island effect over the Eastern Cordillera
of Colombia intensified and water levels of Fuquene Lake
dropped.
[54] Acknowledgments. This work is part of the research project:
Late Quaternary Paleoceanography of the Panama Basin, Colombian
Pacific: Implications for Global Climate Change funded by Universidad
EAFIT-COLCIENCIAS (Programa Nacional de Medio Ambiente y Hab-
itat), BID-COLCIENCIAS Fund, 1216-13-800-98, contract 403-98. We
thank John Firth (Ocean Drilling Program) and Steven Carey (University of
Rhode Island, NSF grant OCE-9102410) for kindly providing the core
samples and Julliet Betancur for diligently processing the samples. German
Poveda shared with us his knowledge of the Choco jet. Geovany Bedoya is
acknowledged for his logistic support. We thank Alan Mix, Mitch Lyle,
Paul Loubere, and an anonymous reviewer for careful reviews of the
manuscript.

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