4 Aeronautical Eng PDF

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Gill Sans Bold
Engineering Studies
HSC Course
Stage 6
Aeronautical engineering
ES/S6 HSC 41097 P0022161

Acknowledgments
This publication is copyright Learning Materials Production, Open Training and Education Network
Distance Education, NSW Department of Education and Training, however it may contain material from
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Bankstown Airport
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Coordination: Jeff Appleby
Content edit: John Cook, Josephine Wilms
Illustrations: Tom Brown, Barbara Buining
DTP: Nick Loutkovsky, Carolina Barbieri
Copyright in this material is reserved to the Crown in the right of the State of New South Wales.
Reproduction or transmittal in whole, or in part, other than in accordance with provisions of the
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NSW Department of Education and Training, 2000. 51 Wentworth Rd. Strathfield NSW 2135.
Revised 2001
Module contents
Subject overview ................................................................................iii
Module overview................................................................................vii
Module components .................................................................vii
Module outcomes ..................................................................... ix
Indicative time ........................................................................... x
Resource requirements............................................................. xi
Icons ..............................................................................................xiii
Glossary............................................................................................. xv
Directive terms................................................................................. xix
Part 1: Aeronautical engineering

scope of the profession and engineering report....... 165

history of flight................................................................ 137

mechanics and hydraulics ........................................... 173

materials ......................................................................... 149

communication .............................................................. 144
Bibliography.......................................................................................45
Module evaluation ............................................................................49
i
ii
Subject overview
Engineering Studies Preliminary Course

Household appliances examines common appliances
found in the home. Simple appliances are analysed
to identify materials and their applications.
Electrical principles, researching methods and
techniques to communicate technical information are
introduced. The first student engineering report is
completed undertaking an investigation of materials
used in a household appliance.
Landscape products investigates engineering

principles by focusing on common products, such as
lawnmowers and clothes hoists. The historical
development of these types of products demonstrates
the effect materials development and technological
advancements have on the design of products.
Engineering techniques of force analysis are
described. Orthogonal drawing methods are
explained. An engineering report is completed that
analyses lawnmower components.
Braking systems uses braking components and

systems to describe engineering principles. The
historical changes in materials and design are
investigated. The relationship between internal
structure of iron and steel and the resulting
engineering properties of those materials is detailed.
Hydraulic principles are described and examples
provided in braking systems. Orthogonal drawing
techniques are further developed. An engineering
report is completed that requires an analysis of a
braking system component.
iii
Bio-engineering both engineering principles and also
the scope of the bio-engineering profession. Careers
and current issues in this field are explored.
Engineers as managers and ethical issues confronted
by the bio engineer are considered. An engineering
report is completed that investigates a current bio-
engineered product and describes the related issues
that the bio-engineer would need to consider before,
during and after this product development.
Irrigation systems is the elective topic for the

preliminary modules. The historical development of
irrigation systems is described and the impact of
these systems on society discussed. Hydraulic
analysis of irrigation systems is explained. The
effect on irrigation product range that has occurred
with the introduction of is detailed. An engineering
report on an irrigation system is completed.
iv
HSC Engineering Studies modules
Civil structures examines engineering principles as
they relate to civil structures, such as bridges and
buildings. The historical influences of engineering,
the impact of engineering innovation, and
environmental implications are discussed with
reference to bridges. Mechanical analysis of bridges
is used to introduce concepts of truss analysis and
stress/strain. Material properties and application are
explained with reference to a variety of civil
structures. Technical communication skills
described in this module include assembly drawing.
The engineering report requires a comparison of two
engineering solutions to solve the same engineering
situation.
Personal and public transport uses bicycles, motor

vehicles and trains as examples to explain
engineering concepts. The historical development of
cars is used to demonstrate the developing material
list available for the engineer. The impact on
society of these developments is discussed. The
mechanical analysis of mechanisms involves the
effect of friction. Energy and power relationships are
explained. Methods of testing materials, and
modifying material properties are examined. A
series of industrial manufacturing processes is
described. Electrical concepts, such as power
distribution, are detailed are introduced. The use of
freehand technical sketches.
Lifting devices investigates the social impact that

devices raging from complex cranes to simple car
jacks, have had on our society. The mechanical
concepts are explained, including the hydraulic
concepts often used in lifting apparatus. The
industrial processes used to form metals and the
methods used to control physical properties are
explained. Electrical requirements for many devices
are detailed. The technical rules for sectioned
orthogonal drawings are demonstrated. The
engineering report is based on a comparison of two
lifting devices.
v
Aeronautical engineering explores the scope of the
aeronautical engineering profession. Career
opportunities are considered, as well as ethical
issues related to the profession. Technologies
unique to this engineering field are described.
Mechanical analysis includes aeronautical flight
principles and fluid mechanics. Materials and
material processes concentrate on their application
to aeronautics. The corrosion process is explained
and preventative techniques listed. Communicating
technical information using both freehand and
computer-aided drawing is required. The
engineering report is based on the aeronautical
profession, current projects and issues.
Telecommunications engineering examines the

history and impact on society of this field. Ethical
issues and current technologies are described.
The materials section concentrates on specialised
testing, copper and its alloys, semiconductors and
fibre optics. Electronic systems such as analogue
and digital are explained and an overview of a
variety of other technologies in this field is
presented. Analysis, related to telecommunication
products, is used to reinforce mechanical concepts.
Communicating technical information using both
freehand and computer-aided drawing is required.
The engineering report is based on the
telecommunication profession, current projects and
issues.
Figure 0.1 Modules
vi
Module overview
Aeronautical engineering is the first focus engineering module in the

HSC course. The scope of the aeronautical engineering profession is
investigated. Career opportunities are considered, as well as ethical
issues related to the profession. Technologies unique to this engineering
field are described. The mechanical analysis topics include aeronautical
flight principles and fluid mechanics. Materials, and material processes
concentrate on those most associated with the aeronautical engineer.
The corrosion process is explained and preventative techniques listed.
Communicating technical information using both freehand and computer
aided drawing are required. The engineering report is based on the
aeronautical profession, current projects and issues.
Module components
Each module contains three components, the preliminary pages, the
teaching/learning section and additional resources.
The preliminary pages include:
module contents
subject overview
module overview
icons
glossary
directive terms.
Figure 0.2 Preliminary pages
vii
The teaching/learning parts may
include:
part contents
introduction
teaching/learning text and tasks
exercises
check list.
Figure 0.3 Teaching/learning section
The additional information may

include: Additional
resources
module appendix
bibliography
module evaluation.
Figure 0.4 Additional materials
Support materials such as audiotapes, video cassettes and computer disks

will sometimes accompany a module.
viii
Module outcomes
At the end of this module, you should be working towards being able to:
describe the scope of engineering and critically analyse current
innovations (H1.1)
differentiate between properties of materials and justify the selection
of materials, components and processes in engineering (H1.2)
analyse and synthesise engineering applications in specific fields and
report on the importance of these to society (H2.2)
use appropriate written, oral and presentation skills in the preparation
of detailed engineering reports (H3.2)
investigate the extent of technological change in engineering (H4.1)
appreciate social, environmental and cultural implications of
technological change in engineering and apply them to the analysis
of specific problems (H4.3)
select and use appropriate management and planning skills related to
engineering (H5.2)
demonstrate skills in analysis, synthesis and experimentation related
to engineering (H6.2)
Extract from Stage 6 Engineering Studies Syllabus, Board of Studies, NSW, 1999.
Refer to <http://www.boardofstudies.nsw.edu.au> for original and current documents.
ix
Indicative time
The Preliminary course is 120 hours (indicative time) and the HSC
course is 120 hours (indicative time).
The following table shows the approximate amount of time you should
spend on this module.
Preliminary modules Percentage of time Approximate

number of hours
Household appliances 20% 24 hr
Landscape products 20% 24 hr
Braking systems 20% 24 hr
Bio-engineering 20% 24 hr
Elective: Irrigation systems 20% 24 hr
HSC modules Percentage of time Approximate

number of hours
Civil structures 20% 24 hr
Personal and public transport 20% 24 hr
Lifting devices 20% 24 hr
Aeronautical engineering 20% 24 hr
Telecommunications engineering 20% 24 hr
There are five parts in Aeronautical engineering. Each part will require
about four to five hours of work. You should aim to complete the
module within 20 to 25 hours.
x
Resource requirements
During this module you will need to access a range of resources
including:
technical drawing equipment
drawing board, tee square, set squares (30, 60, 45),
protractor, pencils (0.5 mm mechanical pencil with B lead),
eraser, pair of compasses, pair of dividers
calculator
rule
thumb tack or pin
small sheet of thin cardboard
pair of scissors
cotton reel.
xi
xii
Icons
As you work through this module you will see symbols known as icons.
The purpose of these icons is to gain your attention and to indicate

particular types of tasks you need to complete in this module.
The list below shows the icons and outlines the types of tasks for Stage 6
Engineering studies.
Computer
This icon indicates tasks such as researching using an
electronic database or calculating using a spreadsheet.
Danger
This icon indicates tasks which may present a danger and
to proceed with care.
Discuss
This icon indicates tasks such as discussing a point or
debating an issue.
Examine
This icon indicates tasks such as reading an article or
watching a video.
Hands on
This icon indicates tasks such as collecting data or
conducting experiments.
Respond
This icon indicates the need to write a response or draw
an object.
Think
This icon indicates tasks such as reflecting on your
experience or picturing yourself in a situation.
xiii
Return
This icon indicates exercises for you to return to your
teacher when you have completed the part. (OTEN OLP
students will need to refer to their Learner's Guide for
instructions on which exercises to return).
xiv
Glossary
As you work through the module you will encounter a range of terms that
have specific meanings. The first time a term occurs in the text it will
appear in bold.
The list below explains the terms you will encounter in this module.
aerofoil any surface such as a wing, aileron, or stabiliser,
designed to help in lifting or controlling an aircraft
aileron special purpose hinged flap on the rear edge of a
wing designed to control sideways balance
autogyro early form of helicopter with a propeller and freely
rotating horizontal vanes
biplane aeroplane with two sets of wings, one above the
other
cambered arched or curved upwards in the middle
concurrent passing through the same point, foe example, a
number of forces are concurrent if an extension of
the lines representing their directions all cross at the
same point
cowling removable cover on aircraft engine
drag the force, due to the relative airflow, exerted on an
aeroplane and tending to reduce its forward motion
elevator a hinged, horizontal surface on an aeroplane,
generally located at the tail end of the fuselage and
used to control the forward/backward tilt
empirical data information from experience or experiment, not
from any scientific or theoretical deduction
fatigue the condition of having experienced many cycles or
repeated applications of stress that is lower than
would normally be required to cause failure, but
can cause failure under these conditions
flap hinged or sliding section on the rear edge of a wing
designed to control lift
xv
fuselage body of aeroplane
gyro gyroscopic device for keeping an object, such as a
rocket, in stable controlled flight
ICBM missile designed to deliver a warhead from one
continent to another
interplanetary between planets, from planet to planet
Mach 5 A speed that is five times the speed of sound at the
particular altitude (the speed of sound at sea level is
approximately 380 meters per second or 1370
kmph)
moment a force that tends to cause rotation because the
object is fixed in position at one point or because
the force is not applied at the centre of gravity
monoplane aeroplane with one set of wings
nacelle outer casing of an aeroplanes engine
orbit path of one body around another body under the
influence of gravity
payload weight being carried
pitch angle that a propeller or rotor blade makes with the
air passing over it
pressurisation increasing the air pressure in an aircraft cabin as
altitude increases and the air pressure outside is too
low for breathing
radar radio distance and ranging an instrument to allow
flight when there is no visibility
retrofit to incorporate new parts and changes into old
models
riveting a method for joining solid sheet materials to a firm
support
rotors the rotating blades on a helicopter that act as
propeller and wing
rudder broad flat wooden or metal piece hinged to the rear
of an aeroplane for steering
satellite a body revolving in some fixed path around another
body
shot Consists of small pellets; in shot-peening these are
fired onto a surface
xvi
spar a stout pole such as those used for masts or booms
etc on a boat. Also the main member of the wing
frame in an aeroplane
stall when an aircraft loses lift, usually due to loss of
relative air speed, and is in danger of falling
streamlined made to a shape calculated to cause the least
resistance to motion
supercharger a device to force air into an aeroplane engine with
pressure to overcome the reduction in atmospheric
pressure at high altitudes and so maintain engine
power as the aircraft climbs
triplane an aeroplane with three sets of wings arranged one
above the other
wind tunnel a box or tube designed to drive a moving stream of
air around an object or a scaled model of the object
within it to determine the behaviour of the object in
an airstream
yaw the motion of an aircraft about it's vertical axis
xvii
xviii
Directive terms
The list below explains key words you will encounter in assessment tasks
and examination questions.
account account for: state reasons for, report on;

give an account of: narrate a series of events or
transactions
analyse identify components and the relationship between

them, draw out and relate implications
apply use, utilise, employ in a particular situation
appreciate make a judgement about the value of
assess make a judgement of value, quality, outcomes,

results or size
calculate ascertain/determine from given facts, figures or

information
clarify make clear or plain
classify arrange or include in classes/categories
compare show how things are similar or different
construct make, build, put together items or arguments
contrast show how things are different or opposite
critically add a degree or level of accuracy, depth,

(analyse/evaluate) knowledge and understanding, logic, questioning,
reflection and quality to (analysis/evaluation)
deduce draw conclusions
define state meaning and identify essential qualities
demonstrate show by example
xix
describe provide characteristics and features
discuss identify issues and provide points for and/or against
distinguish recognise or note/indicate as being distinct or

different from; to note differences between
evaluate make a judgement based on criteria; determine the

value of
examine inquire into
explain relate cause and effect; make the relationships

between things evident; provide why and/or how
extract choose relevant and/or appropriate details
extrapolate infer from what is known
identify recognise and name
interpret draw meaning from
investigate plan, inquire into and draw conclusions about
justify support an argument or conclusion
outline sketch in general terms; indicate the main

features of
predict suggest what may happen based on available

information
propose put forward (for example a point of view, idea,

argument, suggestion) for consideration or action
recall present remembered ideas, facts or experiences
recommend provide reasons in favour
recount retell a series of events
summarise express, concisely, the relevant details
synthesise putting together various elements to make a whole
Extract from The New Higher School Certificate Assessment Support Document,
Board of Studies, NSW, 1999.
xx

scope of the profession & engineering report
Part 1 contents
Introduction..........................................................................................2
What will you learn?................................................................... 2
Scope of aeronautical engineering..................................................3
Unique technologies in aeronautical engineering ....................... 10
Current projects or innovations................................................. 26
Health and safety issues ......................................................... 31
Training for the profession........................................................ 35
Careers in aeronautical engineering.......................................... 37
Relations with the community ................................................... 40
Legal and ethical issues........................................................... 45
Engineers as managers ........................................................... 46
The engineering report ....................................................................49
Structure of a focus engineering report ..................................... 49
Sample engineering report ....................................................... 51
Exercise sheet ..................................................................................61
Progress check .................................................................................63
Exercise cover sheet........................................................................65
Part 1: Aeronautical engineering scope and engineering report 1

Arial Arial bold
Introduction
The purpose of this part is to introduce you to the scope and nature of the
aeronautical engineering profession.
What will you learn?

You will learn about:
the nature and scope of the aeronautical engineering profession
current projects and innovations
health and safety issues
training for the profession
career prospects
unique technologies in the profession
legal and ethical implications
engineers as managers
relations with the community.
You will learn to:

define the responsibilities of the aeronautical engineer
describe the nature of work done in this profession
examine projects and innovations from within the aeronautical
profession
analyse the training and career prospects within aeronautical
engineering.
Refer to <http//ww.boardofstudies.nsw.edu.au> for original and current documents.
2 Aeronautical engineering
Scopeofaeronauticalengineering
Today, you would pay little attention to the sound of an over-flying

aircraft, that is, if you noticed it at all. Yet less than ninety years ago
everyone around you would have looked skyward and wondered in awe
at the sight.
The aircraft of 90 years ago was not the sophisticated unit that you may
see in the sky today. They were a combination of timber, wire, fabric and
a crude engine or two, flown on a wing and a prayer. The designers of
these aircraft were not aeronautical engineers as such. More often than
not they were scientists or enthusiastic amateurs. The little knowledge
they did possess was the collected result of a variety of experiments with
kites and models conducted during the late 1800s and early 1900s. Often
the over enthusiastic and over confident experimenters piloted their less
than airworthy designs to an early grave. Could this have been a form of
natural selection?
Many early workers used the empirical data collected from these many
failures and a few successes to develop the first working aircraft. This
was not always done with reference to pure theory and equations.
Basically the cambered wing at a suitable angle of attack appeared to
give good lift. Consequently many aircraft experimenters chose to
concentrate on the cambered wing and other ideas that seemed to be a
good idea at the time. However, scientists such as Dr Lancaster had
developed and confirmed mathematical theories for phenomena such as
lift generation and induced drag well before the Wright Brothers first
flew an aircraft.
Todays aeronautical engineers still use models. The test pilot still has to
be the first person to pilot the aircraft. However, the Concord and the FA
18 Hornet, could not be designed without extensive reference to
aeronautical theory and use of sophisticated calculation. The test pilot
will have already flown many hours in a flight simulator which emulates
the predicted in-flight characteristics of the new aircraft. This then is the
domain of the aeronautical engineer.

Arial Arial bold
List the general areas of knowledge that you think a team of aeronautical
engineers would need to possess to design and build a complete aircraft.
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
Did you answer?

aerodynamics
electrical and electronic systems
materials technology
hydraulics
fuel engines and propulsion systems
structural mechanics
drawing and drafting skills.
Before venturing further into the day to day complexities of being an

aeronautical engineer you should take a step back to consider the aircraft
as an engineered system.
Aerodynamics
An aircraft is not just a wing with a powerful jet engine strapped to it.
Moreover it is the product of a combined effort by hundreds of
individual designers and engineers working toward a common goal. As
aircraft grow more sophisticated no one person can fully understand
every detail that goes into an aircrafts design.
An aircraft before all other considerations is an aerodynamic entity. It is

held aloft by the lift forces generated by the camber and angle of attack
of the wing. It is restrained by drag forces created by form and shape of
the aircraft and induced through the process of generating lift. The ever-
present pull of gravity will eventually pull all aircraft back to earth.
The movement of air around an aircraft is a complex thing to understand

and at times it is difficult to predict. Aerodynamic theory helps predict
the movement of air and the amount of lift generated but it is only a
starting point.
Aerodynamics is a major concern of aeronautical engineers but there are
other equally important aspects to the profession.
Reel tricky
You will need:
a thumb tack or pin from the sewing cabinet
a small sheet of thin cardboard
a drawing compass and a pair of scissors.
a cotton reel from the same place that you found the pin.
Carry out the following steps:

1 draw an 80 mm diameter circle on the cardboard, then cut out the
circle using the scissors
2 push the thumb tack or pin through the center of the cardboard disc
so that the pointy end goes through as far as it can go
3 pick up the cotton reel, place the pointy end of the tack or pin into
the hole on the bottom side of the cotton reel and hold the disk in
place with your finger
4 blow through the top of the cotton reel and let go of the disk while
you are still blowing.
Blow
Cotton reel
Pin
Cardboard disk
Figure 1.1 The disk on the cotton reel trick

Arial Arial bold
The disk should have remained in position until you stopped blowing.
When you stopped blowing the disk should have fallen down.
Explain why the disk behaved the way it did.

__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
Did you answer?

Air moving over the disk had velocity and therefore a dynamic pressure
component. Benoullis predictions on total pressure would indicate that the
static pressure above the disk in the moving air would therefore be lower than
the pressure below the disk in still air, therefore the disk experiences lift.
(The disk is pushed upwards by the higher pressure beneath it.)
Propulsion systems
An aircraft requires a propulsion system to provide thrust (or in the case
of a glider, a launching system to get it into the air in the first place). An
engineer will have to decide the best combination of engine and thrust
device to attach to an aircraft.
Identify engine types and thrust devices that are used on new or old
aircraft.
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
Did you answer?

Some of the engine types and thrust devices you may have identified include;
internal combustion engine, jet engine, turbine, radial, propeller, fan, rotor and
rocket.
You will hear more of propulsion systems in the mechanics and hydraulics
part of this module.
Stress-n-Strain
Aeronautical engineers who design superbly aerodynamic aircraft that
crash and burn because the wings fall off will not lead a successful career.
The aeronautical engineer has to calculate and consider the forces present
in all components of the aircraft. They then have to predict whether the
material that the components are manufactured from will sustain that load
without failure. This prediction must be for the full service life of the
aircraft. If a component is predicted to fail within the service life of the
aircraft, the engineer will mandate when that component must be
periodically replaced. The piston engines in light aircraft usually have a
minor service after 100 hours operating time and a major service every
1000 hours operating time. A major service will involve a full strip-down
of the engine. Many components, for example pistons, must be replaced
whether or not they appear to be in serviceable condition. Other
components will be subjected to testing.

Arial Arial bold
Materials
Linked to considerations of structural forces are the consideration and
selection of appropriate materials. An aeronautical engineer will need to
have a good knowledge of the manufacturing and service properties of the
materials used on aircraft. An aircraft operates in a harsh environment.
During any flight an aircraft is subjected to constant vibration, to stresses
due to turbulence, to cyclic pressurisation and depressurisation of the
cabin, to moisture and to wide fluctuations of temperature. The
temperature on the ground may be 36C while at 38 000 feet it may be
60C. Materials selected must first be readily formed in the shapes
required and must secondly be suited to the service conditions.
Predict or identify any materials based problems that might occur due to
the harsh environment that the aircraft is subject to.
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
Did you answer?

brittleness at low temperature
fatigue due to repeated cycles of stress
crack propagation under high stresses, vibration, temperature changes
corrosion due to continuous exposure to the elements
failure under impact
loss of strength at high temperature.
Avionics and electrical

Modern aircraft depend on many electronic systems to safely complete
their flights. The flight deck instruments, navigation systems, the
actuation of aerodynamic surfaces, the landing and autopilot systems are
now controlled by electronics and micro-processor systems. The design
and implementation of avionics is the realm of another engineer, the
electrical or electronic engineer. The aeronautical engineer must
however be aware of the impact of these systems when designing an
aircraft.
Control systems and hydraulics
The control surfaces of aircraft; elevators, ailerons, rudders and flaps
need to move in response to pilot inputs on the control column and
rudder pedals. In light aircraft this is achieved using wires and rods. In
large commercial jets this is done with hydraulic systems connected to
electronic or hydraulic controllers.
Cowl Cockpit/cabin
Spinner
Prop
Wing tip
Aileron
Flaps
Fuselage
Tailplane
Trim tab Elevator
Fin and rudder

Figure 1.2 Main parts on an aeroplane
If you have access to the Internet visit

<http://www.aero.usyd.edu.au/aero/aerodyn.html> this Sydney University
web site is an excellent source for additional aeronautics information
(accessed 30.10.01).

Arial Arial bold
Unique technologies in aeronautical

engineering
Many of the technologies found in the aeronautical engineering
profession are not unique in the sense that they are solely found and used
in this discipline. The technologies used by the aeronautics industry are
also found in industries that deal with similar problems and issues.
For instance, if you were to design a high technology, 18 foot racing

skiff, you would need to consider and use many of the technologies
available in the aeronautics industry, excluding perhaps the requirement
for the vessel to fly.
Can you identify any technologies that you believe overlap between
aeronautics and boat-building industries? Consider the major areas of
emphasis in this course; history, materials, mechanics and
communication.
List the technologies that you believe overlap between the aircraft
industry and the construction of high tech boats.
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Did you answer?

materials such as graphite and kevlar and aluminium alloys
computerised design and drawing systems
wind tunnel testing of airframes and sails
computerised calculation systems.
Aircraft design
Aircraft design is primarily concerned with flight and how to achieve this
condition safely and efficiently. Basically an aircraft must be
aerodynamically sound have lots of lift and minimal drag.
The aircraft must also be as light as possible to maximize its payload and
to allow it to get off the ground in the first place. The materials must be
suited to the operating conditions and the environment and remain in
good condition for the expected service life of the aircraft.
The aircraft must also be structurally sound. The stresses in the
components must not exceed the component's safe working limits.
Nothing ruins a pilots day more than having the wings fold up in a tight
turn!
Finally, aircraft components are often sourced from manufacturers from

all over the world. To ensure that it all goes together when all the parts
arrive, very accurate and detailed drawings are required by each
component manufacturer. These have to be drawn to internationally
accepted standards.
So, you ask, what has all this got to do with weekend sailors and flimsy
boats?
Skiff design
A sailing skiff, aside from any other considerations, must use wind and
air to drive it. A close inspection of a sail in operation will reveal that
the sail is in fact a curved aerofoil not a flat sheet of sailcloth. You
would notice this particularly on the sail of a windsurfer. The sail
develops lift just as does the wing of an aircraft.
The hull of the skiff moves through a fluid that you refer to as water. A
badly designed hull generates a large amount of drag that slows the skiff
down. The skipper usually comments loudly about this situation as
better-designed skiffs race past on their way to the finish line. Many
designers of modern racing skiffs use sophisticated fluid dynamics
software to assist in designing both hull and sails.
Similarly, these same designers are concerned with the two competing
virtues of low weight and structural strength. In Auckland, in 1995, the
Americas cup challenger One Australia broke into two reasonably
large but none-the-less rapidly sinking pieces. This was a perfect
example of poor strength to weight analysis. Put simply, the structural
forces imposed on the hull exceeded the strength of the hull material.
The designer sacrificed strength to obtain a lighter hull and paid the
price.
The strength and modulus of light weight materials such as marine and
aircraft grade aluminium, carbon fibre composites and Kevlar are
compared to complex mechanical analyses of the hull, spar and sail
design. Again software solutions exist and are utilized.
The skiffs final drawings and component shapes may be drawn by hand.
Often the drawings are produced using common, off the shelf CAD
programs or perhaps specialist lofting software designed for the marine
industry.

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As you can see, the technologies in two seemingly unrelated industries

are similar in nature and do overlap. However, the aeronautical
engineering profession is distinct in some very significant ways:
The scale of operations and the shear complexity of the calculations
involved in aeronautical engineering are infinitely greater.
The aircraft industry uses and often develops leading edge
technology. Leading edge technology is usually very expensive.
Industries such as the manufacturers of small boats tend to acquire
this technology when it is more established and the cost of the new
technology is more affordable.
More about aeronautical engineering technologies

You will now learn more about some of the leading edge technologies
associated with the aircraft industry.
The technologies tend to fall into two broad areas; those technologies
used to design the aircraft, and those technologies associated with the
materials manufacturing aspects of aircraft.
Aircraft design technologies

Throughout this course you have been involved in calculating forces,
reactions, moments and stress in two dimensions and only on flat or
uniform surfaces. At times you may have considered the calculations a
little difficult.
Consider then the degree of difficulty that would be involved if you now
had to calculate forces and moments in three dimensions, on curved
surfaces with loads that fluctuated and using calculus that Extension 2
(4 Unit) mathematics does not cover. Does this conjure up an image in
your mind?
Now imagine applying similarly difficult calculations to more than a

thousand points across a single wing. Are you now thinking that this is
getting a little difficult?
A modern jet aircraft may contain over a million individual components

and someone has to draw each and every one of them. Again, just to
make things difficult virtually every component is curved in some special
and very critical way. Imagine the most difficult drawing that you have
done so far in this course, then multiply the degree of difficulty by ten.
Then repeat the drawing several thousand times.
Starting to get the picture yet!
List some systems and products that exist to reduce the difficulty and
complexity of designing modern jet aircraft.
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Did you answer?

One of the most significant is computerised design and calculation software.
Others include off the shelf systems for navigation, communication and
cockpit management.
The bad news
All aeronautical engineers have to learn and understand how to do these

difficult calculations. They have to use their brain, some mathematics
and a calculator. Aspiring aeronautical engineers soon encounter the
complexities of computational analysis (difficult mathematics). They
will see a lot more calculation before their aeronautical engineering
course finally ends.
The good news
There are software tools available to assist the engineer in the design
process. To use these software tools effectively and correctly the
engineer must first understand the underlying mathematics and theory on
which these programs are based. That is, you must be able to understand
and do the mathematics before using the program.
You will now examine four common categories of aircraft design

software:
structural analysis software
modeling software
aerodynamic calculation software
CAD software.

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Structural analysis software

The structural analysis of an aircraft is a complex problem. There are not
many straight lines involved, virtually every component is curved, even
the ones that look straight are usually curved. The loading is not
uniform, it varies from point to point. In other words, the loads and
stresses will vary infinitely across the components being analysed. An
infinite number of equations could take quite some time.
The solution is really quite straight-forward. If an engineer intends to

examine the forces, stresses and moments in an aircraft wing, the wing
can be mathematically broken up into a large number of sections referred
to as elements. The conditions in each element are then examined. The
results from each element are combined together to produce a
distribution of forces, stresses and moments across the wing.
The number of elements considered in this procedure is finite. There is

an upper limit to the number of elements to be analysed. This
mathematical process is called finite element analysis. The industry
abbreviates this to FEA. Finite element analysis is a very powerful tool
but is very slow when done by hand.
A very popular finite element software (FEA) package in the aircraft

industry is called NASTRAN. This package falls into the category of a
computer aided engineering software (CAE) tool. NASTRAN is a high
end software tool for critical engineering applications. It is capable of
stress, vibration, heat transfer, acoustic and aeroelastic analysis.
If you have access to the Internet visit <http://www.mechsolutions.com>.

Select the appropriate option from the software section of the directory to
find out more about NASTRAN (accessed 06.11.01).
Modeling software
The production and testing of physical working models is a costly and
time consuming activity. An activity that is closely related to finite
element analysis is finite element modeling. In the aeronautical
engineering industry finite element modeling is abbreviated to FEM.
Using finite element modeling software, an engineer can construct

models using computer aided design (CAD) parts, submit the models for
simulation and observe the behavior of the model under simulation. The
results can be used to modify and improve the product designs to yield
better performance and to better resist loads.
A high end finite element modeling program that is commonly used in

the aeronautical engineering industry is PATRAN. This product is
produced by MSC, the same company that produces the analysis package
NASTRAN.
Figure 1.3 was produced by the Page Aircraft Company Pty Ltd using the
finite element modeling package PATRAN. This company is associated
with the University of NSW and is currently developing a light aircraft
that it hopes to put into full commercial production.
You can find out more about PATRAN at

<http://www.mechsolutions.com/products/index.htm>.
Figure 1.3 A PATRAN generated image of an aircraft under development
Reproduced with the permission of the Page Aircraft Company Pty Ltd
Aerodynamic calculation and modeling software

Aerodynamics is concerned primarily with the flow of air and the
interaction of that air with objects that it encounters. Aeronautical
engineers are usually concerned with the interaction of an aircrafts outer
surfaces with the air through which the aircraft moves.
'CFD' calculations can help to predict the lift and drag levels for a
particular airframe as well as stall and other performance characteristics.
Air is considered to be a fluid and the mathematical processes involved

in predicting the behaviour of the air is called computational fluid

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dynamics or CFD for short. The mathematics involved is complex but

again there is software available which can carry out these calculations.
Outline a practical way in which an aeronautical engineer could visualize

the flow of air around an aircraft without using software.
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Did you answer?

The flow of air around an aircraft can be observed using a wind tunnel where
wind is pushed over a model with smoke streams passing over it.
An industry standard software package commonly used by aeronautical

engineers is VSAERO. This package allows an engineer to input the
surface geometry of an aircraft. The surface geometry is simply the
outside shape of the aircraft. The engineer can also input reference
conditions such as velocity of the air, angle of attack of the wing and
yaw. The package will then calculate and display the predicted
behaviour of the air around the aircraft.
If you have access to the Internet visit <http://www.aminc.com/

Frameset.html >. Under products there is a graphic showing an image of
the C-130, the Hercules transport aircraft used by the Australian military
at present. Take a close look at what is happening to the wingtips
If you have access to the Internet visit

<http://www.princeton.edu/~asmits/C-130_Hercules.JPEG> to view a
photograph of a real C-130 activating anti missile flares (accessed
30.10.01).
Computer aided design

The last type of software package that you need to learn about are the
computer aided design (CAD) drawing packages. Youre probably
familiar with one of the CAD packages available for use on personal
computers. These include Autocad Light, Autosketch and TurboCAD.
These packages vary in power and are fine for standard drawing
applications such as architecture and medium scale manufacturing.
The aeronautics industry uses specialist CAD packages which fit the
industrys need to produce drawings of complex surface shapes and
curved components. They also use state of the art, multiple processor
workstations with large screen monitors for speed and ease of viewing.
The large monitors reduce eye-strain and allow more of each drawing to
be displayed. CAD software packages currently used by many
aeronautical engineering companies include CATIA and CADDS 5.
The CATIA package is promoted as CAD/CAM/CAE package. CATIA

can be used solely for drawing and designing. However, it can also be
used for CAM (computer aided manufacturing) and CAE applications.
If you have Internet access visit <http://www-

3.ibm.com/solutions/engineering/escatia.nsf/public/catia_overview> to find out
more about CATIA (accessed 30.10.01).
Figure 1.4 Image produced by the Page Aircraft Company Pty Ltd using
CATIA software. The aircraft shown is currently under development
Wind tunnels
To this point all the development tools have been based on computer
software. In the aerodynamic calculation and modeling section you were
asked to suggest a method of assessing the aerodynamic behaviour of an
aircraft without using computers. Many successful aircraft have been
developed without the aid of modern computers. In fact the computer
models are not perfect. The information provided by computer analysis
is usually valid but does not exactly predict the behaviour of a real
aircraft.

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Why do you think this is so?

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Did you answer?

Computer output is based on computational methods that have been
programmed into the computer.
These computational methods are based on theoretical analyses of
conditions.
Variables are input to reflect real situations and conditions as much as possible
but can never predict the precise conditions that exist.
Input into a computer is based on precise or perfect data, the behaviour of
materials, fluids and the like is not necessarily perfect.
The output from a computer program is based purely on the input.
Another method of assessing an aircraft design is to construct a very

accurate scale model then subject the model to wind tunnel testing.
Wind tunnel testing does not exactly predict the behaviour of a real, full-
size aircraft flying in open air. However, when scale effect corrections
are applied valid data can be obtained.
Model boats on ponds do not behave like real ships, the forces and
accelerations are all out of proportion. They bounce around like corks.
Similarly model aircraft in wind tunnels do not behave like real aircraft.
There are several reasons for this. It is difficult to make accurate models.
The sides of the wind tunnel constrain the air-flow. Most seriously, the
model is flown in full size air not model size air. This is known as the
scale effect.
Larger size models in larger size wind tunnels give the most meaningful
data. The most sophisticated wind tunnels actually compress the air at up
to 25 atmospheres to correct for scale effect.
Most aircraft design is based on both CFD and wind tunnel analysis.
This is because neither system gives perfect results.
The following photograph shows a model under test in a wind tunnel at

the University of NSW.
Figure 1.5 A model aircraft being tested in a wind tunnel
Manufacturing technologies and systems unique to

the aeronautics industry
Aeronautical engineers also deal with materials and manufacturing
processes that are highly specialized in their nature and could be
considered unique. The materials used for aircraft manufacture need to
possess very special manufacturing and service properties.
List five properties which you believe are important for materials used in
aircraft manufacture and construction. Give your reasons for each choice.
Property Reason why it is important

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Did you answer?
Property Reason why it is important
Low fatigue aircraft vibration can cause fatigue failures
High strength to lower the overall weight

weight
Corrosion resistance resist harsh operating conditions
Ductility Provide for forming of complex shapes

(before forming)
Elasticity allow the aircraft to flex
Later, in the materials section of this module you will investigate the
materials commonly used in the aircraft manufacturing industry. This
section is more concerned with the technologies used when dealing with
these materials.
Advanced composite materials

Two commonly used materials are aluminium and carbon fibre
composites. These materials are often used for very similar applications
in the aircraft industry. For instance they are both used as skins on wings
and aerofoil surfaces. These materials make an interesting comparison.
Aluminium is relatively soft, it exhibits moderate ductility, has a
relatively low Youngs modulus and is known to fatigue. Carbon fibre,
also known as graphite, is relatively brittle, exhibits a relatively high
Youngs modulus and cannot be plastically deformed once its binding
resin has set or cured. The characteristic that both materials share is the
ability to be formed easily around curved surfaces.
Carbon fibre composite is a relatively new material in the aircraft

industry. This material is quite different to aluminium both in its
manufacturing and in its service properties.
Aircraft companies do not make their own carbon fibre composites. The
companies use sheets of carbon fibre that are already impregnated with epoxy
or cyanate ester resin. This product is known commercially as prepreg.
If you have Internet access visit

<http://www.hexcelcomposites.com/products/prepregs/pr_p05.html> to find out
more about prepreg products and their use (accessed 30.10.01).
Figure1.6 A sheet of carbon-fibre prepreg formed onto a nickel mould before
being cured in an autoclave. This component will be a surface for
an aileron
Photograph taken with permission of Hawker de Havilland, Bankstown
Autoclaves
The resin in the sheets will harden or set when subjected to heat. To
prevent the resin from hardening the sheets of prepreg are refrigerated
until they are needed. To manufacture a component, the prepreg is
draped over a pattern or mould then pressed into shape.
To cure the prepreg it is heated in an autoclave until the resin has set.
You may have seen an autoclave at the dentists. It is the high
temperature, pressurised oven used to sterilize the drills and surgical
equipment. The autoclave at Hawker de Havilland, Bankstown can hold
the wing ailerons of a 737 jet. You could also fit two dentists surgeries
inside this autoclave.

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Figure 1.7 An autoclave
Photograph taken with the permission of Hawker de Havilland, Bankstown
Defect detection
Carbon fibre components may contain voids and it may delaminate
internally if mishandled during manufacture. These problems are
internal and will not be visible. To find these potentially dangerous
faults Hawker de Havilland use an ultra-sonic detection device.
An ultrasonic transmitter is mounted in a water stream that is played onto

the upper surface of the carbon fibre component. Directly opposite, an
ultra-sonic receiver is mounted in a second stream of water that is played
onto the lower surface of the component. A computer program is used to
ensure that the entire surface of the component is checked. If no faults
are present the ultrasonic waves will pass straight through the carbon
fibre. If the transmission of waves is interrupted then a void must be
present.
Ultrasonic transducer
Continuous water stream
Component with internal defect
Ultrasonic transducer
Figure 1.8 Ultrasonic waves pass through object to detect internal voids
The tendency for abrupt failure and delamination of carbon fibre

composites means that maintenance personnel must be extremely careful
when working on aircraft. A spanner dropped onto the carbon fibre skin
of a wing may initiate an internal delamination that is not visible on the
surface and not easily detected. In-flight failure could result from this
defect. Aluminium on the other hand would simply form a repairable
dent.
Figure 1.9 An ultrasonic test unit

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Some other technologies in brief

Shot-peening shot-peening has traditionally been used to produce a
smooth, fatigue resistant surface on finished components. This process
has been adapted to form sheet metal into 3D components such as
wingtips. The shot is used to beat the metal into hollow shaped
moulds. This results in a favourable metallurgy with relatively low set-up
cost.
CNC drilling if you look closely at an aircraft you will notice that the
skin is attached to the underlying components with rivets or sophisticated
fasteners such as Hi-Locs, not just ten or twenty rivets but thousands of
them. The position of the holes in the skin material is critical. At
Hawker de Havilland, a CNC drilling centre is utilized to ensure absolute
accuracy, every time.
A Gerber No this is not a small furry animal that eats carrots and lives
in a hutch. A Gerber is a computerised system that is used in the clothing
industry to optimize fabric use, mark out patterns and cut out fabric for
clothing manufacture. In the aircraft industry this system has been
adapted to mark out and cut the prepreg fabric prior to forming and
autoclaving. This is an example of innovative use of existing
technology.
List five technologies encountered in the aeronautical engineering

profession and briefly describe the application of each technology in the
profession.
Technology Application in the profession
Did you answer?
Technology Application in the profession
U/S testing detecting internal defects
Autoclaves setting graphite composites and similar products
Wind tunnels testing aerodynamic properties
FEA analysing stress
CFD analysing aerodynamic flow

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Current projects and innovations

Explain what you understand by the term innovation.
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Did you answer?
A material, technique, method or design, that is new or different.
In a previous section you examined some technologies that are utilized in

the aeronautics industry. In many cases the aeronautics industry was
either the first major user of these processes or materials or the industry
adapted an existing technology to perform a new task or process. This
falls into the category of innovation.
Aircraft design is influenced by a range of constraints and factors. The

ideal commercial jet aircraft would be inexpensive to develop and
manufacture, would be impossible for a pilot to crash, would use very
little fuel, would carry very high payloads, would be constructed from
material that never failed or fatigued, would have silent engines and
would fly at Mach 5. Dream on!!! This is not to say that aircraft
designers do not strive for these goals. Innovation by aeronautical
engineers has resulted in improvement in aircraft design, manufacturing
and in-service performance.
You will now learn about some more current projects and innovations.
Winglets
If you look closely at the wings of many modern jet aircraft you will
notice at the wing-tip, that up to three metres of the wing is turned
upward at about 45. This turned up end is known as a winglet and is the
current must have aerodynamic accessory.
Now for a little theory. When a wing is generating lift the upper surface
of the wing has a lower pressure over it compared to the pressure on the
underneath surface of the wing. As well, the air under the wing tends to
migrate towards the tip of the wing and spill off when it gets there. The
higher pressure air under the wing tend to move rapidly around the tip of
the wing to the area of low pressure on the top of the wing. At the same
time this same air is trailing off the back of the wing. The effect of this is
to form a powerful column of rapidly spiraling air behind the aircraft.
This is known as wing-tip vortex or wake vortex.
So what, you ask?
Any turbulence generated by the creation of lift will simultaneously

increase the drag on an aircraft. Drag is the enemy of aeronautical
engineers. Drag reduces the overall efficiency of the aircraft. Reduce
vortex generation and you increase performance and decrease fuel usage.
A light aircraft taking off can be completely flipped over and crash if it
passes through the vortex left by a heavy jet which has just taken off.
Figure 1.10 Wing tip vortices
Winglets are the latest in a long line of strategies aimed at reducing

vortex induced drag. Previous reduction techniques include wash out,
high aspect ratio and the addition of ramps on the surface of the wing to
prevent the migration of air along the wing. All these measures have had
some effect in reducing wing-tip vortex.
The invention of winglets suitable for modern high speed subsonic jets is
credited to R.T.Whitcomb of NASA. The Gates Learjet Model 28
Longhorn was the first turbojet to be certified with winglets. In this
case the tip tanks on a Model 25 were replaced with winglets and it
became a Model 28.
Currently there is a trend to retrofit the older jet aircraft fleet with
winglets and to include them in the design of new aircraft. Boeing has
developed a number of winglet kits to fit various jet aircraft. Boeing in
partnership with Aviation Partners will design, develop, certify, fabricate,
market, sell and install winglets on in-service Boeing aircraft. Boeing
will provide technical data and marketing support, while Aviation
Partners will provide existing winglet technology, winglet design and
program management.

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Boeing claims that the winglets technology has the potential to reduce
aerodynamic drag, increase cruise performance, improve fuel burn,
extend range and allow heavier payloads for winglet-equipped airplanes.
The parking bays at major airports impose a maximum wing-span when
designing an aircraft. Winglets can assist here by reducing the wing-span
slightly but maintaining the overall lift. The current requirement is for
the aircraft to fit in an 80 metre square if it is to manoeuver in a standard
parking bay.
Figure 1.11 Wingtip winglets on a business jet at Bankstown airport
Advanced Machining Centre

An Advanced Machining Centre is a computer controlled machine and is
also known as a CNC machining centre. This machine may have up to
several hundred different cutting tools available to automatically select
from. The machine uses the cutters to carry out the operations usually
performed by lathes, drills and milling machines.
The shapes that the machine finally produces can be down-loaded from
the CAD programs that the items were originally designed with. The
machine can also be programmed directly from an operator panel. The
operator will often need to do fine adjustments to the machining cycle to
achieve optimum performance. This interaction of CAD program with a
computer controlled machine is sometimes called CAD-CAM.
To produce a component a solid block of metal or a partially finished

item is clamped into the machine. The machining center cuts away
excess metal until the final shape is produced. The machining shown in
figure 1.11 is set up to machine flat blocks of aluminum into wings spars
for aircraft. The flat aluminium is held down onto another clamping
block using a vacuum rather than some mechanical vice or chuck. You
can see the vacuum clamps in the foreground of the photograph of the
machining center.
The machining centres can produce components of a complex shape at a

high rate and to very fine tolerance. They are usually fully enclosed for
sound attenuation and to protect the operator from flying swarf
(fragments of metal) and coolants. This is a response to OH&S issues.
The machining centre is not an innovation in itself. Its application to

machine spars and components which were previously fabricated
represents innovative use of existing technology.
Figure 1.12 a Aluminium blocks before machining

b An advanced machining center
c Winglet spars produced from solid aluminium
Photographed with permission of Hawker de Havilland, Bankstown
Has it occurred to you that there is a conflict here between your

metallurgical knowledge and what is happening in this machining centre?
The winglets and wingspars would obtain optimum metallurgical

properties if they were forged or pressed to shape due to the grain-flow
and grain refinement that results. However, these components have been
machined from a solid block of quite expensive Series 7000 aircraft grade
aluminium. Even fabrication appears to be a better option. This
machining process generates an enormous amount of waste product.

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Outline why you think the aeronautical engineers have chosen this
process instead of other alternatives.
Hint: Think about how many aircraft are likely to be manufactured, the
fact that a wing may have ten or more different sized spars in it and that
the machine is computer controlled.
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Did you answer?

relatively small scale production
many different components
very high tolerance required.
Health and safety issues
In this section you will learn about some examples of safety issues in the
aeronautics industry and how they are dealt with by the industry.
Occupational health and safety (OH&S)

All employers have an obligation to provide a safe and healthy work
environment for their employees. The employer must identify and
effectively deal with hazards and hazardous activities in the workplace.
One common regime for controlling and dealing with hazards, comprises
four control measures:
1 Eliminate the hazard
This is the most effective way of making the workplace safer. In the
wet, confined environment of an underground mine, electric
powered tools would result in regular electrocutions. Solution: use
tools powered by compressed air.
2 Change equipment or materials
Most painters now prefer to use water paints to reduce the risks that
are involved in painting with organic solvent based paints.
3 Change work practices
In an office environment this may involve training staff to use stable
step ladders to reach high objects rather that standing on unstable
swivel chairs.
4 Use Personal Protection Equipment (PPE)
This is the least desirable control measure. In a noisy factory with a
lot of metal grinding going on all the workers would need to wear
hearing and eye protection all the time.
OH&S issues in the aeronautics industry

In the aeronautics industry, in the design, the manufacturing and the
maintenance areas, the work environment is usually well lit, clean and
well organized. In the aeronautics industry cleanliness and attention to
detail are high priorities. You will now examine some examples of
safety issues in the aeronautics industry.
Fibre dusts
Cured carbon fibre and glass-fibre components need trimming to size

with routers and grinders. This generates a large quantity of fine dust
which can penetrate deeply into the lungs of workers causing discomfort

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and can also cause skin irritation. It is known that fine mineral fibres
such as asbestos and silica can cause fatal lung conditions. The (Material
Specification Data Sheet) MSDS sheets for carbon fibre or glass fibre
products indicate that at present these products are not suspected of
causing fatal conditions but they strongly suggest that these dusts should
not be breathed in.
At Hawker de Havilland the trimming of carbon fibre and glass fibre

products is carried out in a booth where the dust is sucked out of the
factory using powerful fans. The workers in the booth wear fully
enclosed body suits with fresh filtered breathing air pumped into the suit.
Figure 1.12 Trimming of cured carbon fibre components in a dust control booth
Outline the control measures being used for carbon fibre dusts.
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Did you answer?
Reduction of hazardous materials via extraction and PPE where a full face
shield protects the operator.
Noise
Noise presents problems in the manufacture, maintenance and operation

of aircraft. Workers can easily be exposed to noise levels above 100
decibels (dB) when in the vicinity of operating jet engines or riveting
processes in factories. Relatively short exposure to high levels of noise
can lead to permanent hearing damage. The NSW Work Cover
Authority recommends the following maximum exposure times for noise.
Noise level dB Maximum Exposure
85 8Hrs
88 4 hrs
91 2hrs
94 1 hr
97 30 min
100 15 min
The noise output of a jet engine averages 103 decibels. Extrapolating

from the table above, what is the maximum exposure time that you would
recommend for a worker without suitable hearing protection.
Maximum exposure time: _____________________________________
Did you answer?
7.5 min. Every increase of 3dB in noise level corresponds to a reduction of

exposure by half.
Control measures for noise vary depending on the situation. For ground
control personnel working near operating jet aircraft the noise cannot be
eliminated. The personnel must wear earmuffs.
For maintenance crews testing jet engines at the QANTAS jet base, an
engine can be run up to operating power in a noise proof jet test cell.
This isolates the harmful noise to areas where there are no test personnel.
The traditional riveting process used in producing aircraft is very noisy.

Recent developments in rivet technology have significantly reduced the
noise levels in some specialised riveting processes. Several companies
produce a range of rivets which are designed to expand and then shear
when driven with special tools. This leads to much reduced levels of
noise. Hawker de Havilland use rivets produced by Hi-loc on some

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projects. This is an engineered solution which reduces noise and reduces

or eliminates the need for hearing protection.
Chemical hazards
Many organic solvents are linked to, or are suspected of being linked to
cancer and other degenerative conditions in humans. Where possible
these substances are being eliminated in industrial processes.
Many aeronautics companies are now substituting water-based paint for

solvent based paints and lacquers. Water based paints do not give off
flammable vapours, do not contain large quantities of organic solvents
and are considered to be more environmentally friendly. Water-based
paints are therefore safer for workers to use.
Summing up
These are just a few examples of the OH&S issues that confront the
aeronautical engineering industry. Many of the processes involved in
aircraft production and maintenance have the potential to cause injury or
loss of health. High levels of training, a strong commitment to safety and
open, well thought-out factory layouts are typical of this industry.
Training for the profession
In this topic you will learn about the aeronautical engineering training
available in NSW.
List five skills or areas of knowledge that would help an engineer win a
job. State why the skill is important in the aviation and aeronautics
industry.
Skill Importance in aeronautics industry
Did you answer?
Skill Importance in aeronautics industry
Team to work effectively with others

1
Drafting To convey designs efficiently to others

2
Testing/provin to test models

3 g
Calculation to assess designs

4
Analytical to design to legislative requirements

5

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To become an aeronautical engineer you must complete a Bachelor of

Engineering in Aeronautical Engineering at university level.
Aeronautical engineers require skills that are very similar to those of
mechanical engineers. Often there is a great deal of overlap between
courses for aeronautical engineers and the courses for mechanical
engineers. In fact, many engineers involved in aircraft design are
mechanical engineers who have specialised in this field.
The University of Sydney and the University of New South Wales

(UNSW) both offer four year undergraduate courses in aeronautical
engineering. The University of NSW offers aeronautical engineering at
its Kensington campus in Sydney and at the Australian Defence Force
Academy (ADFA) campus in Canberra. The courses at these institutions
cover basic engineering in Year 1 and 2. The courses only become
strongly focused on aeronautical engineering in Years 3 and 4.
At the University of Sydney, introductory aerodynamics, introductory

aeronautics and flight performance are studied in Years 1 and 2. At the
UNSW students follow a common mechanical engineering course with
no aeronautical subjects. At both institutions students in the third and
fourth years specialize in aeronautical subjects. The fourth year involves
a major project which integrates the various skills learned during the
course.
The subjects studied in Year 1 and Year 2 at UNSW include:

Mathematics, Design and the Engineering Profession, Engineering
Mechanics, Mechanics of Solids, Computing, Engineering Mathematics,
Fluid Mechanics and Thermodynamics, Machine Design and Chemistry.
In the final two years the subjects studied include: Aerospace Design,
Flight Dynamics and Systems, Analysis of Aerospace Structures,
Advanced Aerodynamics and Propulsion, Professional Responsibilities,
Linear Systems Analysis, Principles of Control, Management for
Engineers, Vibration Analysis, Programming and Numerical Methods,
Computing Applications in Mechanical Systems and Communications
for Professional Engineers.
The University of Western Sydney and the University of Newcastle offer

courses in aviation studies. These courses however are aimed at students
who wish to become commercial or air transport pilots. These courses
do not lead to engineering qualifications.
Careers in aeronautical engineering
Aeronautical engineering as a profession offers graduates a wide range of
opportunities both in Australia and internationally. The 1998 Sydney
University Graduate Program booklet indicates that almost all
aeronautical engineering graduates are in full time employment within
four months of graduating. Similar statistics are suggested by the
University of NSW.
So what do graduates end up doing?
Identify some jobs or general areas of work that aeronautical engineers

might be involved in after graduating.
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
Did you answer?

aircraft design engineer
aircraft maintenance engineer
aircraft accident investigation.
aircraft repair
Graduates may follow a number of career paths.
The most obvious field is that involving the design, development and
manufacture of aircraft and aircraft components. This field most closely
matches the skills that a graduate develops during their undergraduate
training. In Australia companies such as Boeing Australia, British
Aerospace and Hawker de Havilland employ aeronautical engineers to
carry out design, development and manufacturing tasks.
Aircraft in service require regular maintenance. Engineers with an

understanding of aircraft design and construction are needed to supervise
and manage the maintenance of sophisticated aircraft. Companies such
as Qantas and Ansett employ aeronautical engineers to carry out such
tasks.
Government authorities such as CASA, the Civil Aviation Safety

Authority, employ engineers to monitor maintenance and modification of
aircraft in the civil register. BASI, the Bureau of Air Safety Investigation

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are a division of the Australian Transport Safety Bureau and are involved
in investigating incidents and accidents involving aircraft in Australian
airspace. Engineers in consultation with other specialists will be required
to investigate the underlying causes of air crashes. BASI publishes a
journal that summarises the reports from accident investigations. The
journal is also reproduced on the BASI web site. You might like to try to
find the BASI site on the Internet.
The Australian defense forces train and employ aeronautical engineers.

The airforce is the main employer. Air Force Engineers monitor the
failure of aircraft components, evaluate proposed modifications and
repair schemes for aircraft and supervise and evaluate equipment trials.
Engineer Officers perform a wide range of engineering, maintenance,
quality assurance and resource management tasks. The work of these
engineers provide the Air Force with airworthy, mission capable aircraft
and ground support equipment.
A closer look at careers in design and manufacturing

The following section will focus on the career options of aeronautical
engineers in aircraft design and manufacturing.
The Dornier company develops regional aircraft and manufactures

aircraft components. Recently the company has begun development of a
new jet passenger aircraft. To assist in the design and development of
the aircraft, the company advertised internationally in a number of trade
magazines for graduate engineers in the area of aviation and aerospace.
The introductory comments in the companies recruitment material

indicated that they required graduates with highly developed
communications skills, who took on responsibility, were flexible and
worked effectively in teams. Other general criteria included fluency in
conversational and technical English, familiarity with Microsoft Office
and high motivation.
Explain why you believe the company includes works effectively in

teams and well developed communications skills as job criteria.
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
Did you answer?
There are many skills required in the design of aircraft that are not usually able
to be covered by one person. Usually several skilled people are required to
work together on every component of the project. Therefore, the ability to work
well with other people and be able to communicate effectively with them is
particularly important.
The recruitment information went on to list the development groups in

which graduates could be employed. They were:
Pre design and loft
Aerodynamics
Weights
Aeroelastic/loads
Structural design
Flight mechanics
Systems development
Completions and options.
Each of the development groups required members with specialised

experience and or skills. The groups represent the engineering
considerations required when undertaking the design of an aircraft.
Finance, marketing and other considerations are taken care of by other
similarly specialized groups.

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Relations with the community

The relationship and impact of any organization on the wider community
is often difficult to define and is not always obvious. The design,
construction, maintenance and operation of aircraft impact on the
community in both positive and negative ways. Excessive noise,
pollution of the air, water and land, sustainability, waste disposal and
recycling are all issues that can impact on the community, both locally
and globally.
You may recall that the construction of the third runway at Sydneys
Kingsford Smith Airport caused a great deal of controversy and political
manoeuvering. Explain why you think the third runway proposal was so
unpopular.
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
Did you answer?

The third runway increased both the number of landings and take-offs and it
widened the zone over which aircraft fly. In simple terms more people were
exposed to more noise not very good politically.
The development of pressurised, high capacity, jet aircraft has

revolutionized long distance travel and trade. In the 1950s only the very
well off were able to fly to London from Australia. This was achieved
not in a single hop but in several stages with overnight stop-overs. The
aircraft would most likely have been a QANTAS Super Constellation
with four huge propellers. Now almost anyone can afford at some time
in their life to fly non-stop to London in 22 hours. This has been a
positive effect of aeronautical engineering on the community. Increased
trade, increased tourism and increased employment have been positive
results.
The aeronautical engineering industry has the potential to impact

negatively on the community. (Hopefully not an unplanned descent into
terrain type impact). Aircraft safety, excessive noise, environmental
pollution, sustainability and recycling are issues that affect the
community. As with other industries the negative impacts rather than
positive impacts are more likely to end up on the front page of the
morning newspaper.
Aircraft operations are the most public manifestation of an aeronautical

engineers work. Any resident whose house lies under a flight path will
tell you that a Boeing 747 at full take off power just 200 metres above
your family home is fairly noisy. If that resident had lived at that same
address 30 years ago the noise from a Boeing 707 would have been
absolutely deafening.
Several strategies have been adopted to reduce the noise effect of aircraft
over residential areas. Government imposed restrictions such as curfews
restricting the operating hours of airports and noise abatement procedures
such as reduced take-off power reduce the impact of aircraft noise on
residents. The locating of new airports away from residential areas also
helps.
Aeronautical engineers have contributed through the design and

development of quieter jet engines for new aircraft and hush kits for
older, noisy aircraft. The development and use of high bypass jet engines
has considerably reduced the noise generated by aircraft.
The BAE 146 is an aircraft designed to operate into and out of airports
with strict curfew noise limitations. It is marketed by BA as the Quiet
Trader and uses four relatively quiet small engines to generate relatively
low noise levels on take-off. Approximately 30 of these aircraft are
registered and operate in Australia. Unfortunately there is an
occupational health and safety issue that is associated with these aircraft.
There is often a strong smell of engine fumes in the passenger cabin of
the aircraft. Many of the aircrew have complained of long term ill effects
from these fumes. This issue became the subject of an Australian Senate
report in October 2000. The report concluded that the maintenance of
seals and aircraft air filtering systems was to blame.
Does this sound like engineering problems?
The manufacture and maintenance of aircraft can have consequences for

the community and the environment. Most aviation companies are aware
of these issues and make a genuine effort to deal with them.
Bauxite, the ore from which aluminium is extracted, is very common and
is easily mined yet aluminium is quite expensive to purchase. Explain
why this might be the case. Think about the manufacturing process.
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________

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Did you answer?
The refining process for aluminium uses very large amounts of electricity which
is very expensive. If the electricity is produced by the burning of coal, then it is
also environmentally undesirable. Hydroelectric power is also environmentally
damaging.
Here are a few examples from Hawker de Havilland, Bankstown:

prepreg waste
When cutting the component shapes from prepreg sheet an amount
of unusable waste is generated. Prepreg waste contains uncured
epoxy resins that could leach into the environment and do damage if
disposed of in land fill. Cured epoxy is very stable and not a
problem so the company simply cures the waste in the autoclave
before disposing of it.
dust pollution control
You may recall from the OH&S section that when prepreg was
machined a fine dust was generated. This dust was extracted from the
work area by powerful fans. Where did it go? Well it didnt just get
pushed out into the outside air ready to drift across Bankstown. It was
in fact pumped into a concentrating device called a cyclone bin that
uses centrifugal forces to separate dust from air. Figure 1.13 shows one
of the dust concentration systems at Hawker de Havilland.
Figure 1.14 Dust concentrator bins prevent escape of hazardous dust to the environment
aluminium recycling
You were asked previously to explain why aluminium is relatively
expensive. The process of refining uses very large amounts of
electricity which costs large amounts of money and generates large
amounts of carbon-based greenhouse gases, unless it is generated by
hydroelectric power which requires the damming of wild rivers.
Hawker de Havilland generates a large amount of Series 7000

aircraft grade aluminium waste in the CNC machining centre. This
high zinc alloy is not manufactured at present in Australia and it is
relatively expensive. The waste is compressed into bales in a
machine that is similar to a hay-baler and shipped back to the United
States for recycling. See the photograph of the compressed alloy
blocks in figure 1.15.
Figure 1.15 Blocks of compressed series7000 aluminiun alloy waste ready for
shipping to US
paints
Hawker de Havilland have made changes toward more
environmentally friendly paints. Firstly there is an increased use of
water-based paints. This reduces the need for solvent-based paints
and lacquers. Secondly the anti-corrosion paints and sealants that
Hawker de Havilland now use contain far lower levels of zinc
chromate or use alternative chemicals such as the salts of rare-earth
elements such as cerium. These are more environmentally friendly
corrosion inhibitors.
Aeronautical engineers must also be aware of health and safety issues

when designing aircraft. Poorly designed cockpit layouts where
ergonomics are not fully considered can lead to pilot fatigue. Situations
where the layout of the controls of the aircraft are altered can lead to

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accidents. A number of years ago a new model of a light aircraft was

manufactured with the position of the wing-flap control and the
undercarriage control reversed. It is common practice for pilots to return
the flaps to the up position just after landing. Quite a number of pilots
returned the wheels to the up position just after landing because of the
controls being reversed. While the wheels do not usually retract due to
the weight of the aircraft, they will if the aircraft hits a bump or is lifted
by a gust of wind.
The case of engine fumes in the BAE146 Quiet Trader also highlights the
need to address OH&S in the initial design of an aircraft and its
maintenance schedule.
Legal and ethical issues
The design, construction, maintenance and operation of aircraft is tightly
regulated by a range of legislation and international conventions.
Aeronautics companies may also be sued for errors in design and
manufacturing of an aircraft, this is known as product liability.
On December 7, 1944 the Convention on Civil Aviation was agreed to

and signed by 52 member states. This convention is usually called the
Chicago Convention after the city where it was signed. This
convention recognized that aviation was an international industry that
required consistent rules that applied in all member nations. The
International Civil Aviation Organisation commonly known as ICAO
oversees the implementation of policy and standards associated with the
Chicago Convention.
Australia is a signatory to the Chicago Convention and Australias Civil

Aviation Act is aligned to the convention. This Act and the Civil
Aviation Regulations (CARs) that are made under it directly affect the
aeronautical engineering profession. The regulations in particular
address such things as the airworthiness standards and granting of
airworthiness certificates, maintenance requirements, flight rules, noise
standards and aircrew qualifications.
To gain an airworthiness certificate an aircraft must be designed and

maintained to comply with strict structural and in-flight performance
standards. Aeronautical engineers must ensure that this is achieved
during design, manufacturing and maintenance of aircraft under their
supervision. For example, all spare parts that are installed in an aircraft
must be accompanied by paperwork that proves that the part is genuine.
This paperwork must be retained for the life of the component. Put
simply, a bodgey part is likely to fail, probably in flight and you cant
just pull up by the side of the road to fix it.
Engineers have an ethical responsibility to ensure that aircraft they

design and or maintain are airworthy and safe. This responsibility has
been further underlined in recent years by an increase in civil litigation.
Every component an aeronautical engineer designs or modifies may be
found at some later stage to be the direct or indirect cause of an air
disaster. If this happens there will be a paper trail that runs right back to
the engineers desk. The aeronautical engineer who approves a
component for production or signs off on a modification to an existing
aircraft takes responsibility for that decision. Companies such as Boeing
may give engineers in sub-contracting delegated authority to sign off on
design and process changes. Delegated authority would only be given to
an engineer who was known to be ethical and competent.

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Engineers as managers
Engineers seldom work in isolation. On the contrary, they almost always
work in teams and almost always have to supervise the work of others.
Engineers often begin their careers using the professional skills acquired
during their training, but they usually rise to the higher ranks of
management as their careers progress. Their increased and broader
knowledge, and the contacts and links that they have made in the
industry allow them to be more valuable as managers than as pure
engineers.
To this end it is important for engineers to have good human relations

skills. Team building skills, problem solving skills and communications
skills are important when working on complex multi-disciplinary
projects.
The design and construction of an aircraft requires the co-ordination and

management of a large range of personnel. No single engineer can do
this task. The various aspects of design and manufacturing have to be
broken into tasks that are within the ability and skills of various work
groups to achieve.
Hawker de Havilland, for instance, constructs aircraft components for

international companies such as Boeing, Airbus Industries, Bombardier
and Lockheed for aircraft that are manufactured overseas. Hawker de
Havilland contract to manufacture individual components on either build
to print or design and manufacture.
Where an aircraft company has already carried out the aerodynamic,

structural and materials design of a component and then supplies a full
set of working plans to the manufacturer it is called build to plan. The
aircraft company has already used an aerodynamics team, structural
design team and a materials team to get the design to this point. The sub-
contracting company only manufactures the component.
The other method of subcontracting, design and manufacture requires

the subcontracting company to fully design and manufacture a particular
component. The design and manufacture method would require the
subcontracting company to form individual teams to initially assess the
project, structurally design the component, design a manufacturing
system and finally produce the component. Each team would require a
manager or leader to oversee and guide the work. There would also be a
manager to co-ordinate each of the teams. Hawker de Havilland is
currently manufacturing the tail-cone for the Bombardier BD100
business jet on a design and manufacture basis. They must design and
manufacture the tail-cone to enclose an auxiliary power unit designed by
another company, to accurately attach to the aircraft that is manufactured
overseas. As well, they must comply with the strength and weight
requirements of the aircraft company. This is a complex task requiring
thorough management.
Companies involved in the manufacture of sophisticated equipment

usually have to comply with international standards. The standards may
be associated with the end product or more likely the manufacturing
process and the way in which the organization organizes and monitors its
work routines. A company which is not certified to the required
standards will not receive any work. An example of a standard is the
ISO series of standards.
The ISO 9000 family of standards is often implemented in the

aeronautical engineering industry. ISO 9000 is a generic standard that is
primarily concerned with quality management in manufacturing and
production industries. Quality management refers to what an
organization does to ensure that its products conform to the requirements
of their customers. The standard is concerned with the way in which an
organization goes about its work rather than directly with the final
product it produces.
It is common in quality management systems to have direct input and

feedback from workers to rapidly correct problems and to have standard
methods of carrying out all tasks. These standard methods are sometimes
called work orders. Work orders are documented and all staff are
required to be trained in them and to follow them. Work orders are
designed to ensure consistency in process and final product. As
managers, the aeronautical engineers are required to co-ordinate the
design and to supervise the implementation of quality management
standards in the workplace.
If you have access to the Internet <www.iso.ch/iso/en/iso9000-

14000/iso9000/iso9000index.html> to find out more about ISO 9000

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Theengineeringreport
In the engineering profession an engineering report:

outlines the area under investigation
analyses available data
draws conclusions and/or proposes recommendations
acknowledges contributions from individuals or groups
documents sources of information
includes any additional support material.
In this module, you are going to write a report on an innovation or

project in the aeronautical industry. However, in addition to presenting
the usual material such as that listed above you will look at the role/s of
the engineer/s involved in the chosen project area. In this Part, you have
seen that the aeronautical profession involves a very broad area of skills
and knowledge. Therefore, a closer look at the specific training and
career path for an engineer who works on the chosen project will be
included in your report.
The following section outlines the structure that your report is to take.
Structure of the engineering report

The engineering report will include the following sections.
Title
The title page gives the title of the report, identifies its author/s and gives
the date when the report was completed.
The abstract
The abstract is a concise summary of the report. The purpose of the

abstract is to allow a reader to decide if the report contains information

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that is relevant to their needs. The abstract should be no more than two
or three paragraphs, and shorter if possible.
The introduction
The introduction states the subject, purpose and scope of the report. It
may contain background information regarding the topic. It should
outline the main sections of the report.
Scope of the profession
This section contains a description of one sector of the aeronautical

engineering industry. It outlines the typical tasks carried out by an
aeronautical engineer engaged in this sector of the industry.
This section outlines a possible career path for an engineer involved in

the chosen sector of the aeronautical engineering profession. This
section then defines and examines the skills required to develop the
innovation or project that has been selected.
Current project or innovation
This section examines in detail a current innovation in the sector of the

aeronautical engineering industry that you have chosen. This is a major
section of the report. It describes the situation or imperatives that led to
the development of the innovation or project. The development and
realization of the innovation or project are then outlined.
This section critically examines the health and safety issues associated
with the design, development manufacture and implementation of the
innovation, product or process that has been selected. This section
should then explain how these issues have been dealt with by the
industry.
Defines and critically analyses the possible impact of the innovation or

project on the community. The innovation may have both positive and
negative effects on the community.
Conclusion
This section draws to conclusion the elements outlined and developed in

the preceding sections. It should summarise any major points or issues
that have been detailed in the preceding sections.
Acknowledgements
The acknowledgement section provides the opportunity to credit the

work or assistance of other people who contribute to the report.
Bibliography
To demonstrate that the report is well researched this section should

include all references. The Harvard standard referencing system should
be used. See below:
Higgins, R.A. 1977, Properties of Engineering Materials, Edward

Arnold, Sydney
Appendices
Contains information separated from the main body of the report. The
information may include drawings, diagrams, photographs and tables that
may enhance the information presented in the main body of the report.
Aeronautical engineering report outline

You are to select a sector or specialisation within the aeronautical
engineering profession. You might consider areas such as airline
maintenance, air crash investigation, aircraft design and development,
academic research and education or government authorities such as
CASA or BASI. Aeronautical engineers are employed in all these
sectors.
Your focus engineering report will document the role of the engineer in
the chosen sector and the training and career path for an engineer
employed in this sector.
You should investigate and report on a recent innovation or project in

this sector. So far you have only dealt in detail with two innovations in
the aeronautical engineering industry. You will need to select a recent
innovation or project to examine and report on.
Possible innovations and projects include 'fly by wire' technology,

environmentally friendly rust inhibitors, advances in black box
technology, the Hawk Lead-in jet trainer project, satellite navigation

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systems for aircraft, noise reduction for jet engines, the Airvan project,
the development and construction of ultra-light aircraft in Australia,
aircraft landing systems, glass cockpit and avionics developments and
super-sonic passenger transport.
The websites of Boeing Australia, Hawker de Havilland Australia, BAE

Systems Australia, Qantas, Ansett and the websites of any aerospace
companies will no doubt contain more information on current projects
and innovations.
Finally, you need to examine health, safety and community relations

issues associated with this sector and with the innovation or project in
particular.
The sample report that follows is not a complete report. Contents of each
section indicate the nature and depth of the text required but are
incomplete. The innovation selected is a recent problem with an
operational aircraft.
Sample engineering report
Title Page
You need to provide details such as the report title, author, date and
possibly a graphic for presentation purposes.
Title: Academics in the aeronautical engineering profession
Module: Aeronautical engineering
Author: G. Force
Date: October 2000
Abstract
You should concisely state the contents of the report, stating the type of
engineer being profiled.
Abstract
This report initially focuses on the role and career paths of academics
involved in aeronautical engineering.
The report then examines the development of pressurized aircraft and

the need for effective depressurisation warning systems. The report
outlines the involvement of academics in research and crash
investigation. The report also examines the effect on society and the
environment as well as the health and safety issues associated with the
development of pressurised aircraft.
Introduction
You need to expand on the abstract and summarise main parts of the
report.
Introduction
Broadly speaking, academics are the people employed by universities

to lecture students and to carry out research. Universities often have a
commercial division that carries out investigations or research for
government or the private sector. Sometimes this is done as a
partnership and at other times it is straight contract work. This report
examines the role of academics in the aeronautical engineering
profession and focuses on the current investigation of two incidents of
depressurisation in aircraft in Australian airspace.
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Nature and scope of the profession

You should examine and describe the role of the engineer in the sector
that you have selected. You need to outline the day-to-day tasks in
which the engineer may be involved.
Nature and scope of the profession
An aeronautical engineer employed as an academic would most likely

be involved in research and teaching in a university. Their working
time would be divided between ongoing research and development
and lecturing & tutoring students.
The tasks undertaken by an academic engineer might include

designing courses, coordinating the assessment of students, organizing
work-placement for students in industry and liaising with industry
about current research tasks being undertaken by students and staff.
An academic may also be involved in high-level contract work with
industry such as participating in the design of aircraft or analyzing and
investigating failures in aircraft components.
Further tasks may include .

You should describe the training and career path that an engineer might
follow to work in this sector. In addition, the personnel associated with
the project or innovation that you have selected will need professional
aeronautical engineering skills. You will identify and justify the
professional skills that you believe will be required to develop this
innovation or project and the career opportunities it will provide.
An engineer who practices as an academic has usually completed an

undergraduate degree in aeronautical engineering or mechanical
engineering. They have then worked in a range of industry sectors to
gain a broad industry knowledge. The engineer would then have
completed post graduate qualifications. Most often they would
possess a masters degree in engineering and have completed or be
working toward a doctorate (PhD) in a specialized research project.
Recent project or innovation
You should select and describe a recent innovation or project that is
associated with the aeronautical engineering specialization or sector that
you have chosen. You will then to outline the situation or imperatives
that led to this innovation or project being developed or undertaken.
You need to describe the project or innovation in detail. This description

should be in terms of the engineering and technical aspects of the project
or innovation: materials, mechanics and communication. The description
may include the design constraints, recent technical developments,
manufacturing processes/problems and operational details.
The topic chosen here relates to a current investigation by the Bureau of

Air Safety Investigation (BASI).
Depressurisation warning systems
Background:
The need for faster aircraft that could fly above the weather led to the
development of pressurized aircraft. The low partial pressure of
oxygen above 3000 metres can lead to poor pilot performance due to
hypoxia (low blood oxygen levels). Above 6000 metres hypoxia can
cause unconsciousness and death. Pressurisation of the aircraft cabin
increases the partial pressure of oxygen to a safe level for aircrew and
passengers.
The development of the jet engine during the 1940s combined with
the more ready availability of exotic metals such as aluminium and
titanium after World War II allowed the development of pressurized
jet airliners. One area in the early development of pressurized aircraft
where academics and researchers became involved was crash
investigation.
The Comet, the first commercial pressurized aircraft began falling out
of the sky after flying quite safely for many thousands of hours.
Academics assisted crash investigators by supplying independent
advice and analyzing the causes and prevention of fatigue. The cause
was eventually isolated to metal fatigue due to vibration and cyclic
pressurization. The components involved had sharp corners and stress
concentration points that initiated fatigue cracks and eventually failed
in flight causing massive structural failure and catastrophic
depressurisation. Academics are still today involved in ongoing
research into fatigue prediction and prevention.
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Pressurization is maintained by sealing the aircraft and maintaining a

cabin pressure equating to around 1000 to 2000 metres (3000 to 6000
feet in pilot language).
Modern pressurised aircraft occasionally develop leaks in the seals or

skin of the aircraft. If a seal or critical component fails and a relatively
rapid depressurisation occurs, the pilot is usually very aware of the
problem. There is a lot of noise in the cabin. The pilot will put on an
oxygen mask and place the aircraft in a rapid descent to below
3000metres. When the depressurisation is catastrophically rapid the
pilot may not have time to save the aircraft. If the depressurisation is
slow the pilot may not be aware of the problem. This last case, a slow
depressurisation, is the focus of a current investigation.
The pilot is often unaware when a slow leak occurs. The symptoms
that the pilot develops as the aircraft climbs include:
Impaired judgment
Diminished visual acuity
Increased reaction time
Erratic behaviour
Reduction of auditory acuity (but this is the last sense to be

affected)
The pilot being unaware of the situation continues to climb the

aircraft, increasing the severity of the symptoms. To prevent this
situation developing to a dangerous level most pressurised aircraft
have a number of systems on board. When the cabin pressure falls to
a dangerous level, oxygen masks fall from lockers in the cabin ceiling
and a warning system is activated. The warning system is usually a
visual system but may be combined with an aural signal (noise-
making).
Current investigation:
In June 1999 the pilot of Beech King Air 200 began to act unusually
and rapidly lost consciousness. A passenger who was also a pilot,
realized that the cabin was not correctly pressurised and put the
aircraft into a rapid descent to a safer altitude. The pilot recovered
and was able to resume control. Two problems emerged. Firstly, the
oxygen system was incorrectly installed, consequently it did not
deploy at the set altitude of 12500 feet (approx 4000 mtres).
Secondly, the Beech King Air only uses visual warning systems. A
pilot losing visual acuity may not notice visual warning signals. The
Australian Bureau of Air Safety Investigation (BASI) issued an
interim report (No IR19990150) which canvassed several issues
including the possible inclusion of aural warning systems in Beech
King Air aircraft.
In September 2000 another King Air was on climb out of Perth. The
aircraft continued to climb beyond its assigned flight level. The pilot
appears to have lost consciousness and the aircraft flew on for another
five hours before crashing in Queensland. BASI have issued a
preliminary report commenting only on the factual evidence ( PAR
2000003771). The pilot appears to have been unaware of the
seriousness of his situation and did not report anything untoward to air
traffic control. It appears that the King Air suffered a depressurisation
but the cause of the crash has not been established at the time of
writing.
In these two occurrences the pilots seem to have been unaware of the
seriousness of the situation until it was too late. A number of aviation
academics specialise in cockpit design and human perception. These
academics often have postgraduate qualifications in occupational
psychology. In this instance academics and academic research may
be utilized by investigators to critically analyse the effectiveness of
visual and aural warning systems at diminished levels of perception
and consciousness. A pilot is alerted by an aural signal no matter
where the speaker is placed in the cockpit whereas the pilot must look
at the visual signal to see it. Also a loud noise can convey a greater
sense of urgency that an illuminated signal may not. The ongoing
occurrence of this problem indicates that more research and
development is needed in the area of warning systems.
At the time of writing BASI has not produced a final report on either
of these accidents. The reader might consult the BASI website to
ascertain the current status of either report.

You should investigate and describe the issues that are associated with
this innovation and project.
Health and Safety
In the context of this report, the Heath and Safety issues operate at
two levels. In examining the role of an academic the Health and
Safety of students and teaching staff must be taken into account.
When considering the history of pressurised aircraft and the current
investigation into aircraft depressurisation warning systems in
particular, the health and safety of aircrew and passengers is pushed to
the fore.
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Any instructor or teacher of students must ensure a safe working and

learning environment. In NSW that means that all work-places and
the equipment used in them must comply with the provisions of the
Occupational Health and Safety Act. Students who need to use
equipment or chemicals must have training and instruction in the safe
use of that process. At universities students may make models,
operate wind tunnels and do work placements that involve unfamiliar
equipment. It is the responsibility of the instructors to ensure that
students participate in appropriate training and induction procedures
to ensure that they work safely.
Regarding the investigation into the warning systems in aircraft, the

safety implications are more dramatic and obvious. Passengers and
aircrew on modern aircraft expect a high level of safety in a strongly
regulated industry. The investigation and subsequent research may
indicate that aural warning systems would not have prevented this
tragedy. However, if the aural systems are recommended, then all
operators of these aircraft may be required to fit such a system to
reduce the likelihood of further tragedy.

You should identify and discuss the impact on the community and the
environment of the development of this innovation or project.
Three areas of community impact that are associated with the issues in
this report are:
Institutions and the academics they employ, provide training for

persons who wish to enter the aeronautical engineering
profession. As well, the institutions carry out research that
furthers our knowledge and improves the efficiency and safety of
air transport.
High speed, pressurized aircraft made air travel more accessible

to the general public and lead to greater tourism. The early jet
aircraft made an incredible amount of noise and used large
quantities of fuel. The longer runways required for these aircraft
have lead to landfill in many harbours and consequently the
altering or destruction of marine habitats for example, the third
runway in Botany Bay.
The conclusions of the BASI report should increase the safety of

air travel and increase the publics confidence in air transport.
Conclusion
Academics play an important role in investigating issues of public
importance. They are employed by a public institution and are likely
to be impartial when conducting research, reviewing evidence and
making recommendations. In the instance examined in this report
BASI will review the evidence collected and with reference to
academic research and practical experience make recommendations
that may cover altered maintenance procedures, changes to pilot
training and modification to aircraft systems such as warning devices.
Acknowledgements
You need to credit the work or assistance of other people who
contributed to the report. See the example below:
Acknowledgements:
I would like to thank Al Timeter from Pacific Planes and Di Hedral

from the UNSW for their assistance in preparing this report.
Bibliography
You need to demonstrate that the report is well researched. You should
include a reference section indicating all references consulted. The
Harvard standard referencing system should be used. See the example
below:
References:
Higgins, R.A. 1977, Properties of Engineering Materials, Edward

Arnold, Sydney
Kermode, A.C. 1987, Mechanics of Flight,

Longman, Essex
Australian Transport Safety Bureau Interim Report: IR199990150
Australian Transport Safety Bureau Preliminary Aviation Report:

PAR 200003771
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Appendix
Appendices: Contain information separated from the main body of the
report. The information may include drawings, diagrams, photographs
and tables that may enhance the information presented in the main body
of the report.
You may hand write or word process your engineering report.

Exercise
Exercise 1.1
a Select one sector of the aeronautical engineering industry.
b Report on the role of an engineer in that sector of engineering and
describe a typical career path.
c Describe and sketch one recent engineering project or engineering
innovation in that sector of the industry.
d Explain the health and safety issues that an engineer working in the
sector would need to be aware of.
e Discuss the relationship between the engineer and the community.
f Summarise major points and issues detailed in the report.
g List contributors under acknowledgements and references in the
bibliography.
Present your report following the structure of the sample engineering

report.

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Progress check
In this part you investigated the scope of aeronautical engineering and

several technologies related to the design and manufacture of aircraft and
examined the broader implications of advancements in aeronautics.
Take a few moments to reflect on your learning then tick the box which
best represents your level of achievement.

Agree well done
Uncertain

Disagree
Disagree revise your work
Agree

Uncertain contact your teacher
I have learnt about
the nature and scope of the aeronautical engineering

profession
current projects and innovations
health and safety issues
training for the profession
career prospects
unique technologies in the profession
legal and ethical implications
engineers as managers
relations with the community.
I have learnt to
define the responsibilities of the aeronautical engineer

describe the nature and range of work done in this
profession
examine projects and innovations from within the
aeronautical profession
analyse the training and career prospects within
aeronautical engineering.
In the next part you will trace the development of aeronautics.

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Exercisecoversheet
Exercise 1.1 Name: _______________________________
Check!
Have you have completed the following exercise?
Exercise 1.1
Locate and complete any outstanding exercises then attach your

responses to this sheet.
If you study Stage 6 Engineering Studies through a Distance Education

Centre/School (DEC) you will need to return the exercise sheet and your
responses as you complete each part of the module.
If you study Stage 6 Engineering Studies through the OTEN Open

Learning Program (OLP) refer to the Learner's Guide to determine which
exercises you need to return to your teacher along with the Mark Record
Slip.


history of flight
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Part 2 contents
Introduction ..........................................................................................2
What will you learn?...................................................................2
History of flight.....................................................................................3
The myth of flight .......................................................................5
Early designs.............................................................................6
Balloons and airships .................................................................7
Gliders to aeroplanes...............................................................10
Helicopters ..............................................................................16
Space flight .............................................................................20
Societal influences................................................................... 24
Exercises............................................................................................29
Progress check .................................................................................35
Part 2: Aeronautical engineering history of flight 1

Introduction
People have wanted to fly ever since they first noticed the freedom of a
bird soaring high in the sky. We will trace the first attempts to copy the
flight of birds through to the realisation that people would need a
machine in order to be able to join birds in flight. We will see how
developments in mathematics and improved materials technology first
brought people to a full realisation of the problems involved in controlled
flight and then enabled them to develop solutions to those problems.
As you investigate the development of flight and flying machines you should
keep in mind the following questions:
Did a change in materials lead to a change in design?
Was a new and innovative design developed using existing materials?
What was the influence of new construction methods?
In what ways did developments in related technologies influence change in aircraft?
How have these changes impacted on society and the environment?

historical developments in aeronautical engineering
the effects of aeronautical innovation on peoples lives and living
standards
environmental implications of flight.
You will learn to:
research the history of flight in Australia and understand the way it
has impacted on peoples lives
examine safety issues related to flight and flying.
Extract from Stage 6 Engineering Studies Syllabus Board of Studies, NSW, 1999.
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History of flight
The most common types of powered aircraft in general use today are:
fixed wing
helicopters
ultra light.
1 Large fixed wing aircraft are now almost exclusively jet powered.
Smaller fixed wing aircraft are commonly propeller driven or jet
powered. State and briefly explain the reasons that determine the
propulsion system used on aircraft today. You should consider private
and commercial flight.
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2 Fixed wing jet powered military aircraft are quite different in shape and
appearance to private and commercial aircraft. State and briefly
explain the reasons for the different shape of these military aircraft.
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______________________________________________________

3 Helicopters are used in private and commercial aviation. They are
used by services such as health, law enforcement and emergency
services. State and briefly explain the special features of helicopters
that make them particularly suitable for the work that they do.
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
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_______________________________________________________
4 Ultra light aircraft are used extensively for recreation. State and
briefly explain the special features of ultra light aircraft that make
them particularly suitable for recreational flight.
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
Did you answer?

1 Powerful jet engines allow relatively short take off distances for large
aircraft with heavy pay loads, hence their importance to large
commercial aircraft. Travel times are minimised on any aircraft with
jet engines. Purchase price and maintenance costs limit the use of jet
engines on smaller aircraft, especially in private use.
2 Commercial aircraft are designed to achieve maximum fuel

efficiency and smooth operation with easy pilot control. Military
aircraft are designed for maximum manoeuvrability and high lift
from small wings travelling at high speed.
3 Helicopters do not require large runways to take off and land, and
are capable of holding a fixed position in flight. Consequently
helicopters can travel directly to locations that can not be reached by
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any other form of transport. Once at its location the helicopter can
be used as a platform for rescue or observation.
4 Ultra light aircraft are relatively inexpensive to build and maintain.

They are easy to control and can be dismantled for easy
transportation to and from the place they are to be flown. They have
very short take off and landing distances and so do not require
airport facilities. They contain conventional technology and can be
safely operated with due care by most people.
Now it is time to find out how aeroplanes developed to their present

form.
The myth of flight

The desire to fly, and the general awareness that advances in flight would
be linked to advances in technology, has been documented since ancient
greek times. Daedalus, in Greek mythology, was a skilled Athenian
craftsman and inventor who was imprisoned with his son Icarus. To
escape, Daedalus built two pairs of wings with feathers, wax and thread.
Unfortunately, during their escape, Icarus flew too close to the sun, the
wax in his wings melted, and he fell to his death in the sea.
Figure 2.1 Icarus flies too close to the sun
The details contained in the text of this myth tell us much about the
concept of manned flight held by people for at least two thousand years.

Flight was somehow connected to unknown mystical powers in bird
feathers and wings and could only be imagined in terms of flapping some
kind of wing-inspired design. Also, there was a clear understanding that
the limitations of materials in turn created limitations in the designs that
could be created to assist manned flight.
Why was it believed that wax wings would melt in the sky? What does
this tell us about the understanding of the sky and the atmosphere in
ancient Greek times.
Early designs
Between 400 and 300 BC a Greek scholar named Archytas built a
wooden pigeon that moved through the air and the Chinese perfected the
first working kite models. Around 200 BC Archimedes, the Greek
mathematician and inventor, observed the fact that some solids could
float in liquids and then developed the basic principles governing floating
and buoyancy.
By 1290 an English monk, Roger Bacon, extended Archimedes concept

of buoyancy to include solid objects in air. Leonardo da Vinci designed
ornithopters around 1500 AD, structures intended to carry people into
the air and support them with flapping motions.
Through centuries of thought the concepts that the first successful flying
machines may not look like birds, may not have feathers or flapping
wings, were beginning to be explored.
Figure 2.2 An ornithopter design by Leonardo da Vinci
In 1680, almost 200 years after da Vinci drew his ornithopter, an Italian
mathematician, Giovanni A. Borelli, showed that people could not fly by
flapping wings. Using mathematics that would become an essential tool
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in the research and development of many technological innovations that

we now take for granted, he showed that peoples muscles are too weak
to flap the large surfaces that would be needed to support their weight in
the air.
Balloons and airships

Power and the properties of materials were enemies of progress in
successful manned flight in the past and remain so today. These issues
were overcome in 1783 by Joseph and Etienne Mongolfier. These French
brothers, paper makers by trade, used their current paper technology to
line large sheets of linen and thus produce a fabric that was air tight at
low pressures. A large balloon was made from this material and then
filled with hot air over an open fire of wool and paper. This balloon had
a volume of 1062 m3 and was 17.4 m high. In a process similar to
developments in space flight, some 200 years later, the first passengers in
a balloon flight were animals a sheep, a chicken and a duck while in
the second lift the balloon remained connected to a tethered rope as an
adventurer, Piltre de Rozier, was briefly lifted into the air. Finally, two
months after the flight of the animals, an even bigger Montgolfier
balloon carried de Rozier and the Marquis dArlandes on a flight lasting
some 8 kilometres across Paris.
What technologies enabled balloon flights in 1783 and prevented heavier

than air flight for another 120 years?
These successes stimulated other inventors and before long hydrogen, a

gas much lighter than air, was being used to create the buoyancy and lift
needed to allow a balloon and its basket to rise in air. The development
from hot air to hydrogen as the source of the much needed buoyancy and
lift removed the need for the dangerous fire required to heat the air, but
the large volume of hydrogen created a much greater potential danger.
Because they are totally controlled by existing wind conditions balloons

are not very useful as a means of transport. Today they are used mainly
for recreation purposes and, with the development of clean, safe, easily
controlled propane burners, have returned to hot air to provide their
buoyancy and lift.

Figure 2.3 An artists impression of the first balloon flight
The airship, a development of the balloon, attempted to overcome the

lack of directional control in balloon flight. To achieve lift, the airship
required a lighter than air gas and the ability to contain that gas. For
thrust and directional control some form of power and steering was
needed. In 1852 Henri Giffard tested the first man made vehicle able to
navigate in the air. By using a steam driven propeller and a rudder it was
possible to change speed and direction during flight. Giffards airship
consisted of a motorised platform and a rudder suspended below a long
balloon with pointed ends. These ends were the first concession to
aerodynamics in flight design and a clear indication of the tendency for
large balloons to be forced off course by the moving mass of air around
them. The steam powered Gifford airship could fly at 8 km/h. Thirty-two
years later, in 1884, an electric motor was used in powered flight to drive
an airship at 22 km/h. The large balloon needed to provide lift for an
airship would continue to make the airship unstable in changing wind
conditions and this, combined with the use of highly explosive hydrogen
gas for balloon buoyancy, resulted in one of the most spectacular aircraft
accidents in the United States in 1937 as the airship Hindenburg
exploded and burnt while mooring in Lakehurst New Jersey after a flight
from Germany.
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Figure 2.4 Henri Giffards airship 1852
As their design developed from the early 1900s three basic types of
airship evolved:
semirigid airships that had metal keels (backbones) and metal cones
at each end for stiffness and support. While the length of these
airships was controlled by the metal supports the flying shape of the
balloon was maintained by the gas pressure within it.
rigid airships that maintained their shape and size with a metal
framework that also supported gas balloons held within it. There
may be several balloons, or ballonets, within a rigid airship.
nonrigid airships or blimps that have a streamlined gas tight
rubberised skin covering the hull. There is no framework for support
and gas pressure inside the hull causes the skin to maintain its shape.
The first rigid airship was built by the Austrian engineer David Schwarz in
1897. Two sugar refiners, Paul and Pierre Lebaudy, built several successful
semirigid airships from 1902. The most famous rigid airships were built by
Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin, a retired German Army officer, from 1900.
Zeppelins designs were developments of the airship pioneered by Schwarz .
Zeppelin used lightweight aluminium girders to construct a frame, which
was then covered with an outer layer of linen. Zeppelin airships were
powered by petrol engines. Various airships were used by the Germans for
scouting, observation and supply work during the First World War. More
than 50 bombing raids were carried out over England during this time. The
biggest airships developed by the late 1930s were capable of carrying
around 50 people at speeds up to 100 km/h.

Although airships provided the first commercial airline, DELAG in 1909,
and were used by the military, they continued to be plagued by problems
associated with instability in wind gusts and the explosive properties of
the hydrogen gas within them. Ultimately, these issues ended the era of
rigid and semirigid airships.
American airship design was largely influenced by the American Army

and Navy. The development of the technology needed to separate and
then routinely purify helium gas allowed American designers to develop
safer airships. Helium provides only 90% of the lifting power of an
equivalent volume of hydrogen. However, it does not burn as hydrogen
does and, likewise, it does not combine with other elements to corrode
metal or fabric.
After the start of the Second World War American airship construction
was concentrated on nonrigid airships or blimps. These blimps were
very effectively used as escorts for ships and were able to prevent
submarine attack. The United States Navy retired its last active airships
in 1961.
The airships seen today are helium filled blimps but, due to limited speed
and carrying capacity and instability in strong and gusting wind
conditions, are used almost exclusively for advertising, promotion and
recreational activities such as eye in the sky camera work at sporting
fixtures.
Turn to the exercise sheet and complete exercise 2.1.
Glider to aeroplane
While some inventors and engineers developed the airship concept others
proceeded to work with kites and gliders. Airship designers recognised
that lift and propulsion could be separate, but work together to create
controlled flight.
Think of as many reasons as you can for the great amount of research
and development that was done for airship design.
Early aircraft design, ornithopters with flapping wings, failed to use this
concept. Sir George Cayley, an Englishman, designed an aerodyne
(heavier than air flying machine) in 1799 that included a propeller on the
nose for propulsion, a fixed wing in the middle for lift, and a tail at the
back for control. It is probable that this was the greatest single design
development in aviation as we know it today. Cayley began to develop
his design with extensive glider research. In 1853, one year after
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Giffards airship flew over Paris, Cayleys coachman was able to fly a
Cayley designed glider across a valley. Unfortunately, it was beyond
Cayley to develop a powered aeroplane because no engine could be made
light enough for the lift available in glider design in 1853. It was not
until the end of the nineteenth century that the development of the
internal combustion engine would make it possible to consider building
such an aeroplane.
What two key features of modern aircraft design did Cayley recognize in
1853?
Glider development continued and a German, Otto Lilienthal, made a

succession of monoplane gliders and some biplanes with a pair of
superimposed wings. Lilienthals designs consisted of peeled willow
(timber) stems with waxed cloth stretched over this lightweight framework
to provide lift from the surrounding air. He shifted his bodyweight during
flights to provide control. He was killed in a glider accident in 1896.
Nevertheless, he had clearly demonstrated that significant lift force could
be created from a wing and that some in-flight control mechanism would
need to be developed for the first powered aircraft. In 1899 an
Englishman, Percy Pilcher, had almost completed a powered aircraft that
he would be able to control and fly. He too lost his life before he was able
to realise his ambition of powered flight. At this same time two bicycle
makers in Ohio, Orville and Wilbur Wright, flew their first glider after as
much research as could be completed at this time. The Wright brothers,
well ahead of their time, included wind tunnel testing in their preparation.
Their observations made it clear to them that the ability to control a
machine in flight was essential to the safety and success of the flight.
They obtained the services of a mechanic, Charlie Taylor, to design and
build a lightweight petrol engine. The fame of completing the first
powered flight in a fully controllable aeroplane became a contest between
Samuel P Langley and the Wright brothers. After years spent developing
a control system and a simple four-cylinder engine Orville made a
successful flight on December 17, 1903 in an aeroplane called the flyer.
Figure 2.5 Glider 1902

Figure 2.6 First flight 1903
Both the Wright and Langley machines were biplanes. In 1903 two
wings were needed to produce the lift required from the motor power that
was available then. The Wright brothers aeroplane design allowed the
wings to be flexible in torsion, thus permitting different amounts of lift
on opposite sides of the aeroplane.
Examine the pictures of the Wright brothers glider and aeroplane and
note the similarities and differences in the two designs.
If you have access to the Internet you can visit <www.aero-

web.org/history/wright/attempt.html> for clearer images of the Wright
brothers glider (accessed 30.10.01).
This form of control, essential to successful flight, is now achieved with

ailerons (separate hinged surfaces) near the wing tips. The Wright
brothers plane also included twin rudders at the back. Very few
designs had rudders in 1903 and would have been impossible to steer had
they left the ground. Power was supplied from a 9 kW petrol engine that
provided enough propulsion to achieve about 50 km/h over a 37 m flight.
Later that same day Wilbur made a flight of 260 m in 59 seconds. The
Flyer had wooden frame wings covered with cotton cloth. The engine
turned two wooden propellers attached behind the wings.
By 1905 the Wright brothers had built a plane that could fly for more
than half an hour at a time and in 1908 they made their first official
flights in France. At this time further aeroplane development required
the production of engines with increased power and reduced weight.
Until this could be achieved aeroplanes would remain an amusing
curiosity to most people.
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The preferred aeroplane design became monoplane (single wing) since

this design had the least drag and produced the fastest aeroplanes for the
engine power available. In 1909 the Gnome engine was produced. This
engine had its cylinders arranged radially around a crankshaft that was
fixed to the aeroplane. The engine rotated with the propeller and, though
expensive, was much lighter than any other engine then available. Louis
Blriot who made the first international flight over water in 1909 when
he flew from France to England used this engine. Aviation was now to
be taken seriously.
Figure 2.7 Louis Blriot in the plane used to cross the English Channel in 1909
During the First World War aeroplanes and airships developed rapidly.
Engines, which tended to be unreliable at first, developed no more than
75 kW in 1914 yet, by 1918, were reliable and producing around 300
kW. Rotary engines could not produce the power demanded by aircraft
designers and so by 1918 engine design had changed to water cooled in-
line and V formations driving a single crankshaft as seen in cars. These
engines were heavy but, for their time, very powerful. With this increase
in power came a change in aircraft design. By the end of the First World
War the preferred aircraft design was biplane (two wings) and even
triplane (three wings). Struts and wires to form a structure that was both
strong and torsionally stiff to resist twisting in powered flight could brace
the superimposed wings. This design had a very high strength to weight
ratio but, unfortunately, higher drag than monoplane designs. Multi-
winged aircraft gave greater lift that allowed an increase in aircraft
payload (carrying capacity) and, it was thought, greater manoeuvrability.
Development continued along these lines until the late 1920s, aircraft
increasing in size, speed and payload as engine power increased.
The next significant change in aircraft design was achieved in the early
1930s with the development of stressed skin construction. Light alloys
of aluminium with copper and other alloying elements were used to

fabricate both the underlying structure of the aircraft and the thin skin
that covered this structure. Riveting methods were developed to enhance
this construction method in which the thin covering attached to the
airframe contributed significant strength to the overall structure.
Figure 2.8 Douglas DC 1, first flown in 1933
As a result of this new construction method aircraft design became much

more streamlined, reducing drag, and the weight supported by the wings
(wing loading) increased from 39 kg/m2 in the late 1920s to 195 kg/m2
by 1940. At the end of World War 2 in 1946 wing loading had increased
to 420 kg/m2. These advances revolutionised aircraft speed, range and
payload and returned aircraft to monoplane design. Aircraft took on an
entirely new appearance. Compared with fabric-covered biplanes, the
metal monoplane had wings of much smaller total area.
How did stressed skin construction result in much greater wing loading?
What were the benefits of the greater wing loading achieved?
As aircraft flew higher and faster, and they increased in size and payload,
several related engineering systems were adapted to support aircraft
development. With greater flight speed it became necessary to retract
landing gear (wheels and struts) into the fuselage (body), wings or
engine nacelles (outer cover) of the aircraft during flight. To allow slow
take off and landing speeds but high cruising speeds from the same
stressed skin structured wing a variety of flap systems were developed.
Variable pitch propellers were designed for maximum engine efficiency
at any load or air speed. Hydraulic systems were needed to operate
landing gear and flaps, replacing the cable systems used when aircraft
were smaller and lighter. Electric systems were developed to operate
dials and gauges, and pump fuel between long-range tanks to keep the
weight of the aircraft evenly distributed. Radio systems, radar,
compressed air brakes, heating systems to de-ice the wings and tail were
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all part of aircraft development from the 1930s to the end of the Second
World War in 1945. Engines were fitted into special cowlings, which
assisted the flight of the aircraft, they had negative drag, and cooling
systems were developed to protect engines. To overcome the drop in
engine power due to air thinning as aircraft flew higher, compressor units
called superchargers were fitted to push as much air into the engine as
was needed as the aircraft climbed into the sky.
Consider the engineering developments applied to aircraft between 1930

and 1946 and determine the significance of each development to aircraft
performance.
Apart from engineering advances, other changes were happening to

aircraft. By 1939 rows of comfortable seats were being fitted into
commercial airlines where, only a few years previously, a few loose
wicker chairs had been provided for passenger comfort.
Commercial and private aircraft relied on conventional piston engines

and propellers until the 1950s. This limited the maximum power
available to aircraft designers for improvements in speed, cruising
altitude and payload. In fact Frank Whittle, an RAF test pilot, had first
published the patent for the gas turbine engine in 1930. This patent was
allowed to lapse in 1935 and in 1939 the German Heinkel, He 178
became the first jet-powered aircraft to fly. The Second World War
provided excellent reason to develop the jet engine and by 1945 jet
engines were common on military aircraft. The turbo fan, a much more
quiet but less powerful version of the jet engine, is used on most modern
commercial aircraft and some private aircraft. Frank Whittle first
suggested the turbo fan in 1936.
Perhaps the final major development leading to commercial aircraft as

we know them today was the full cabin pressurisation system. This
system is essential with highflying aircraft and is responsible for the
round body shape of all modern passenger jet liners. A floor braces the
cabin mid way down from the top. Passengers are seated above this floor
and luggage and flight systems below it.
The first commercial jet liner to be fitted with turbo fan engines, the
Comet in 1949, suffered several early crashes. It was discovered that
metal fatigue, generated by high engine power and exhaust gas
emissions, had caused square windows on the airliner to fail, resulting in
sudden and catastrophic failure of the depressurising aircraft. The
mechanics of metal fatigue were not fully understood at this time and the
stress raising effect of square window corners set into the stressed skin
construction of the aircraft body had been underestimated.
More recent developments in aircraft design have concentrated on

appropriate wing shapes for super sonic cruising speeds. As well, the use
of computer control systems to maximise performance from the design of

the aircraft and integrate the large number of electronic flying support
systems has been essential in both the development of jet liners built to
carry hundreds of passengers and also highly manoeuvrable fighter jets.
While military aircraft require instability for high manoeuvrability,
commercial jet aircraft are designed to be stable in air, reducing drag and
fuel consumption. Appropriate aircraft design and computer software
ensure that each design objective can be satisfied. The wind tunnel, used
in the late 1890s by the Wright brothers, is now more essential than ever
in the design of aircraft.
Turn to the exercise sheet and complete exercises 2.4 and 2.5.
Helicopters
A helicopter is an aircraft that obtains a lifting force from one or two
whirling rotors. The rotor, that may at first appear to be a horizontal
propeller, is actually a rotating wing.
Helicopter design varies from fixed wing aircraft in that both lift and
propulsion are obtained from a helicopter rotor, while in a fixed wing
aircraft the wings provide aircraft lift and propulsion comes directly from
a propeller or a jet engine. A pilot can vary the lift force in a helicopter
by changing the pitch (angle) of the rotor blades as they spin above the
helicopter. In fact, the pitch of the rotors must have some automatic
adjustment with each rotation since the forward movement of a rotor
blade on one side of the helicopter produces much more lift than the
backward movement of the rotor blade on the opposite side of the
helicopter without this adjustment.
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Rotor
A B
blade
rotation
NOT TO
SCALE
Direction of flight
Air flow
Air flow
A B
Cross-section of Cross-section of
advancing retreating
rotor blade (A) rotor blade (B)
Figure 2.9 Varying lift from a helicopter rotor blade
By varying the pitch of the rotors as they rotate from one side of the
helicopter to the other the lift on each side of the helicopter is kept the
same. If this pitch change did not occur, the helicopter would roll
sideways due to the unequal lift on each side. The system of pivoted
links and bearing surfaces required to create the pitch change mechanism
demanded the development of high duty materials and finely controlled
manufacturing processes.

Tandem-rotor craft
Paul Cornu
(1907, France)
Helicopter sketch
Leonardo da Vinci
(1483, Italy)
Two-rotor craft
Henrich Focke
(1936, germany)
Figure 2.10 Early helicopter designs
The first recorded use of rotor-powered flight appears to be a Chinese toy

that was developed around AD 320. Feather rotors held the rotating toy
in the air. A similar principle was used by Leonardo da Vinci to produce
a drawing for a spiral shaped flying machine that had a large screw like
wing covered with starched linen. In 1784 Launoy and Bienvenu, two
Frenchmen, used feathers to build a larger version of the Chinese toy.
They demonstrated that this machine could fly. As with fixed wing
aircraft, further development of the helicopter would have to wait until a
suitable lightweight motor delivering useful power could be built.
Helicopter design continued to be through model aircraft until 1907 when

the first manned flight took place. Louis Brguet, a French inventor,
built a four-rotor helicopter that carried his assistant 600 mm into the air
and held him there for one minute. In the same year Paul Cornu, a
French mechanic, made the first free flight to a height of 1.8 m for 20
seconds.
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Figure 2.11 The autogyro
To overcome the tendency for fixed wing aircraft to stall and crash when
their forward speed became too low Spaniard Juan de la Cierva made
several flying machines with horizontal spinning wings above the
aircraft. These machines, built around 1923, had a separate propeller at
the front that supplied the necessary propulsion. As the aircraft moved
forwards the air moving past the wings caused them to rotate, which in
turn produced the necessary lift for flight.
These aircraft, called autogyros, differed from helicopters in that the

swirling rotors above the autogyro were not powered, but rather
depended on the forward motion of the aircraft for their rotation.
Autogyros need only a short run for take off and landing, but are not
practical for larger machines.
Can you think why autogyros are not suitable for larger machines?

Main rotor
Tail rotor
Single-rotor helicopter
Main rotors
Main rotors
Tandem-rotor helicopter
Coaxial-rotor helicopter
Figure 2.12 Basic helicopter types
The first helicopters to realise their design brief of controlled vertical

flight with little or no take off distance did not appear until 1935. These
machines had twin oppositely rotating rotors to cancel the reaction
moment tending to spin the helicopter body rather than the main rotor. In
1939 the first flight of a single rotor helicopter, with a smaller rotor in the
tail to cancel the reaction moment effect to the main rotor, took place in
the United States of America. A Russian engineer, Igor Sikorsky,
designed this machine and then continued to produce helicopter designs
that led to the helicopter as we know it today.
The use of gas turbine engines in helicopters commenced in the 1950s

and provided the next major boost to their development. These engines
allowed helicopters to fly faster and higher and to carry heavier loads.
Also materials development such as the replacement of wooden or metal
rotor blades with reinforced polymer blades made helicopters lighter,
safer and stronger.
There has been some experimentation with supplementary air jets in

helicopter design to assist steering and counteract body rotation, separate
jet and propeller systems have been used to increase helicopter speed, but
most helicopters remain true to the design principles of the late 1950s.
Why must helicopters have at least two rotors?
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Today helicopters are used for private, commercial and military aviation
but it is in community services that they have had the most impact on
peoples lives. Medical and disaster evacuation has saved many lives,
while people who live in isolated locations difficult to reach by
conventional transport have had their quality of life greatly enhanced by
helicopters. Helicopters are noisy, their rotors are dangerous and they
cannot glide if they lose power. For these reasons helicopter landing
pads must be thoughtfully located.
Spaceflight
Spaceflight from Earth is possible only if an object is able to accelerate
beyond the pull of Earths gravity. An object must reach a velocity of at
least 28,000 km/h to achieve orbit, and 40,000 km/h to totally escape
Earths gravity for travel to the Moon and beyond. Clearly the greatest
limiting factor to space flight was the availability of a power source that
could be used to achieve these velocities.
From the earliest times people realised that space travel would require
some special form of energy. Early writings included waterspouts and
giant cannons as the energy source needed to commence a trip through
space. The Chinese developed the first known rockets around 1200 AD.
Figure 2.13 A Chinese warrior fires a rocket about 1200 AD

European armies were using rockets similar to these, powered by
gunpowder, in the mid 1800s. Konstantin Eduardovich Tsiolkovsky
published a scientific paper in 1903 that examined the rocket technology
of the time. This paper recognised that travel through space would
require the reactive force produced by rockets. With no air in space,
propeller and jet engines could not supply a driving force. Further, he
recognised that the solid propellent of the day, gunpowder, would not
produce enough energy to allow space flight. In fact, he went one step
further and suggested the use of liquid propellents such as hydrogen and
oxygen would be required to launch a vehicle from the Earth into space.
These are the propellents currently used to power rockets.
In 1926 Robert H Goddard, a university lecturer in Massachusetts USA,

designed and launched the first rocket powered by liquid propellents. He
used gasoline and liquid oxygen. By 1937 his rockets had achieved 1100
km/h and an altitude of 2.7 km.
Figure 2.14 Robert H Goddard, left, with a rocket in 1940
What is the difference between the reactive force supplied by a rocket

and the propulsion provided by propellers and jet engines.
At about the same time Wernher von Braun, a German scientist, was
developing rockets for military use in Germany. His first successful
firing was in 1942. By 1944 this rocket had developed into the V2, a
device used to deliver a high explosive warhead from Germany to
England. The V2 had a cruising speed of 4000 km/h. It used ethanol and
liquid oxygen as propellents and contained a gyro platform for guidance.
It was the first rocket capable of being developed for space flight. In
1949, just 5 years after the V2 was first used against England, von Braun
and his V2 were part of the worlds first multi stage rocket launch in the
United States. The amount of fuel needed to launch a powerful rocket
into space requires a large heavy fuel container and very large rocket
motors. Keeping this large mass as part of the rocket at very high
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altitudes is wasteful of energy. Rocket designers realised the worth of

breaking a rocket into stages. As the first stage finishes firing it drops
away from the remainder of the rocket, leaving a smaller mass to be
accelerated into space. The V2 was used by von Braun as the first of two
stages in a rocket called Bumper. Similar events were occurring in
Russia at the same time.
By 1957 the worlds first intercontinental ballistic missile, or ICBM, was

launched in Russia. Called the SS6, this rocket could deliver a warhead
to a site 8000 km away. Just two months after the launch of the ICBM
the space age began when the same rocket was used to launch the
worlds first artificial satellite into space. Called Sputnik 1, this satellite
was a small aluminium sphere. One month later a dog named Laika
became the first living creature launched into space in Sputnik 2. Sputnik
2 had a mass of nearly 0.5 tonnes. Early in 1958 the USA launched its
first satellite, Explorer 1. Yuri Gagarin was the first man in space in
1961. Development for the next decade, the 1960s, concentrated on
manned space flight and the creation of a satellite communications
network around the Earth. This communications network is now as
essential to business, commerce and peoples everyday lives as much as
it is to the military. Manned space flight was a matter of prestige to the
USA and Russia who were locked together in a cold war at this time.
Following several manned moon landings by the USA between 1969 and
1972 public opinion made it difficult for Governments to continue to
commit the billions of dollars needed to achieve these feats.
The largest most powerful rocket developed for this programme, the
Saturn V, was first launched in 1967 and remains the most powerful
launch vehicle available. It has a mass of 2900 tonnes, develops 3.4
million kilograms of lift-off thrust, and has a total height of 111 m.
Developments in space flight since 1972 have included the design and
construction of orbiting space stations and reusable launch vehicles or
space shuttles. These developments are intended to be the basis for
interplanetary flight, and are also intended to reduce the cost of placing
satellites into space. A vast range of scientific research is conducted in
near space and the science of astronomy has greatly benefited from
observations made outside the Earths atmosphere. These developments
have required less money than manned space flight away from the Earth,
and have been seen to be more economically and scientifically justifiable
than manned space exploration. Unmanned space exploration has
continued, with satellite probes travelling to nearby planets, and beyond
the Solar System.
The development of reusable launch vehicles and space stations is also

expected to begin the first use of space for non-military and non-
scientific purposes as rocket and near space flights become available to
the general public. The commercialisation of space, beyond existing
communications networks, is most likely an inevitable forerunner to the

return of distant manned exploration. The world community needs to
have its interest aroused, just as it was in 1909 when Blriot made it
obvious that there was a place in aviation for the wider community.
Think of as many reasons as you can for the change from manned space
exploration to the development of space stations and reusable space
vehicles.
Figure 2.15 Saturn V leaves the assembly
NASA Scan by J. L Pickering/Kipp Teague
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Societal influences
The ability to fly has been envied, and even worshipped, by people since
their earliest writings, and probably before that. Feathers have been seen
as possessing magical powers and as recently as the nineteenth century
birds known to have travelled large distances around the Earth were the
subject of legends and awe. Not surprisingly then, the first machines
designed to assist people to fly aroused great interest and technical
debate at their time, as well as suspicion and doubt. The solutions to the
problems created by these machines were so far removed from the
everyday lives of most people that very little public interest was
stimulated. We now take so much for granted in education and
information technology that community perceptions and beliefs in past
generations are difficult for us to understand and interpret. The sketches
created by Leonardo da Vinci 500 years ago are now more familiar to a
far greater cross section of the community than they were in their own
time.
The first successful sustained flights in balloons created much public

interest. Large crowds gathered to watch and wonder as first animals,
and then people, drifted upwards in France in the mid nineteenth century.
The interest was more carnival than technological. These flying devices
had no means of control and could carry two or three people at most.
Consequently the flights were seen as events rather than the beginnings
of a transport revolution by the general public of the time. The military
significance of these first flying devices, being used for observation and
intelligence as early as the American Civil War, provided the greatest
stimulation to their continued development. Lack of flight control meant
that balloons were restricted to pleasure flying for the wealthy. It would
be another sixty years before profit from serving the community would
be a significant factor in aircraft development. Interest in the
development of flying machines remained with mechanics, engineers,
university lecturers, mathematicians, inventors and the technologically
minded wealthy for the remainder of the nineteenth century.
Very early in the twentieth century 'dirigibles', literally airships based on

the principle of balloon buoyancy that could be steered in flight, were
shown to be manoeuvrable. Public interest gradually shifted as people
began to realise that controlled flight might be of some use to them.
Airships were kept in the mind of the community as altitude and distance
records were first set and then repeatedly broken during the first decade
of the twentieth century. Then in 1909, when Blriot flew from France
to England, many people finally realised that travel through the air was
possible and it was fast compared to other forms of transport. Public
interest and eagerness to be associated with this new technology led to
the creation of the worlds first commercial airline DELAG in 1909,
which used airships for flights within Germany. International flights

within Europe commenced in 1912. People wanted to travel by air and,
at this time, the dirigible was the most effective solution to this want. In
1911 early monoplanes carried letters and light freight for the first time
in Europe and the United States of America. As aeroplanes were now
useful in creating improved communication and commerce they gained
credibility and people began to realise and anticipate some of the
potential in the aircraft concept. The first scheduled passenger flights in
heavier than air machines occurred in 1914 by which time as many as
eight passengers could be carried at once and a toilet was first placed in
an aeroplane.
The First World War brought an end to passenger flight as aeroplanes

and airships were put into war service. By the end of the war in 1918
technological advances meant that the first trans Atlantic flight could be
achieved, and it was in 1919. This year also saw the operation of the first
British airport, Hounslow, to offer Customs. Civil aviation was
temporarily delayed after the First World War as legislation caught up
with technology and air navigation regulations were introduced to control
the flight industry. From this time it could be said that the age of civil
aviation had truly begun. Airmail freight services, pleasure and business
flying all satisfied growing needs in the community.
Can you think of some other examples of technology moving ahead of

Government legislation?
The benefits of this new technology stimulated complete public

acceptance of aircraft and flight and people eagerly awaited and accepted
design developments as they occurred. Qantas, now the oldest airline in
the English-speaking world, was established in 1920 in outback
Queensland. Providing joy flights and a taxi service at first, its first
scheduled flights were in 1922 between Charleville and Cloncurry. By
1934 the Brisbane-Singapore leg of the air service from Australia to
England was being serviced by Qantas. Less than ten years after Qantas
started operations, in 1928, the Royal Flying Doctor Service in Australia
was using aircraft to cover the vast distances between remote inland
homesteads and offer medical care. The capability of aircraft to travel
great distances in a relatively short time revolutionised remote services in
Australia, brought people together, and further strengthened the
acceptance of this new technology.
In fact, this new technology developed so rapidly that, at first, there were
insufficient airfields to satisfy the needs of larger long distance aircraft.
Flying boats were developed to take advantage of large bodies of water
in rivers, lakes and bays for take off and landing. Despite the widespread
community acceptance of aircraft the cost of flight meant that few flew
regularly. For this reason there was insufficient public money to
construct airfields as they were desired until the Second World War
when the strategic importance of aeroplanes was quickly realised and
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long runways were constructed around the world. These runways helped
revolutionise the type of aircraft that were being built. Between the two
World Wars flying boats had been popular. Very few flying boats were
built after the Second World War by which time an infrastructure of large
airports with long runways had been developed. As well, much larger
planes could now be built. With the development of the jet liner from the
1950s, travel times continued to reduce and passenger numbers increased
as flying became a necessity of modern living for business, commerce
and pleasure.
With increased air traffic and city spread, the acceptance of aircraft
technology has become conditional. The constant jet engine noise
around a modern airport has become a concern for the community, as has
the fall out of aviation gasoline under aircraft flight paths. The
possibility of air disasters over populated areas also worries many
residents around airports.
Turn to the exercise sheet and complete exercises 2.6 to 2.8.
To help overcome these issues jet engines have been redesigned to

operate more quietly and more efficiently, airport runways have been
built on reclaimed land into swamps and waterways and airports have
been relocated out of cities. Take off and landing times at many airports
have been restricted between certain hours to provide quiet evenings.
Jumbo jets, wide bodied aircraft capable of seating 500 people, were
developed and first flew in 1969. These aircraft required special turbo
fan jet engines and were an inevitable response to the huge increase in
passenger numbers after the introduction of the first narrow bodied jet
airliners provided great reductions in travel times on long distance routes.
Jumbo jets reduced airport traffic by carrying twice as many people in
each flight than could be carried in narrow-bodied jet airliners.
Inevitably they have resulted in cheaper airfares, more people flying, and
a renewal of the problem of increased passenger numbers that they were
designed to solve.
In 1976 the need for some people to travel as fast as possible over long
distances, notably the business route between Europe and North
America, led to the introduction of supersonic passenger flights. The
massive expense involved in developing supersonic technology for
passenger aircraft resulted in an American design being stopped due to
fears about its likely commercial success on flights within North
America. Great Britain and France shared their knowledge and expenses
and together produced the Concorde, designed to carry business people
and the wealthy at supersonic speeds across the Atlantic Ocean. This

project proceeded because it had a clear market. Noise problems and
environmental concerns for the upper atmosphere from regular scheduled
supersonic flight caused some problems at first but were ultimately
overcome by government legislation. The high cost of supersonic flight
has to this point in time restricted its use for most travellers.
Ultimately people must decide the price they are willing to pay for the
economic and social benefits of air travel. The balance of these benefits
with quality of life, and their contribution to quality of life, continue to
be two of the more difficult and divisive issues facing governments and
the community.
Helicopters, too, provide the community with services that have become
indispensable, but in doing so create some difficulties. Helicopters save
lives on a daily basis, they catch criminals, patrol roadways and monitor
crowds. They provide rapid newsgathering in difficult locations and
transport people where aeroplanes, trains and cars are unable to travel.
They are noisy and produce large gusts of wind below their rotors.
Helicopters have become far too valuable a resource in the community to
be discarded yet government legislation is needed to control their use.
Nowhere has the effect of public opinion been more noticeable than in
the development of rocket engines and the manned exploration of space.
Prior to 1970, community attitudes allowed huge sums of public money
in the United States of America to be spent through the 1960s on manned
space flight research. After 1969, when man walked on the Moon for the
first time, the community became more aware of quality of life issues
that had been under funded by government due to the immense
concentration of public sector spending on the space programme. The
community could no longer see sufficient benefit in the space programme
to justify its budget, and consequently that budget was reduced and
development in space technology slowed.
The continued development of aeroplanes has mostly been by private

industry. It has continued because people have wanted the product
provided by the aircraft industry, and have benefited from it. As long as
this acceptance remains, aircraft will continue to expand their capabilities
and influence on our lifestyle. The most exciting thing about the aircraft
industry is that it can continue to develop.
Turn to the exercise sheet and complete exercise 2.10 to 2.12.
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Exercises
Exercise 2.1
Explain why airships are no longer used for passenger flight.

__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
Exercise 2.2
Explain why airships could be used to carry passengers before fixed

wing aircraft could be used for this purpose.
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
Exercise 2.3
Explain why biplanes were the preferred aircraft design during the
1920s.
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________

Exercise 2.4
Identify the important physical property of metals that must be

considered in aircraft design but was misunderstood in the early 1950s.
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
Exercise 2.5
Explain why the fuselage on most modern aircraft is round but early
aircraft seldom had a round fuselage.
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
Exercise 2.6
Explain why very few flying boats were built after the Second World War.
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
Exercise 2.7
List three problems created by airports and describe a solution to each
problem.
a _______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
b _______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
c _______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
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Exercise 2.8
Explain why Australia was very quick to use aircraft technology.

__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
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Exercise 2.9
Explain why the jet engine led to a great increase in passenger

numbers on international flights.
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
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Exercise 2.10
Suggest two likely future developments in aviation and support your

ideas with current social trends and technological advancements.
__________________________________________________________
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Exercise 2.11
State one new material development that led directly to a design

development.
__________________________________________________________
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Exercise 2.12
Select the alternative a, b, c, or d that best completes the statement.

Circle the letter.
1 The speed of aircraft was greatly increased during the 1930s. This
was primarily due to the development of:
a retractable landing gear
b flap systems for wings
c hydraulic control systems
d stressed skin construction.
2 Biplane design was the preferred aircraft shape from the First World
War through the 1920s. This design:
a gave greater lift to the aircraft
b provided greater stiffness and strength to the aircraft
c created greater drag forces than monoplane design
d all of the above.
3 The worlds first successful powered flight in an aeroplane by the

Wright brothers was achieved because they:
a designed the lightest aircraft of the time
b had the most powerful motor of the time
c had developed a useful system for controlling flight
d used a biplane design.
4 Airships continue to be used for recreation and observation. This is

because :
a they provide a quiet and stable platform in the sky
b they are inexpensive to build and operate
c they are easy to control in the sky
d people like to travel slowly.
5 Flying boats, aeroplanes with floats that could operate from water,
were common in the 1930s. This was because:
a noise pollution prevented the aircraft from operating on land
b airports with long runways had not been developed in many
places
c water provided a gentler landing
d people were used to travelling on water.
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6 Helicopters have been developed to satisfy the need for aircraft that
can provide:
a greater manoeuvrability
b greater lift force
c greater speed
d greater safety in flight.
7 Balloons and airships could be developed before aeroplanes because:

a people did not trust aeroplanes
b aeroplanes were too noisy
c lift is not created from motor power in balloons and airships
d the fabric used for balloons was not suitable for aeroplanes.
8 Timber was extensively used in the construction of early gliders and

biplanes. This was because it:
a has a good strength to weight ratio
b is easy to shape
c has good stiffness
d all of the above.
9 The development of engines to produce greater amounts of power

contributed to:
a the change from biplane to monoplane design from around 1930
b improved helicopter performance from around 1960
c the use of aluminium alloys in aircraft construction
d a and b above.
10 The design of rocket motors:

a has greatly changed the design of modern aeroplanes
b has allowed the large velocities needed to escape Earths gravity
c required the technology of the last fifty years
d is limited by the lack of thrust control.

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Progress check
In this part you have learned about the history of flight and aeronautical
engineering and how developments in aeronautical engineering have
affected our society.

Agree well done

Uncertain

Disagree
Agree

I have learnt about
historical developments in aeronautical engineering

the effects of aeronautical innovation on peoples lives
and living standards
environmental implications of flight.
I have learnt to
research the history of flight in Australia and

understand the way it has impacted on peoples lives
examine safety issues related to flight and flying.
In the next part you will learn about the mechanics and hydraulics of
flight how it all works!

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Exercise cover sheet
Exercises 2.1 to 2.12 Name: ______________________________
Have you have completed the following exercises?

Exercise 2.1
Exercise 2.2
Exercise 2.3
Exercise 2.4
Exercise 2.5
Exercise 2.6
Exercise 2.7
Exercise 2.8
Exercise 2.9
Exercise 2.10
Exercise 2.11
Exercise 2.12



Learning Program (OLP) refer to the Learners Guide to determine which
Slip.


mechanics and hydraulics
Part 3 contents
Introduction..........................................................................................2
Aeronautics..........................................................................................3
Forces ...................................................................................... 3
Bernoullis Principle ..................................................................13
Drag ........................................................................................24
Relationship between lift and drag .............................................29
Controlling flight .......................................................................36
Bending stress airframes........................................................40
Propulsion................................................................................51
Fluid mechanics .......................................................................53
Exercises ...........................................................................................61
Progress check .................................................................................71
Part 3: Aeronautical engineering mechanics and hydraulics 1

Introduction
Aeronautical engineers perform and supervise work concerned with the

design, testing, research and development, manufacture and quality
control, specifications, marketing and operations of aircraft.
An aeronautical engineer must have good analytical ability, initiative and

creativity for design work as well as a sound understanding of the
mechanics involved in flight and in the design of aircraft.
In this part you will be introduced to the mechanics involved in

areonautics.

engineering mechanics and hydraulics:
forces lift, drag, weight, thrust
basic aerodynamics Bernoullis principle
bending stress airframes
propulsion systems (jet, turboprop)
fluid mechanics hydrostatic and dynamic pressure, applications
to aircraft components, application to aircraft instruments.
You will learn to:

apply mathematical and graphical methods to solve flight-related
problems
outline Bernoullis principle as applied to flight
investigate the nature and effect of bending stresses, applying
appropriate mathematical methods
apply mathematical methods to solve hydraulics-related problems.
Aeronautics
The science of flight through air is called aerodynamics dynamics or

motion in air. Balloons travel with the air and dont move through it.
This science is known as aerostatics. Aeronautics encompasses both of
these sciences.
The path of the aircraft is called its flight path. Its speed through the air
is called its true airspeed. The direction and speed of the air whizzing
past the aircraft is called the relative airspeed (airflow relative to the
aircraft or wing). It is a result of the aircraft moving through the air and
so is exactly equal to the flight path. The path and speed of the aircraft
over the ground are different as they also take into account the effect of
the wind.
Forces
An aircraft flying straight and level is being acted upon by four forces.
Its weight acts downwards and is balanced by an upward force known as
lift. The engines provide forward thrust, which balances the drag, the
resistance caused as the aircraft forces its way through the air.
Pitching moment
due to elevator
Lift (L)
Pitching moment
due to thrust and
drag
Drag (D)
Thrust (T)
Pitching
moment due Weight (W)
to tailplane
Figure 3.1 Forces and moments on a plane

Weight (W) the force of gravity pulling the aircraft towards the centre
of the earth.
Lift (L) the upward force on the wing to overcome the weight
Drag (D) the resistance of the air
Thrust (T) necessary to overcome the drag and to maintain or increase

speed.
Moments
If the four forces exerted on the airplane are not concurrent, then the
plane will experience various moments.
Pitching moment
The twisting force trying to raise or lower the nose. This can be caused
by the balance of the freight, passengers or fuel, the airflow over the
tailplane and the force from the elevators or trim tabs.
Pitching moment
Figure 3.2 Pitching moment
Rolling moment
The twisting force trying to roll the aircraft. This can be caused by the
ailerons, uneven lift from the wings due to slipstream from the propeller,
uneven consumption of fuel from the wing tanks and uneven weight of
cargo in the wing lockers.
Rolling moment
Figure 3.3 Rolling moment
Yawing moment
The twisting force trying to yaw the aircraft. This can be caused by the
deflection of the rudder.
Yawing moment
Figure 3.4 Yawing moment
Thrust
What is thrust?
Think of stepping off a skateboard. As you go forward you will find the
skateboard rolls backward.
Hold on to garden hose and ask someone to turn it full on. When the
whoosh of water suddenly bursts out, the hose almost jumps out of your
hand. As the hose goes one way, you go the other way. This force can be
so big on a firefighters hose, that they are sometimes pushed over by this
backward force.
These are two examples of Newtons Third Law: To every action, there
is an equal and opposite reaction.
The hot gases in a jet engine expand and rush out of the back of the
engine at great speed, in the same way as the water rushes out of the
hose.
Many people believe that the gases push against the air to propel the
plane forward, but this is not true.
As the gases shoot out backward, so the jet goes forward. This obeys
Newtons Third law.

Rocket and jet engines
The thrust of a rocket or jet engine depends on the rate of change of
momentum imparted on the gases consumed and expelled by the engine.
Momentum is defined as the product of the mass and the velocity.
momentum = mass x velocity
M = mv
Unit of momentum = kg m / s
The force created by the engine required to propel the rocket, or plane, is
also known as the thrust.
Thrust is calculated as the change in momentum per second.
This can be expressed as:
Thrust = Change in momentum per second

F = (mv mu) / t
m( v u )
=
t
Ft = m(v u)
Note that the symbols v and u are both used for velocities; v is used
for the final velocity, u for the initial velocity.
The gases consumed by the engine are referred to as the propellant and
are usually a mixture of fuel and oxygen. The composition of the
propellant is unimportant, as the calculation depends upon the mass
consumed and the relative velocities before and after combustion in the
engine. The gas expelled by the engine is commonly called the exhaust
gas.
Three facts must be determined prior to thrust calculations:

velocities of gases on intake, relative to the engine, in m/s
velocity of exhaust gas, relative to the engine, in m/s
quantities (or mass) of gases consumed by the engine in a given
time, usually one second, in kg.
Calculations involving rocket engines are generally simpler as the initial

velocity of the gases consumed relative to the rocket engine is always
zero.
Worked Example 1
The rocket engine of a missile ejects 200 kg of exhaust gases per second
at the speed of 900 m/s relative to the engine. Calculate the thrust of the
rocket engine.
Solution
Since all the fuel load is aboard the rocket, the initial velocity of the
propellant relative to the engine is zero. The final velocity of the exhaust
gas is 900 m/s.
Change in momentum = mv mu
= (200 x 900) (200 x 0)
= 180000 kg m / s
Thrust = Change in momentum per second
For 1 second Thrust = 180 x 103 kg m / s2
= 180 kN
This example shows the basic relationship between fuel (propellant)

consumed per second, the change in velocity, and the thrust.
Units used are:

Thrust newton (N)
Mass discharged (kg / s)
Change in velocity of propellant (m / s)
Now turn to the exercise sheet and complete exercise 3.1.
Worked Example 2
The engine of a jet fighter plane traveling at 720 km/h is consuming fuel
at the rate of 1.5 kg per second and air at the rate of 100 kg per second.
Calculate the thrust of the engine if the velocity of the exhaust gas is 900
m/s relative to the aircraft.

Solution
This example needs to be analysed in two parts:

thrust provided by the air
thrust provided by the fuel.
Also the velocity of 720 km/h must be converted to m/s. This is done by
multiplying by 1 000 (converts km to m) and then dividing by 3 600
(converts hours to seconds), or simply dividing by 3.6.
Thus 720 km/h is equivalent to 200 m/s.
Thrust due to discharge of air, F1 = Mass discharged per second x

change in velocity
(100) x (900 200)

=
70 x 103 N
=
70 kN
=
Thrust due to discharge of exhaust = Mass discharged per second x

gas, F2 change in velocity
(1.5) x (900 0)
1.35 x 103 N
1.35 kN
Total thrust of the jet is F1 + F2 = 71.35 kN.
Creating lift
All aerial vehicles depressurise (suck) the air above and compress
(squash or squeeze) the air below. This pressure differential builds the
cushion on which they are supported. About two thirds of the lift comes
from sucking and one third from squashing.
A hovercraft sucks air from above, squashes it and squeezes it out

underneath. Thus it floats on a cushion of air.
Figure 3.5 Hovercraft
A helicopter sucks air from above, squashes it and squeezes it out below.
If the ground surface is removed, the squash is reduced but there is still
enough to fly. The helicopter just has to work harder.
Suction (stretch)
Compression (squash)
Figure 3.6 Helicopter
A wing also sucks air from above, squashes it and squeezes it downwards
in a unique way. As the wing moves through the air, it compresses the
air molecules in front and below and creates an area of suction, or partial
vacuum, above and behind.
Suction
Flightpath
Compression
Figure 3.7 Wing

Put your hand horizontally out of the window of a moving car. Beware
of other cars, trees or other fixtures near the edge of the road. Twist your
hand to cause an angle of attack to the airflow. The reaction of the lift
and the drag forces will cause the hand to be pushed upwards and
rearwards.
Upward force (lift)
Rearward force (drag)
Airflow
Flightpath
Figure 3.8 Hand in an airflow
The wing is no different. It is pushed up and back. Because it is more

efficient, it will generate a much greater upward force and a smaller
rearward force. It is actually possible to measure in a wind tunnel what
is happening to the wing and to the surrounding air.
Total
reaction Upward force
(Lift)
Stretched
(suction)
Rearward force Flightpath

(drag)
Squashed
(compression)
Figure 3.9 Effects on a wing in a wind tunnel
If measurements were taken in the tunnel, we would find the following:
reduced pressure and increased rush of air over the top surface of the
wing, (the back of hand in your activity should feel cold due to
temperature and pressure drop)
compression and forward push of the air under the surface of the
wing
disturbance to the smooth flow of the air around the rear part of the
wings surface
downwash or downward deflection of the air behind the wing as a
result of the passage of the wing.
This pressure difference and downwash causes lift. The amount of lift
(the upward push) and drag (the backward push) is dependent on three
things:
the speed of the wing through the air
the shape and size of the wing
the angle of the wing to the air (the angle of attack).

Worked Example 3
A helicopter, of mass 3 tonne, is subjected to the forces as illustrated.

Determine the resultant force that would be acting on the helicopter.
Thrust 40 kN
60
30
Drag 20 kN
Figure 3.10 Forces acting on helicopter
Solution
From the illustration, you will notice that three of the four forces acting
are shown. These are the weight force (W) which always acts vertically
downwards, the thrust force (T) shown as acting at 60 to the horizontal,
and the drag force (D) which is acting horizontally.
Since the forces acting are at different angles, the easiest solution is to
use the graphical method for adding vectors. The vectors are drawn to
scale and are drawn tip-to-tail in any order.
You will remember that when using a force polygon, the graphical
solution when the force polygon does not close means there will be a
resultant force acting.
Selecting a scale of 10 mm = 5 kN, construct a force polygon to this

scale.
Start by drawing the thrust vector at 60 to the horizontal. Then draw

weight vector vertically downwards. Remember you must convert the
mass of 3 tonnes to a weight force. This is done by first converting
tonnes to kilograms that is, 3t = 3000 kg. This is then multiplied by
gravitational acceleration, g. Using g as 10 ms-2, the weight is now
converted to newtons by using W = mg, i.e. the weight will equal 3000 x
10 N, or 30 kN.
Scale: 10 mm = 5 kN
Weight = mg
= 30 kN
Thrust = 40 kN
40 mm = 20 kN Lift = 4.5 kN (resultant)
Figure 3.11 Force diagram of forces acting on helicopter
The resultant force will be the one that starts from where you first started,
and ends where your last vector ended. It is the result of what you have
done.
The sense, or direction, of the resultant vector will be towards the end of
the last force you drew on the force polygon. The direction of the
helicopters flightpath will be determined by measuring the angle
between the resultant vector and the horizontal, in this case 90, that is,
vertically upwards.
Bernoullis principle
The production of the lift force by an aerofoil is explained by Bernoullis
principle. Daniel Bernoulli (1700-82) was a Swiss scientist who
discovered that the total pressure in a fluid remained
constant. This total pressure consists of:
static pressure (the weight of the molecules)
dynamic pressure (due to motion)
If air was accelerated through a shaped tube called a venturi, then at the
narrowest point, where the speed of the flow was fastest, the static
pressure was least.
The relationship between the velocity and pressure exerted by a moving

fluid is described by Bernoullis principle: as the velocity of a fluid
increases, the pressure exerted by that fluid decreases.

Low High Low High Low High
Slow Fast Slow

Figure 3.12 Airflow through a venturi
Airflow around an aeroplane

The pattern of the airflow past an aeroplane depends on the shape of the
aeroplane and its attitude relative to the free-stream airflow.
It is the relative velocity of the aeroplane to the airflow that is important.

It doesnt matter whether it is the aeroplane moving through the air or the
air flowing past the plane. Both will give the same result.
The most important parts of the aeroplane are the aerofoils. The main
aerofoils are the wings and airflow past the wings will generate the lift
force that allows the aeroplane to fly. The airflow around an aerofoil is
similar to the airflow through a venturi.
Figure 3.13 Airflow through a venturi and around an aerofoil
Streamline flow / Laminar flow

Streamlining occurs when succeeding molecules follow the same path in
a flow. There is only flow along and between the stream lines, with no
flow across the stream lines. Streamline flow represents the least air
disturbance. Because of the least air disturbance, streamlined flow is
also called laminar flow and it offers the least amount of drag.
Figure 3.14 Streamlined flow
Turbulent flow
An object moving through the air will eventually cause some turbulence.
This occurs when succeeding molecules no longer follow a streamline
flow pattern. This turbulent flow is also known as unsteady flow, or
eddying.
The point on the surface where the layer of air next to the wing (called
the boundary layer) becomes turbulent is called the transition point. This
will occur during normal flight.
Thin laminar- Transition
flow boundary point Slightly thicker,
turbulent
boundary layer
Figure 3.15 Transition point
Depending on the shape of the object, the airflow will subsequently be

unable to follow the contours. When this happens the airflow separates
causing a wake of disturbed air. The point where this happens is called
the separation point. This will occur when the plane is about to stall.
Transition Separation
point point
Turbulent
flow
Figure 3.16 Separation point
Angle of attack
If a thin plate is introduced into an airflow such that it was parallel to the air
flow, it causes virtually no alteration to the airflow. As there is no deviation
of the airflow, there is no force placed on the plate, and thus no reaction.
Figure 3.17 Plate aligned parallel with airflow

If the plate is now inclined at an angle to the airflow (it is said to have an
angle of attack), it will experience a reaction force on it. This reaction
tends to lift it as well as drag it back.
Total reaction
Upwash
Angle of attack Downwash

Figure 3.18 Angle of attack
Due to the angle of attack, the straight-line streamline flow will be

altered. The air below the plate will be compressed by the lower surface
of the plate, whereas the air above the plate experiences a reduced
pressure. The static pressure above the plate is now lower than the static
pressure below the plate. This causes a net upwards reaction. After
passing the plate, there is a downwash of the air stream.
Total reaction
Disturbed
flow
Figure 3.19 Disturbed flow (turbulence)
If the angle of attack is too steep, then the airflow will experience more
disturbed air behind the plate (or hand), and less lift will be evident.
You can experience this when you hold your hand out of the window of a
moving car. Change the angle of attack and your hand will experience
different lift and drag reactions. These will depend on the speed of the car (or
airflow) and the angle of your hand to the airflow (angle of attack).
Reduced static pressure
Increased static pressure

Figure 3.20 Change of pressure about an inclined plate.
The total reaction on the plate caused by altering the airflow pattern has
two components:
lift at right angles to the relative airflow
drag parallel to the relative airflow, and opposing the relative motion.
You will recall earlier work that involved friction. The reaction forces are
very similar to the reaction forces involved with friction problems. The
normal reaction occurred perpendicular to the surface (analogous with
lift) and the friction force occurred along the surface and opposing
impending motion (analogous with drag).
Streamlining involves reducing the turbulence that results when a fluid

flows. In streamlined (laminar) flow, the fluid behaves as if it consisted
of thin sheets of fluid. The interchange of fluid between the sheets is
minimal in streamlined flow.
When turbulent flow occurs, whirlpools and eddies form. Turbulence

results in extra drag on objects moving through a fluid.
The study of forces and pressures that change the motion of fluids is
called hydrodynamics. The study of streamlining objects in air is called
aerodynamics.
An incompressible fluid which moves into a region having a different

cross-sectional area (for example from A1 to A2) undergoes a change in
speed (v1 to v2).
The product A x v remains constant.

A1v1 = A2v2
This equation is called the equation of continuity.
For the speed to undergo change, there must be a change in force. A

change in force results in a change in pressure.
As mentioned earlier, the total pressure in a fluid remains constant. The

total pressure is made up of three components, two that relate to the static
pressure and a third, the dynamic pressure.
This concept can be expressed in equation form as follows:
1
P + rv 2 + rgh = constant
2
pressure exerted pressure due to the additional pressure

by the particles speed of the fluid due to the weight of
in the fluid (dynamic pressure) the fluid (static)
Where

P = pressure in Pa
r = density in kg / m 3
v = velocity in m / s
g = 9.8 m / s2
h = depth or elevation in m
This is called Bernoullis equation. It can be simplified in some

situations. For example, if there is no change in depth, then the rgh
term does not change and you have:
1 2
P + rv = constant
2
In a static fluid, v = 0, so P + rgh = constant.
Worked example 4
A horizontal venturi tube with a throat diameter of 50 mm is inserted into

a 75 mm diameter pipe. Water flows in the pipe with a velocity of 4 m/s
and the upstream pressure is 45 kPa. Determine the velocity and
pressure at the throat. The density of water is 103 kg/m3
Solution
Applying the continuity equation,
Av = constant
A1v1 = A 2 v 2
2 2
p (75) 4 p (50) v
=
4 4
2
4(75)
v=
(50)2
=9m/s
Since the pipe is horizontal, h1 = h2
1 2
P/r + v = constant
2
1 2 1
P/r+ v = P / r + v2
2 2
1 2 1 2
(45 10 3
/ 10 3 ) + ( 4) = ( P2 / 10 3 ) + (9)
2 2
3
P2 / 10 = 45 + 8 40.5
= 12.5
P2 = 12.5 10 3 Pa
= 12.5 kPa
The aerofoil
A flat plate is not the ideal shape because it breaks up the streamline
flow. This causes turbulence or eddying and greatly increases the drag.
The air also has difficulty in negotiating the sharp leading edge.
Figure 3.21 Turbulence behind an inclined plate in an airflow
A curved aerofoil surface was developed. This increased the lift and also
reduced the drag considerably. It was also stronger than the thin, flat
plate. The arched or curved shape is called a camber.
Figure 3.22 Curved aerofoil surface
A shaped, fatter wing was then developed. This allowed more strength,
eliminated the sharp nose and also created space to store fuel.

Total aerodynamic force
Lift
Drag
Wing
Figure 3.23 Shaped fatter wing
It may still be cambered, since the mid-points between the upper and
lower surfaces follow a curved line. This is called the mean camber line.
Location of Maximum Mean camber line Trailing edge
maximum thickness camber
Upper sur
face
Maximum
thickness
Lower surface
Leading edge radius
Leading edge
Location of
maximum camber
Chord
Figure 3.24 Profile of a shaped wing
Wings with a large camber produce greater lift, making them suitable for
low-speed flight. The position of the greatest camber is usually about
30% of the chord back from the leading edge. The chord line is the
straight line joining the leading edge and the trailing edge of the aerofoil.
Aerofoils can have many cross-sectional shapes. This is determined by

the designer to achieve certain specific aerodynamic characteristics.
Leading edge
Trailing edge
Figure 3.25 Well cambered aerofoil typical high lift, slow speed wing.
Leading edge
Trailing edge
Figure 3.26 Slender aerofoil typical high speed wing
Leading edge Trailing edge
Figure 3.27 Symmetrical aerofoil typical horizontal stabilizer
Figure 3.28 Laminar flow aerofoil
A low-speed wing
In normal flight, the wing will have a small positive angle of attack. The
static pressure over the upper surface of the aerofoil is slightly reduced
when compared with the normal static pressure of the free airstream well
away from the aerofoil. The static pressure below the lower surface of
the aerofoil is slightly greater than that of the free air.
This pressure difference is the origin of the total reaction force exerted on
the aerofoil. The greatest contribution (about 70%) is from the upper
surface. The total of all the aerodynamic forces can be resolved into one
resultant force. This is called the total reaction force. This reaction acts
through a neutral point called the centre of pressure (CP).
Negative Total reaction
Aerofoil
CP
Positive
Pressure distribution Centre of pressure (CP)
Figure 3.29 Pressure distribution and total reaction acting through centre of pressure
The total aerodynamic reaction force has two components:

Lift component of aerodynamic force perpendicular (90) to the
relative airflow or flightpath.
Drag component of aerodynamic force aligned to the relative
airflow and opposite to the direction of motion or flightpath.

Total reaction
Chor Lift
d line
Angle of attack Drag
Relative airflow
Figure 3.30 Lift and drag components of the total reaction
The angle of attack is the angle between the chord line of an aerofoil and
the undisturbed, relative airflow.
The angle of attack is given the symbol alpha (a).
The relative airflow refers to the direction and speed between the aircraft
and the remote airflow. It is exactly equal and opposite to the flightpath
of the aeroplane. The remote airflow is the airflow sufficiently far away
from the body so as not to be disturbed by it.
Lift from a typical wing

The lifting ability of a wing increases as the angle of attack is increased.
The lifting ability is also called its coefficient of lift (CL).
The change of lift with the angle of attack is called the C L/a curve.
Maximum lifting ability occurs at the critical angle which is also called
its stalling angle (about 16). Also the centre of pressure (CP) moves
forward as the angle of attack is increasesd.
The relationship between the lifting ability (CL) and the angle of attack
(a) can be plotted on a graph.
Fast Slow
Usual angles of flight (016)
Aerofoil cross-section lift coefficient (CL)

1.2
Maximum lift
1.0
0.8
Critical or stall angle

(aproximately 16)
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
4 0 4 8 12 16 20
Angle of attack ( )
Figure 3.31 CL/a graph
Once the angle of attack exceeds a critical angle, the streamline airflow
over most of the wing breaks down, becomes turbulent and separates.
The lifting ability of the wing is then greatly and suddenly reduced.
When this happens the wing is said to have stalled.
A cambered aerofoil gives higher values of CL for each angle of attack.
Lowering the flaps in the wings increases the camber of the wing and has
the same effect of increasing the lift coefficient.
Aerofoil cross-section lift coefficient (CL)
cambered
symmetric
4 0 4 8 12 16 20
Angle of attack ( )
Figure 3.32 CL/a graph for cambered and symmetric aerofoils
In straight and level flight, the lift equals the weight.

Drag
Drag is the aeronautical term for the air resistance experienced by the
aeroplane as it moves through the air. Drag acts in the opposite direction
to the motion through the air. It opposes the motion and acts parallel to
the relative airflow. You will recall that this is very similar to the friction
force (opposing motion and acting along the contacting surface). The lift
is analogous with the normal reaction (acts perpendicular to the motion).
Drag is very detrimental to high-speed flight. In an attempt to reduce the

drag force, engineers design streamlined shapes, polished surfaces and
flush fitting rivets as well as many other design features.
The main function of the engines is to produce thrust to overcome the

drag. The lower the drag force, the less thrust that is required. This has
advantages in that smaller engines can be used, even fewer engines on
the larger aircraft, lower fuel use, less strain on the engines and also the
associated structures, and overall lower operating costs.
Total drag
The total drag is the term given to the sum total of the various drag forces
acting on an aeroplane. The types of drag present can be classified as:
induced drag this is the total drag force associated with the
production of lift. It is manifested as vortices at the trailing edge of
the wing, and especially at the wingtips.
parasite drag this is the total drag force not directly associated with
the development of lift. This includes form drag due to shape, skin
friction and interference drag due to the mixing of various airflows
at the junction of different surfaces.
Consider the forces acting on your hand when placed out of the window
of a moving car.
When the hand is held parallel with the airflow, the angle of attack will
be zero, there will be zero lift and hence zero induced drag. There will be
a low parasite drag due to the rough surface and skin friction of the hand.
Zero lift
Zero angle
of attack
Airflow Low parasite drag
Zero lift
Figure 3.33 Zero angle of attack, zero lift, zero induced drag
As the hand is angled to the airflow, this creates an angle of attack. This
will cause lift and also induced drag.
Lift
Induced
drag
Airflow parasite drag

Angle
of attack
Figure 3.34 Angle of attack, lift and induced drag
As the angle is increased, the lift is also increased, but so too is the
induced drag and the parasite drag.
Lift
Increased induced
drag and increased
parasite drag
Airflow
Increased
angle parasite drag
of attack
Figure 3.35 Increased angle of attack, increased lift, induced drag and parasite drag
When the hand is turned perpendicular to the airflow (angle of attack =

90, there is no lift and hence no induced drag. There will be however a
very high parasite drag.

No lift
Very high
Airflow parasite drag
Zero induced drag
(zero lift)
Figure 3.36 Angle of attack perpendicular, no induced drag, very high parasite drag
Induced drag
Induced drag is a by-product of the production of lift, and is directly
related to the angle of attack. Induced drag is greatest at low speeds. It
is unavoidable.
Upward force (lift)
Rearward force (drag)
Airflow
Flightpath
Figure 3.37 Induced drag
To produce positive lift, the static pressure on the wing upper surface
must be less than that underneath the wing. As the air flows rearwards,
some airflow will leak or spill around the wingtip from the high static
pressure area under the wing to the low static pressure area above the
wing. This causes a spanwise flow component of air outward away from
the fuselage on the lower surface and an inward component towards the
fuselage on the upper surface. At the trailing edge of the wing these
upper and lower flows meet both moving rearward but having opposite
lateral components. A sheet of vortices is formed.
Figure 3.38 Sheet of vortices formed created by leaking air
At the wingtips, where the spanwise flow is the greatest, the strongest
vortices are formed. A vortex is a whirling or twisting flow of air (or
fluid).
Figure 3.39 Wingtip vortex
In straight and level flight at a given weight, the lift must remain constant
as the speed changes. The lift must counteract the weight. As the
airspeed reduces, the pilot increases the angle of attack to achieve the
same lift. High angles of attack are associated with low airspeeds and
increased induced drag.
The slower passage of air rearward over the wing allows the spanwise
flow of air to spill up over the wingtips. This forms greater wingtip
vortices and greater downwash behind the trailing edge of the wing.
Parasite drag
Parasite drag, as the name suggests, comes from hangers-on to the wing
that do not contribute to lift. Parasite drag is proportional to the speed
through the air although some objects also become bigger when the angle
of attack is increased, thus increasing drag even more.
Parasite drag consists of:

skin friction depends on the surface area and smoothness (or
roughness) of the object

form drag due to the frontal size and shape of the object
interference drag caused by the effect of one part on another. This
is one of the reasons why the wings are often blended into the
fuselage of high performance aircraft.
Blending or fairing to
reduce interference drag
Figure 3.40 Blending and fairing reduce interference drag
At zero airspeed there is no relative speed between the aeroplane and the
air. This means there will be no drag. As the airspeed increases, the skin
friction, form drag and interference drag all increase. Airspeed has a
very powerful effect on parasite drag.
The parasite drag is proportional to the square of the airspeed (V2). That
is, doubling the airspeed increases the parasite drag by four times (2 2);
tripling the airspeed would give 9 times the parasite drag. (32).
For an aeroplane traveling as slowly as possible (just above stalling
speed) parasite drag may only be about a quarter of the total drag. Most
of the drag would be due to the induced drag.
At a very high speed the total drag is due almost entirely to parasite drag.
Because of this, an aeroplane must have clean aerodynamics to obtain
high-speed performance.
The wings on some aeroplanes can contribute about half of parasite drag,
so any reduction in skin friction, form drag or interference drag can have
a significant effect in reducing the overall parasite drag.
Slow Fast
high angle-of-attack low angle-of-attack

Long-range High-speed
cruise cruise
Parasite drag
0
Airspeed
Figure 3.41 Relationship between airspeed and parasite drag
Relationship between lift and drag
Total drag is the sum total of all the drag forces acting on the aeroplane.
Total drag has two components:

induced drag
parasite drag.
Consider an aircraft in level flight as it increases its speed. The amount

of lift has to remain the same to balance the weight. An increase in speed
would also increase the lift so the pilot has to reduce the angle of attack
as the aircraft accelerates. Therefore the drag due to the angle of attack
(induced drag) decreases but the increased airspeed will increase the
parasite drag. The total drag then is a balance of the two.
Slow Fast
high angle-of-attack low angle-of-attack
g
dra
Total drag
tal ag
To
dr
s ite
ra
Pa
Induced
drag
0
Airspeed
Figure 3.42 Relationship between airspeed and total drag
If the two graphs are combined as each of these drags vary with airspeed,
another graph can be plotted to show the total drag with airspeed for a
particular aeroplane in level flight at a particular weight, configuration
and altitude.
This curve is an extremely important relationship. Obviously, there is a

speed where the drag is least. This is called the minimum drag speed and
abbreviated as VIMD (velocity = airspeed, indicated, minimum drag). The
total drag is a minimum at a medium speed. This airspeed corresponds to
an angle of attack of about 4.
To improve the lift and to minimize the drag the designer must keep the
airflow smooth. This is called streamlined or laminar flow.

Laminar Turbulent
flow flow
Transition Separation
point point
Figure 3.43 Separation of flow around an object
If the air has to travel around a blunt object, sharp corners or large areas,
then the flow becomes twisted or turbulent. Eventually the air cannot
flow around the corners and separates. This causes a large increase in
drag as well as a large loss of lift. This is what happens when an
aeroplane stalls.
Efficiency and airflow

The design of a wing is critical to achieve the best efficiency. That is, it
must produce the most lift for the least induced drag. The ratio of the lift
versus the drag at any particular angle of attack is called the lift/drag
ratio (L/D). It is dependent on the design of the wing section.
If the ratio of lift to drag is plotted against the angle of attack, there is an
obvious point where the greatest benefit is gained. This is the angle of
attack where the wing is most efficient, or has the best lift drag ratio or
best L/D.
A typical aerofoil achieves its best L/D at an angle of attack of about 4

and loses most of its lifting ability after about 16. This is the point at
which an aeroplane stalls.
Fast Slow
In-flight angle-of-attack range
12
10
Most efficient angle-of-attack

CD
CL
8
Lift/drag or
stall angle
2
0
4 0 4 8 12 16 20
Angle of attack ( )
Figure 3.44 L/D ratio versus angle of attack
Because the wing is most efficient at this angle, it is usual to set the wing
on the fuselage at an angle of 4 so that at cruising speed, the wing will
be at 4 and the fuselage is in the most streamlined position.
The angle at which the wing is set to the fuselage is called the Riggers
angle of incidence.
Angle of
incidence Chord line of wing
Longitudinal axis of aeroplane
Figure 3.45 Riggers angle of incidence
There is a pressure difference between the upper and lower surface of the
wing. There is a loss of this differential by air leaking around the
wingtips. The vortex formed at the wingtip causes a large increase in the
induced drag.
The shape of the wing and the wingtip is significant. In order to make
high aspect ratio wings very efficient at low speeds and high altitudes,
winglets are added to the ends of tapered wings. Elliptical wings are also
very efficient as there is very little tip loss.

Plain wing Winglet
Modified wingtip
Wing fence Wingtip tank
Figure 3.46 Winglets
Another influence on the lift/drag ratio is the shape of the wing (known
as the planform of the wing) and the spanwise loading (the spread of
weight over the span).
The proportion of the span of the wing to the depth of the chord is known
as the aspect ratio. High aspect ratio means a long, narrow planform
and low aspect ratio means short, deeper chord wings.
Chord
Span
Low aspect ratio wings
High aspect ratio wings

Figure 3.47 Aspect ratios
The shape can be rectangular, tapered, curved, elliptical or triangular.
Most domestic and commercial planes, including the jumbo jets have
high aspect ratio wings. Military fighter aircraft need to reduce the
parasite drag created by high aspect ratio wings, so they use low aspect
ratio wings. This reduces the size, and increases the strength and
manoeuvrability of the aircraft.
A typical training aircraft has an aspect ratio of about 8 and a best

lift/drag ratio of about 12:1.
Once the wing is built, there are only two factors that can change the lift
to drag ratio. These are:
angle of attack
extension of flaps.
Worked Example 5
An aeroplane of mass 50 tonnes is subjected to the following forces

during a steep climb. Determine the resultant force that is propelling the
plane.
Drag = 100 kN
Thrust = 400 kN
Lift = 430 kN 20
Weight = 50 x 10 kN
Figure 3.48 Aeroplane during a steep climb

The mass of 50 tonnes is equivalent to 50 000 kg.
This must be converted to a weight force.
W = mg
= 50 000 x 10 N
= 500 kN
The four forces; thrust, weight, lift and drag are then added together
using a force polygon.
Because these forces are vectors, they must be drawn tip-to-tail. Figure
3.49 shows the forces. The weight force has been drawn first. When all
the forces have been drawn, head to tail, the resultant is the vector that is
drawn from where you started to where you finished.
D = 100 kN 7.5 Resultant = 130 kN
kN
430
L=
W = 500 kN
T=
400
kN
Figure 3.49 Force polygon Scale 10mm = 100 kN
The resultant force acting on the aeroplane is 130 kN acting at an angle

of 7.5 to the horizontal.
Worked example 6
An aeroplane is maintaining level flight. If the plane has a mass of 32

tonnes, and a lift to drag ratio of 8:1, determine the thrust necessary to
maintain a constant velocity.
Solution
The weight of the aeroplane equals mass x gravity, that is, the weight
will equal 32 000 x 10 N, or 320 kN.
The lift must balance the weight force to maintain level flight, therefore
the lift, L, will also equal 320 kN.
If the lift to drag ratio is 8:1, then the drag will equal 320/8, or 40 kN.
To maintain constant velocity, there can be no acceleration, so the

horizontal forces must be balanced, that is, there is no resultant force.
Therefore the thrust will equal the drag, or 40 kN.
Worked example 7
An aircraft is making a controlled descent under power at 8 to the

horizontal, with an acceleration of 2.5 m/s 2 in the direction of travel. The
mass of the aircraft is 3.5 tonnes and the thrust is 77 kN.
i Calculate the drag force. (Use g = 10 m/s2)
ii Calculate the lift to drag ratio.
Firstly, determine the weight force,
W = mg
= 3.5 x 1000 x 10 N
= 35 kN
As the plane is moving with an acceleration, there must be a resultant

force.
This can be found using the following formula:
F = ma
= 3.5 x 1000 x 2.5
= 8750 N
= 8.75 kN
The thrust is in the direction of travel, that is, down at 8 to the

horizontal.
The lift force must balance the weight, and is perpendicular to the
airflow.
The drag opposes the motion in the direction of the airflow.
From this information, you can construct the force polygon as shown in
figure 3.50.
(This is analogous to the normal reaction and the friction force in friction
problems).

F = 8.75 kN
D = 73.1 kN
W = 35 kN
L = 34.7 kN
T = 77 kN
Figure 3.50 Force diagram
From the diagram, the drag force is scaled off at 73.1 kN.
The lift force is scaled off at 34.7 kN
Therefore, the L/D ratio is 34.7 / 73.1 = 0.47
Controlling flight
The wings have to produce the same lift, irrespective of the airspeed, to
support the weight of the aircraft. To manoeuvre the plane, it is
necessary to change the amount of lift produced. This is done by
changing the angle of attack, or the angle at which the wing is relative to
the airflow. This is also necessary when maintaining level flight at
different airspeeds. The pilot reduces the angle of attack as the speed
increases, and increases it as the aircraft slows down.
The wing has a minimum speed that it must maintain in order to keep the
plane balanced. This is similar to riding a bicycle, it is hard to keep a
balance of the bicycle when the speed is too slow. If an aircraft is flown
too slowly, it also becomes hard to control and loses its balance. This is
called stalling the aircraft.
Aircraft are designed to cruise at a given airspeed, maybe 300 kph. This
aircraft may have a stalling angle at a speed of about half this, say 150
kph. The designer has to consider this when the aircraft is landing, or
taking off. The use of flaps allows the stalling speed to be reduced by
increasing the lift at low speeds. This allows for shorter runways to be
used.
A further advantage of flaps is that they increase the steepness of the

approach path. This allows the pilot to gain a better view by lowering
the nose of the aircraft as well as reducing the approach and landing
speeds.
Flaps
There are various designs for flaps. Each has different advantages.
Simple flap Split flap
Airflow through slot Moves back and down
Slotted flap Fowler flap

Figure 3.51 Flaps
As mentioned at the start of this topic, the aircraft can experience a

movement around three axes (called balance lines) which pass through
the centre of gravity.
Normal axis
Centre of gravity (CG)
Lateral axis
Lonitudinal axis
Figure 3.52 Three balance lines of an aircraft
In order to control this turning moment about the axes, the pilot has to
control and balance his aircraft by the use of various controls.
Elevators
The elevator is the moveable surface at the rear of the plane. It is the
hinged rear section of the horizontal stabilizer as part of the tailplane.
The tailplane may be fixed with a hinged elevator, or the whole tailplane
may pivot. This is called a stabilator or all moving tail.

Elevator Tailplane
Figure 3.53 Hinged elevator
Stabilator
Figure 3.54 Stabilator or all moving tail
The elevators cause the aircraft to pitch, that is, a nose up or a nose down
motion. This tendency to turn about the lateral axis is known as the
pitching moment.
The direct result of moving the elevators is a change in the angle of

attack and the attitude of the plane relative to the airflow.
Up elevator Control column back
Nose up
Downward
aerodynamic force
Upward
aerodynamic force
Control column forward
Nose down
Down elevator
Figure 3.55 Elevators control the pitching moment
Ailerons
When a change of direction, or cornering is required on a bicycle, this is
achieved by leaning the bike over. It is also common for the bends of the
road to be banked to aid with cornering.
This is not possible through the air. An aircraft achieves a turn by

varying the component of the wings lifting force.
To achieve a tilt, the rear outer section of each wing is hinged. These
surfaces are known as ailerons.
By moving the ailerons in different directions. (one up and the other

down) the aircraft can roll into a turn.
Ailerons cause motion about the longitudinal axis. This turning moment
is known as the rolling moment.
L
L
L
L
Left wing Right wing

Figure 3.56 Ailerons allow the aircraft to turn or roll
When the ailerons are deflected they cause a rolling moment. The
deflected surface also causes a change in the drag on that wing. The
downward aileron is in a high pressure area and so has more drag than
the upward aileron. This results in a yawing moment opposite to the
desired direction of roll and needs to be corrected by the rudder. Different
amounts of lift are also generated.
Rudder
The rudder causes a yawing moment (about the normal axis). The
yawing moment also causes one wing to advance and one to retard. This
causes a change in lift and induces a rolling moment. The rudder can
also be used to balance uneven airflow or engine forces. It is also used to
change the heading or to align the aircraft with the airflow.

Bending Stress airframes
The normal structure of the aircraft (the airframe) includes the cockpit
and cabin, the wings, the tail assembly, the engine compartments and the
fuselage which joins them all together.
The purpose of the structure is to transfer the lift from the wings to
support the weight of the structure and its payload (passengers and
freight). As well as the forces caused by the lift (both lifting and
twisting), it has to have additional strength for turbulence, wind gusts and
thermals (air currents). It also has to carry the thrust from the propellor
to pull the aircraft through the air. The tail surfaces are attached to
provide stability when changing the flight path of the aircraft. The
control surfaces allow the pilot to override the stability when changing
the flight path of the aircraft. On the ground the airframe is supported by
the undercarriage.
The airframe has to provide both strength and stiffness.
The primary requirement of the aircraft has to be considered when

designing the airframe. The key point in the design is to carry maximum
load at minimum cost.
The total take off load varies with each aircraft.
The following table shows a breakdown of loads making up the total take
off load.
Vimy Vickers Modern Modern Concord

Commercial Viscount Short Range Subsonic Supersonic
1920 Subsonic Long
range
747-400
Payload 17 14 24 15 9
Fuel 25 23 18 40 48
Systems, 11 25 18 13 10
crew etc
Power plant 18 12 11 6 10
Structure 29 26 29 26 23
Figure 3.57 Percentages of total take-off weight
The structural form of an aircraft is a system of individual members
arranged in frames. The simplest structures used in aeronautics are
readily recognized as frames, but more advanced varieties lose their
simplicity as members are made to do more than one job.
Parts are made up of tensile, compressive and shear stressed members

that behave as beams, struts, ties and thin-walled tubes. Larger planes
rely heavily upon thin-walled shell forms whereas light aeroplanes
exhibit greater variety.
Aerostructures are never perfect in the sense of having only just enough
members to keep them stable and in equilibrium under any system of
forces. When a structure has too few members it is said to be deficient.
If it has too many, it is redundant. Aerostructures feature a great many
redundancies in the pursuit of safety and lightness. This introduces
difficulties when calculating stresses in individual members.
The basic triangulated truss and the thin-walled tube are used in one form
or another in almost every aircraft. The truss is the easiest and cheapest
to repair, but is not as failsafe as the thin-walled tube.
Composite structures are likely to satisfy most of the needs of light

aeroplane designers in the future. They are not the absolute answer at
present because it is impossible to prove their integrity under all required
service conditions.
Construction Structural form Percentage present
Tube and fabric Triangulated truss 48
All metal Mainly thin-walled tube 29
All wood Mixed 14
Composite Thin-walled tube with 8

foam stabilized skin
Figure 3.58 Percentage of structural arrangements of amateur built aircraft in

the USA in the 1980s
The following structural forms are common in aeronautical engineering.
Frames
Frames can either be pin jointed or welded joints. Frames make up a
triangulated truss within the aircraft.

Pin jointed
Welded
Triangulated truss
Frames
Figure 3.59 Structural form frames
Beams
Beams exist in various forms; simply supported beams with bending and
shear, cantilevers with tension and compression bending stresses,
cantilevers with uniformly distributed loads.
Simply supported
Bending and shear Combination of simply supported

and cantilever beams
Tension
Compression
Cantilever Neutral axis

Beams in bending
Figure 3.60 Structural forms beams
Thin-walled tubes
Thin-walled tubes will experience torsion, as well as tensile and hoop
stresses in the skin.
Torsional member
Thin walled tube in torsion
Complementary shear Torsional axis

Wrinkling
across sio
n
n
tension Te
field
Skin in tension
2f
f Skin in shear
(related to torsion)
Hoop stress
Thin walled tubes
2
2
K = 2.5 = 3.5 = 1.05

K = Maximum stress in skin Pressurised cabin
Hoop stress with cuts-out
Figure 3.61 Structural form thin-walled tube
Operational phases
Aircraft experience four distinct operational phases:
ground
take-off
cruise/operational (civil/military)
landing.
The aircraft must be designed to resist all the forces associated with each
of these phases.
The wings, fuselage, landing gear and control surfaces all experience
significant forces during the different operational phases.

Wings
The fuel on many planes is stored within the wings. This is called a wet
wing. The static load created by the fuel will cause the wing to deflect
downwards.
In flight, the wing will flex upwards, putting the upper surface in
compression.
Important properties include E and r ,
where:
E = Youngs modulus and is a measure of the stiffness. It depends
on the geometry of the wing; and
r = density.
Because part of the wing is in compression during flight, the engineer

also calculates the ratio of sYS(comp) and r ,
where:
sYS(comp) = yield compressive stress
A very important aspect of wing design is the wings resistance to stress

corrosion cracking. This is known as the fracture toughness and is given
the symbol KISCC. The higher the number, the more resistance there is to
stress corrosion cracking.
In flight, the lower surface of the wings will be in tension, because the
wing flexes, or bends, upwards.
Important properties again include E and r and sYS(tension) ,
where:
E = Youngs modulus and is a measure of the stiffness; and r =
density and
sYS(tension) = yield tensile stress. Yield stress in tension and
compression are the same in metals, but not in polymers.
The wings experience much cyclic loading, so calculations for fatigue

stress ( sFS ) are necessary.
Corrosion resistance and fracture toughness are once again important

properties.
Fuselage
The fuselage is loaded in bending as well as being pushed outwards due
to pressurization. Most of the fuselage will be in tension.
In addition to E, r and sYS , and corrosion resistance, the fatigue stress

(sFS) is low cycle. The fatigue problem in the fuselage is due to the
pressurization, but this only occurs once per flight.
The fuselage also experiences a tensile hoop stress.
Square windows tend to crack and fail, so they need to be designed with
no sharp corners included in their shape.
Spars, frames and ribs

Spars, frames and ribs are loaded in bending. Important properties
include E, r , sYS , sFS and KISCC.
Landing gear
If landing gear is retractable, it takes up a lot of space in the aeroplane.
On light aircraft, the landing gear is generally permanently out. This
eliminates many control systems to withdraw it within the fuselage, but
does increase the drag significantly, and burns much more fuel.
Important properties include E, sYS and KISCC.
Control surfaces
Control surfaces need to have structural stiffness and be lightweight. The
control surfaces are often referred to as the features, and must not bend.
Carbon fibre and composites are commonly used for the vertical fin and
horizontal tail.

Cowl Cockpit/cabin
Spinner
Prop
Leading edge Wing tip
Trailing
edge
Aileron
Flaps
Fuselage
Tailplane
Trim tab Elevator
Fin and rudder

Figure 3.62 Control surfaces on an aeroplane
Worked example 8
A 3 tonne aeroplane is at rest on its landing gear as shown.
Draw the shear force diagram
Determine the maximum bending moment and its position.
3000 kg
9 kN/m 9 kN/m
1500
3250 3000 3250
Figure 3.63 Distributed load acting on a plane.
You will need to recall work from Civil structures on shear force and
bending moments.
The mass of the plane must be converted to a weight
W = mg
3000 x10
30 kN
Load on one wing will equal 9 kN x 4 = 36 kN
Now find the reactions at each wheel. Because of the symmetrical

loading, the reactions will be equal to half of the total load.
The reaction at each wheel will be (36 + 36 + 30) / 2 = 51 kN
You will recall that the shear force diagram for a uniform distributed load
(UDL) will be a sloping line of gradient 9 kN / m, and will be a constant
where there is no load, and then change at a concentrated load, in the
same direction as the concentrated load.
Follow the shear in Fig 3.72 as you work through these calculations:
UDL from end of wing to wheel = -9 x 3.25
= -29.25 kN
Reaction at wheel = 51 kN
Shear force at wheel = -29.25 + 51
= + 21.75 kN
Shear force where wing attaches to fueslage = 21.75 (9 x 0.75)
= 15 kN
No load for 0.75, then weight force of 30 kN
Shear to right of centre = 15 30
= 15 kN
Now follow through with your own calculations until you get to the other
wing tip.

29.25
21.75
15
15
21.75
29.25
Figure 3.64 Shear force diagram
Maximum bending moment will occur when the shear force = 0, that is,
the position of the wheel.
You will also recall that bending moment can also be calculated by
finding the area under the shear force diagram.
1
BMwheel = 3.25 29.25
2
= 47.53 kNm
Worked example 9
A certain manoeuvre produces the loads on the aluminium tubing truss of

an aircraft as shown in the diagram. What is the load in the pairs of
member EG. (There are two trusses in the aircraft)
Stabiliser reaction
Wing reaction
A
C E G I K M 800
500
100 N
J L 0
B D F H
75 kg
132 kg
147 kg
792 kg 282 kg 152 kg
255 kg
450 0 1050 1610 2650 3400 4150 4900 6000
Fuselage stations (mm)

Figure 3.65 Loading on an aircraft fuselage frame
Solution
To find EG, use the method of sections.
You will recall that for this method, you must put a section plane through
three members, and then consider one side of the truss to solve for the
member EG.
Consider the right hand side of the section, so the stabilizer reaction must
be found first.
Mwing = 0
(7920 x 2.06) + (2550 x 0.56) + (R x 4.39) (2820 x 1.04) = 0

(1520 x 1.79) (1470 x 2.540 (1320 x 3.29) (750 x 4.39)
4.39 R = -720
R = -164 N
164 N
To find EG
M F = 0
(EG x 0.80) (1520 x 0.75) (1470 x 1.50) (1320 x 2.25) = 0

(750 x 335) (164 x 3.35)
0.80 EG = 9376.90
EG = 11721 N
EG = 11.7 kN

Worked example 10
A tension test on a duralumin sample showed that the proportional limit

was reached with a load of 45 kN. This load produced a 0.16 mm
extension at the proportional limit.
If the test piece has an original gauge length of 50 mm and a cross

sectional area (CSA) of 160 mm2, calculate the value of Youngs
Modulus for duralumin.
Using this data, determine the maximum load that an aircraft frame
member can support if it is not to exceed 0.08 mm extension. The frame
member is 3.5 metres long and has a CSA of 400 mm2.
Stress, s = L/A
= 45000 / 160
= 281.25 MPa
Strain, e = e/1
0.16 / 50
0.0032
Young's Modulus, E = s /e
= 281.25 / 0.0032
= 87890 MPa
= 87.9 GPa
E = F1 / eA
Force, F = EeA/1
= 87890 x 0.08 x 400 / 3500

= 803.6 N
Propulsion
The first aircraft to be built used propellers to push them along. A
propeller draws air in the front and throws it backwards. This thrusts the
propeller and aircraft forwards. The jet of air thrown back by the
propellers does not travel very fast, so propellers cannot move aircraft
faster than about 725 km/h. To achieve a greater speed, aircraft now use
either turboprop or turbojet engines instead of propellers.
Turboprops
The turboprop engine drives the propeller by a gas turbine engine.
Compressors compress or squash the incoming air, fuel is sprayed in
behind the compressor, and the hot gas drives the turbine, which then
turns the propeller.
A reduction gear slows the propeller down so that it moves about ten
times more slowly. Propellers waste power and make too much noise if
they spin too fast.
A turboprop weighing 350 kg produces about 2 000 horsepower.

Airliners designed to carry 50 to 70 passengers are often powered by two
turboprops.
3 The compressed air is heated

with burning fuel
1 Air is
forced in
2 The air is compressed by 4 The turbine (which turns

two compressors and the propellers) is
forced into the driven by hot gas
combustion chamber
Figure 3.66 Turboprop engine

Turbojets
The turbojet is another gas turbine engine which was first run in 1937.
Aircraft driven by turbojet engines do not have propellers. They are
propelled by a backward jet of hot gas. These engines, usually in the
form of turbofans, propel all the fastest aircraft.
The compressors ensure that all the air entering a turbojet is compressed
and forced into a combustion chamber. The compressed air is heated
with burning fuel, the jet of hot gas drives the plane forwards.
3 The compressed air is heated
with burning fuel
1 Air is forced in
4 The jet of hot gas drives

2 The air is compressed the aircraft forwards
and forced into the
combustion chamber
Figure 3.67 Turbojet engine
The jet engine drives an aircraft forward with enormous force. Air is
sucked in at the front, compressed by blades, and heated with flames of
burning fuel in the combustion chamber. The air is then expelled at a
high speed from the back. This stream of hot air is known as a jet. It
causes a thrust in the opposite direction, propelling the aircraft forwards.
Most big airliners today are powered by turbo fan engines, which are
quieter and cooler than other jet engines. Air is drawn in by a huge fan
spinning at the front. Some of the air passes through the engine, while
most flows around the outside, to thrust the aircraft forward. The fan and
compressor blades are themselves turned by the stream of hot air rushing
out through the back of the engine.
Jet engines work on the principle of jet propulsion. An aircraft is thrust

forwards because of the reaction to high-speed air traveling backwards.
The same effect can be seen when you release the neck of a blown-up
balloon. When the neck of the balloon is held tightly shut, the air
pressure inside the balloon is the same in all directions, (Pascals
principle), so the balloon remains still. Because the air is compressed
inside the balloon, when you release the neck of the balloon, the air will
rush out at high speed.
The air pressure at the opposite end to the neck is no longer counter-
balanced, so the balloon flies forward.
Figure 3.68 Balloon moves by jet propulsion
Most modern aircraft like the Boeing 747s have powerful electrical and
hydraulic systems to help them fly.
The four engines that weigh about 5 tonnes each burn fuel to drive
electric generators. These generators produce about 100 horsepower
each. Each engine also drives a hydraulic pump by the use of high-
pressure air. These four hydraulic systems pump special liquid to move
the landing gear, flaps, flight controls, brakes and other items on the
plane. In the belly of the plane are cabin pressurization and air-
conditioning systems. When aircraft fly at high altitudes, the air outside
is too cold and too thin to breathe, so the air in the cabin must be
pressurized and kept warm.
Most modern passenger aircraft also have an APU (auxiliary power unit).
On the 747 it is at the tip of the tail-end of the fuselage. It is a small gas
turbine engine, driving two electric generators. It also supplies compressed
air for starting the main engines and for air-conditioning the cabin.
Fluid mechanics
Hydraulic applications to aircraft components
Most aeroplanes have several hydraulically operated systems

incorporated into their design. Systems are used to operate the
undercarriage and the flaps as well as the hydraulic brake system.
A basic hydraulic system includes a pump, regulator, reservoir, relief

valve, filters, plumbing, oil, and various control valves , actuators, and an
accumulator.
To operate the hydraulic system, the pilot moves a control valve that
directs hydraulic fluid to an actuator. The pressure exerted by the
hydraulic fluid then moves an actuator, which mechanically operates the
service.

Wing flap
Actuator
(operating
cylinder)
Figure 3.69 Actuator operating mechanical linkage to wing flap
Wheel brakes
The wheel brakes are usually disc brakes. These are hydraulically
operated by toe pedals which are situated on top of the rudder pedals.
Pressing the left toe brake pedal will slow the left main wheel, and
similarly the right pedal for the right side main wheel. By using them
separately, the pilot can use differential braking which is useful in
manoeuvring on the ground. Straight line braking is provided when they
are used simultaneously.
A typical system involves a master cylinder containing hydraulic brake

fluid for each brake system. As the individual toe brake is applied, the
pressure is transmitted through the brake fluid to a slave cylinder which
the causes calipers to clamp the brake pads onto the disc. The brake disc
is part of the wheel assembly , so when the pads clamp onto the disc and
slow it down, the wheel rotation is also slowed down.
Hydrostatic and dynamic pressure

Hydrostatic pressure
In the atmosphere at any point, static pressure is exerted equally in all

directions. It is the result of weight of all the molecules of air above that
point pressing down due to gravity.
Figure 3.70 Static pressure acts equally in all directions
Static pressure decreases with altitude and is exerted on all points on an
aircraft, inside and outside, except when the aircraft is specially sealed.
s tatic pressure at altitud

Low e
ssure at mean
tat ic pre sea
g hs l ev
el
Hi
Figure 3.71 Static pressure at different levels
As the name implies, static pressure does not involve relative motion of
the air. Static pressure is sampled on the surface of an aircraft by a static
vent. This is then connected to a barometer type device to be measured.
Static pressure
Static vent
Partially evacuated capsule

Figure 3.72 Static pressure measured by a barometer
Dynamic pressure
If you hold your hand up in a strong wind or out of the window of a
moving car, then an extra wind pressure is felt due to the air hitting your
hand.
This extra pressure, which is always present and above static pressure is
known as dynamic pressure. It is pressure created by relative movement.

It is felt by a body which is moving relative to the air. It can be moving
through the air or the air could be flowing past it.
Dynamic pressure depends on two factors:

the speed of the body relative to the air. The faster the body moves
or the stronger the wind blows, then the stronger the dynamic
pressure that will be felt. This is because of the greater number of
molecules that impact on it per second.
the density of the air. In outer space, no matter how fast you travel,
you will not feel this dynamic pressure as there are practically no air
molecules to impact on you. The atmosphere is the most dense at
sea level, so your hand will be struck by more molecules than in the
upper levels of the atmosphere. So if you are travelling at the same
speed, you will experience a much lower dynamic pressure at the
higher, less dense altitudes.
IAS 100 = True airspeed
6000 IAS 100 = TAS 137 +36%
5000 IAS 100 = TAS 128 +28%
4000 IAS 100 = TAS 121 +21%

Altitude (m)
3000 IAS 100 = TAS 114 +14%
2000 IAS 100 = TAS 109 +9%
1000 IAS 100 = TAS 104 +4%
Mean sea level IAS 100 = TAS 100
Figure 3.73 Relationship between indicated and true airspeed due to dynamic
pressure at different altitudes
Total pressure/Pitot pressure

Static pressure is always exerted, but for dynamic pressure to be present,
there must also be motion of the body relative to the air. Total pressure
consists of static pressure plus dynamic pressure. Total pressure is also
known as pitot pressure. The airspeed indicator (ASI) which will be
discussed shortly, senses dynamic pressure; that is, the difference
between total pressure and static pressure. Its scale is calibrated to read
in units of speed, usually knots.
Pitot tube
Static pressure
Airflow
Total pressure (pitot)

(dynamic and static pressure
Flexible diagphragm
Static vent
Figure 3.74 Total pressure
Application to aircraft instruments

Aeroplane flight instruments fall into three basic categories:
pressure instruments which use variations in atmospheric air pressure
gyroscopic instruments using the properties of gyroscopes
compass systems that sense the earths magnetic field.
The basic flight instruments informing the pilot of airspeed (airspeed

indicator), altitude (altimeter) and the rate of change of altitude (vertical
speed indicator) are pressure instruments.
Altimeter
The altimeter is the instrument that indicates the height of the aircraft
above a pre-selected surface level.
The atmospheric pressure, known as the static pressure, is fed into the
instrument from an aperture set into the fuselage side so that it is at right
angles to any airflow.

Atmospheric pressure
10 000 ft pointer admitted from static vent
0 Pressure
9 1
1000 ft window
pointer 8 2
1020
1025
1030
7 3
6 4 Static vent
Striped setor 5 on outside
visible when of aircraft
below 10 000 ft
Subscale knob 100 ft pointer Fixed amount of air in Gearing

for setting expandable capsule mechanism
pressure datum
Figure 3.75 Altimeter
Pressure altimeters resemble aneroid barometers. They determine how

high an aircraft is above sea level by measuring the pressure of the
earths atmosphere. The pressure of the earths atmosphere decreases as
the altitude increases.
The upper atmosphere has less pressure than the air near the earth, simply
because there is less air pressing down from above. When you travel up
a tall building in a fast lift, you will feel the air pressure changing. The
pressure of the air inside the lift decreases, but the pressure inside your
ears remains the same. This difference in pressure causes your eardrums
to bulge outward slightly until some air finally forces its way out. You
will feel your ears pop.
Altitude (metres) Pressure (kg/cm2) Pressure (kPa)
15000 0.1 12.1
12000 0.2 19.4
9000 0.3 30.8
6000 0.5 47.2
3000 0.7 70.1
Sea level 1.0 101.3
Figure 3.76 Air pressure decreases with altitude
Airspeed Indicator
The Airspeed Indicator (ASI), as it is usually called, does as the name
implies measures the speed through the air but not over the ground.
Oncoming air in flight enters a forward-facing aperture on the aircraft

known as a pitot tube. It is carried through a line to the capsule in the
instrument which can expand or contract. The pressure this air exerts on
the capsule is a combination of static pressure (already there) and the
additional pressure attributed to the moving air, known as dynamic
pressure
There is a need to ensure that the capsule, and thereby the reading, is only
influenced by the dynamic pressure the moving air. To achieve this, a
static pressure line is also introduced into this instrument which exerts
itself on the outside of the capsule. This nullifies the static pressure part
of the total pressure. The net effect is that only the required dynamic
pressure is linked to the dial where it is registered in terms of kilometers
per hour.
Airspeed
200 Knots 0
180 20
Pitot tube
160 40
Airflow
140 60
120 80
100
Appropriate
gearing system Flexible diagphragm
Static pressure
Static vent
Figure 3.77 Airspeed indicator (ASI)
Pitot tube
A Pitot tube is a simple and versatile instrument for measuring the flow
velocity. It is also used to measure the speed of aircraft by measuring the
flow velocity of the air past them.
It has two tubes:

an outer tube, with holes perpendicular to the direction of flow,
which senses static pressure only
an inner tube, which faces into the direction of flow and senses static
pressure plus the pressure increase due to fluid striking the tube
opening (dynamic pressure).

The dynamic pressure is greater than the static pressure and the pressure
difference is proportional to the velocity. A differential manometer as
shown is often used with this instrument.
Figure 3.78 Pitot tube with a differential manometer
The difference in height of the indicating fluid in the manometer may be

used to calculate the velocity and hence the flow rate by multiplying the
velocity by the cross sectional area.
Icing can be a problem when super-cooled liquid drops are ingested and
freeze. Because the pitot tube faces directly into the airflow it can ingest
water in flight which can freeze if icing conditions exist. This problem is
solved on many aeroplanes by fitting a heated pitot head around the tube.
Vertical Speed Indicator

The Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI) indicates the rate at which an aircraft
is climbing or descending. Once again we have a capsule capable of
expansion/contraction in the operation of this instrument; this time it is
related to the speed at which the pressure decreases or increases on climb
or descent.
In this case static pressure has instant entry/exit to the capsule but its
entry/exit to the area surrounding the capsule is only gradual due to the
other aperture being restricted to deliberately delay movement either way.
1 2
.5 CLIMB 4
UP
0 6
DOWN
.5
4
1 2
Figure 3.79 Vertical speed indicator (VSI)
In level flight the pressure both inside and outside the capsule will be the
same so the instrument will show a zero reading.
Exercises
Exercise 3.1
The rocket engine of a missile ejects 210 kg of exhaust gases per second
at the speed of 950 m/s relative to the engine. Calculate the thrust of the
rocket engine.

Exercise 3.2
The engine of a jet fighter plane traveling at 900 km/h is consuming fuel
at the rate of 2 kg per second and air at the rate of 120 kg per second.
Calculate the thrust of the engine if the velocity of the exhaust gas is
1000 m/s relative to the aircraft.
Exercise 3.3
A helicopter, of mass 4 tonne, is subjected to the forces as illustrated.

T
60
30
D
Figure 3.80 Helicopter
Determine the thrust force ( acting at 60 to the horizontal) that would be

necessary to ensure that the helicopter would maintain a horizontal flight
path at constant velocity.
What is the magnitude of the resultant force?

Exercise 3.4
Water flows through a 45 mm diameter pipe with a velocity of 5 m/s.

The pipe reduces to 30 mm diameter.
Determine the velocity of the water in the pipe downstream of the

reducer.
Exercise 3.5
a State Bernoullis principle.
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
b Explain how this principle is applied to flight.

_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
c Explain how a sailboat can move against the wind as a result of the
Bernoulli effect
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
d Explain why an airfoil is placed on the back section of high

performance cars. How does this effect the performance of the car?
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________

Exercise 3.6
A light aircraft, mass 3200 kg, has a wing span of 15 metres. The
aeroplane is maintaining horizontal flight. The wing is continuous above
the aeroplane, and assuming that the distributed load created by the lift is
uniform, draw a shear force and bending moment diagram for the wing.
Hint: The lift force must balance the weight of the plane.
uniform lift
W = mg
= 3200 x 10
= 32 kN
Figure 3.81 Front view of a light plane with wing across top
Exercise 3.7
A certain manoeuvre produces the loads on the aluminium tubing truss of

an aircraft as shown in the diagram. What is the load in the pairs of
member AC. (There are two trusses in the aircraft) if:
i member AD is removed
ii member BC is removed.
Calculate the main wing reaction.

Stabiliser reaction
Wing reaction
A
C E G I K M 800
500
100 N
J L 0
B D F H
75 kg
132 kg
147 kg
792 kg 282 kg 152 kg
255 kg
450 0 1050 1610 2650 3400 4150 4900 6000
Fuselage stations (mm)
Figure 3.82 Loads in aircraft fuselage frame

Exercise 3.8
A tension test on a duralumin sample showed that the proportional limit

was reached with a load of 50 kN. This load produced a 0.18 mm
extension at the proportional limit.
If the test piece has an original gauge length of 50 mm and a cross

sectional area of 160 mm2, calculate the value of Youngs Modulus for
duralumin.
Using this data, determine the maximum load that an aircraft frame
member can support if it is not to exceed 0.07 mm extension. The frame
member is 3.3 metres long and has a CSA of 400 mm2.
Exercise 3.9
Select the alternative A, B, C or D that best answers the question.

Circle the letter.
1 A pitching moment is:
a waiting for thrust for take-off
b a twisting force trying to raise or lower the nose of a plane
c uneven flight due to air turbulence
d a rolling of the plane which occurs on a change of direction.
2 The riggers angle of incidence is:

a the number of accidents caused by mechanical faults
b the angle of the leading edge of a wing
c the angle at which the wing is set to the fuselage
d a ratio of the span of the wing to the depth of the chord.
3 Parasite drag is:

a common in planes with wooden frames that have been attacked
by insects
b corrosion of the aluminium skin of the aircraft
c increased when ice forms on the wings at high altitudes
d a by-product of the production of lift and related to the angle of
attack.
4 Angle of attack is:

a the angle of the wing relative to the airflow
b used by military aircraft to meet the enemy from behind
c how much the wings are swept back
d constant irrespective of airspeed.
5 Bernoullis principle states:

a where the velocity of a fluid is high, the pressure is low
b an increase in velocity will increase the pressure on an airfoil
c pressure is distributed evenly throughout a fluid
d buoyant force is equal to the weight of fluid displaced.

6 Lift force:
a is generated by the engine to allow an aeroplane to take off
b balances the weight of the aeroplane
c is a constant ratio to the drag; this is known as the l/d ratio.
d decreases with the airspeed of the aircraft.
7 When an aeroplane stalls, the:

a motor cuts out
b flaps are lowered to reduce the airspeed
c stall depends entirely on the angle of attack
d aeroplane reaches its maximum cruising speed with no extra
power required from its engines.
8 As an aircraft increases its altitude:

a the pressure is registered by the pitot tube
b the pressure increases, and temperature decreases
c the pressure decreases, and temperature decreases
d true airspeed is shown on the airspeed indicator.
9 The stress in an airframe due to pressurization of the fuselage is:

a compressive stress
b tensile stress
c shear stress
d hoop stress.
10 Turbojet engines were developed to propel faster aeroplanes because:

a they were quieter than propellers;
b they reduced the risk of accidents of exposed propeller blades;
c propellers could not propel aeroplanes faster than 725 km/h
d planes were more manoeuvrable.
11 ASI stands for:

a aeronautical serious injury
b accident study & investigation
c australian standards international
d airspeed indicator.
Progress check
In this part you have examined the principles of mechanics and

hydraulics and how they are applied in the systems of aeronautical
instruments and in flight.

Agree well done

Uncertain

Disagree
Agree

I have learnt about
engineering mechanics
forces lift, drag, weight, thrust
basic aerodynamics Bernoullis principle
bending stress airframes
propulsion systems (jet, turboprop)
fluid mechanics hydrostatic and dynamic
pressure, applications to aircraft components,
application to aircraft instruments.
I have learnt to
apply mathematical and graphical methods to solve

flight-related problems
outline Bernoullis principle as applied to flight
investigate the nature and effect of bending stresses,
applying appropriate mathematical methods
apply mathematical methods to solve hydraulics-
related problems.
In the next part you will learn about the materials used in aeronautical
engineering.

Exercises 3.1 to 3.9 Name: _______________________________

Exercise 3.1
Exercise 3.2
Exercise 3.3
Exercise 3.4
Exercise 3.5
Exercise 3.6
Exercise 3.7
Exercise 3.8
Exercise 3.9



Slip.


materials
Part 4 contents
Introduction..........................................................................................2
Testing of materials............................................................................3
Specialist testing of aircraft materials .......................................... 3
Non-destructive tests ................................................................. 6
Metals and alloys....................................................................... 7
Polymers .................................................................................15
Composites..............................................................................17
Fibres ......................................................................................19
Sandwich core materials ...........................................................27
Corrosion.................................................................................29
Exercises ...........................................................................................37
Progress check .................................................................................47
Part 4: Aeronautical engineering materials 1

Introduction
Engineers are interested in the development, properties and availability

of materials and how this has affected the design of various forms of
aircraft. In this, the first engineering focus module, you will be studying
specific materials and investigating structure/property relationships and
testing procedures as they relate to aeronautical engineering.

specialised testing of aircraft materials
aluminium and its alloys used in aircraft
polymers [used for aircraft applications]
composites [used for aircraft applications]
corrosion [common in aircraft applications]
You will learn to:

describe non-destructive tests used with aircraft materials and
components
analyse structure, properties, uses and appropriateness of materials in
aeronautical engineering applications
investigate the effects of heat treatment on the structure and
properties of aluminium alloys
select and justify materials and processes used in aeronautical
engineering
outline the mechanism of corrosion common to aircraft components.
Testing of materials
Specialist testing of aircraft materials

Mechanical testing of materials provides data and information that allows
the most appropriate material to be selected for the many different
applications on an aircraft.
From the information provided in previous modules, identify tests that

may be used to analyse materials used in aircraft and state the property
that is being tested.
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
Did you answer?
Did you identify tensile testing for tensile strength, elasticity, yield strength,
resilience and toughness? What about hardness testing, ductility testing, fatigue
testing and transverse beam testing?
The design of airframe structures involves exhaustive testing at all

stages. Materials, assembled components and full-scale models are
tested at all levels of the fabrication process.
Fatigue testing
Both environmental exposure and cyclic loadings can combine to cause
fatigue failure in aircraft parts including airframes, rotating shafts,
bearings, aircraft wings and engine connecting rods.
Fatigue cracks have three different growth phases:

Initiation many microscopic cracks form due to slip along shear
planes. It is impossible to detect these micro-cracks.

Stable Growth Visible cracks develop perpendicular to the local tensile
stresses. Non-destructive testing techniques can detect these cracks.
Unstable Growth As the crack grows, the structure remaining to
carry the load decreases. When the crack reaches the critical length,
it becomes unstable and grows approximately at the speed of sound
leading to sudden failure.
Four conditions are necessary for cracks to develop and grow.

1 A material that is prone to stress cracking.
2 Tensile stress must be present
3 Stress, at least at the crack tip, must be in the plastic range of the
material.
4 Stress with cyclically varying intensity.
All materials are not equally vulnerable to fatigue cracking. Brittle

materials like glass fracture suddenly, long before developing significant
fatigue cracks while the fibres in composite structures tend to stop
cracking before they develop to any significant length. During routine
maintenance, cracks metres in length, have been found in the ductile
aluminium alloy fuselage frames of Boeing 747 aircraft while 25mm
cracks in high strength steel components have caused the crash of an
F-111 after only 100 flight hours.
Different manufacturing processes can have a direct influence over the

fatigue life of a component part. Even machining or grinding marks on
the surface or burrs on drilled holes can provide a stress raiser for
fatigue cracking.
Processes that increase fatigue life Processes that reduce fatigue life
Case hardening, nitriding Cladding of aluminium

Cold rolling and cold working Decarburising of steel
Shot peening and grit blasting Chrome plating
Good quality machining Cadmium plating
Galvanising
In aircraft, a design fatigue life of 30 000 hours is usual. Techniques

such as laminating two components can be used so that if one fails the
other is adequate to carry the load.
A number of different testing devices are used to expose airframe parts to

cyclic loads. In the case of military aircraft, accelerated testing to four to
five lifetimes, under the worst environmental conditions, would simulate
one lifetime of real-time testing. The final design requires a safety factor
of four times so requires testing equivalent to at least sixteen lifetimes.
Damage tolerant design
Modern aircraft design allows for serious fatigue cracking, corrosion or
accidental damage to occur and still have remaining strength to carry
reasonable loads without failing. Damage tolerant design defines the
critical components in the airframe and determines the critical fatigue
crack allowed in each. Inspection schedules and methods are determined
by the size of the crack that needs to be detected and the number of
flight cycles for the crack to grow from the minimum detectable size to
the critical size. The task of keeping the aircraft safe for flight then rests
with the reliability of the inspection and maintenance program!
Aircraft structural integrity

Each constituent part of an aircraft must remain in an airworthy condition
to maintain the structural integrity of the aircraft. Aircraft operators and
manufacturers assess the life cycle of components using a number of
different techniques. Full-scale fatigue tests are used under computer
controlled, simulated operating conditions along with other analytical
models. These models allow the development of specialised inspection
procedures to identify any critical failure locations.
The data from these full-scale tests is correlated with actual flight data
provided by aircraft operators world wide, and also with data from
computer generated models. This combined data provides excellent
predictions of the life expectancy of each component part and allows for
the development of a schedule of inspections and component
replacements.
These models and tests also allow for the development of techniques to
extend the life of various components. The use of extra reinforcing,
component replacement and specialised repairs can all extend the life of
an aircraft. Innovations like composite repair kits that are used on all
metal components have increased the life-cycles of many components
with recent developments allowing their use on primary structural
members.
If you are interested in this area of aircraft design and inspection why not
on the internet at sites like <http://www.dsto.defence.gov.au> and
<http://www.faa.gov> or use any Search Engine to search for Testing
Airframes (accessed 06/11/01).
Turn to the exercise cover sheet and complete exercise 4.1.

Non-destructive tests
There are many different non-destructive tests used in the aircraft
industry. In the design phase, wind tunnels are used along with models
of new aircraft designs with the results being used to predict in-flight
performance. Flight simulators are also developed with each new aircraft
so that by the time the test pilot makes the first flight, many hundreds of
hours have been spent on simulated flight. Many other non-destructive
testing processes are used as part of the routine maintenance that is
essential to providing safety in the aeronautical industry.
Name Description Application
Visual A magnifying glass is used to identify Structures that have been

Inspection external flaws. Tubular structures rewelded and repaired.
may also be filled, under pressure,
with hot oil. The hot oil will seep
through cracks that are invisible to
the eye.
Magnetic Useful only on irons and steels. The Dry: Subsurface defects in
Particle item is magnetised then flaws, heavy welds, forgings and
Inspection cracks, voids and defects are castings.
observed when magnetic particles
accumulate on the discontinuity. The Wet: More complex shapes
particles can be applied dry or to allow better distribution
suspended in oil. of particles.
X-ray May be used on magnetic or non- Used for detecting

magnetic materials with x-rays either subsurface cracks,
projected onto photographic film blowholes and voids in cast
(radiography) or onto a fluorescent aircraft parts.
screen (fluoroscopy).
Not suitable for forgings!
Fluorescent The cleaned article is painted, Used on metal, polymer

penetrant sprayed or soaked in penetrant fluid and composite materials for
and allowed around 30 minutes to exposing external opening
soak in. Heat may be used to open cracks and flaws. These
up the cracks. Excess penetrant is may be caused during
then removed, a developing powder manufacture or may be due
applied and the article exposed to to fatigue.
ultra-violet (black) light. Cracks will
show as luminous areas.
Ultrasonic flaw This type of testing uses ultrasonic This type of testing can
detection vibrations applied to one side of the locate extremely small
component being tested. The cracks and flaws. All types
vibrations reflect off the opposite side of materials can be tested
or off internal flaws. The time and the tester only needs
between the pulse and its return access to one side of the
indicate if any flaws exist. article.
Newer tests like Holograph Interferometry are now being used for the
early detention of flaws. This is a non-contact technique that uses a laser
to generate fringe patterns on the object being tested. Changes in the
predicted fringe patterns give an indication of a flaw that may exist
below the surface of the component. A portable system has been
developed for use in the field.
If you have access to the Internet for more information on Holograph

Interferometry testing or other Non-Destructive Inspection (NDI)
techniques go to <http://maseg.adfa.edu.au> (accessed 06/11/01).
Metals and alloys

Modern aircraft are manufactured from many different types of metal
alloys. Civilian aircraft are constructed primarily of heat-treated
aluminium alloys while military aircraft are constructed primarily from
titanium and stainless steel.
Aluminium and its alloys

Pure aluminium is unsuitable for aircraft structural members as it is too
soft and lacks strength. However aluminiums very high corrosion
resistance makes it suitable to be hot-rolled onto the surface of alloy
sheet to provide a corrosion resistant layer. This alclad composite is
commonly used for the skin on airframes.
1 Suggest methods that could be used to increase the hardness and
strength of aluminium and aluminium alloys using your knowledge
from previous modules.
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
2 Suggest elements that can be alloyed with aluminium for use in
aircraft.
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
Did you answer?

1 Did you suggest work hardening, alloying and age hardening? These three
processes are all used in aircraft and have been fully described in previous
modules.

2 Did you list copper, silicon, manganese, magnesium or zinc? Bismuth,
lead, tin, beryllium, boron, chromium, zirconium, vanadium, nickel and
titanium are also added at times.
The table shows the percentages of major alloying elements mixed with
aluminium for use in the aircraft industry. The alloy is identified by the
major alloying element.
Percentage of Alloying Elements

Aluminium and normal impurities constitute the remainder
Alloy Copper Silicon Manganese Magnesium Zinc Nickel Chromium
1100 - - - - - - -
3003 - - 1.2 - - - -
2011 5.5 - - - - - -
2014 4.4 0.3 0.3 0.4 - - -
2017 4.0 - 0.5 0.5 - - -
2117 2.5 - - 0.3 - - -
2018 4.0 - - 0.5 - 2.0 -
2024 4.5 - 0.5 1.5 - - -
4032 0.9 12.5 - 1.0 - 0.9 -
6151 - 1.0 - 0.6 - - 0.25
5052 - - - 2.5 - - 0.25
7075 1.6 - - 2.5 5.6 - 0.3
Laboratories are constantly searching for improvements to the materials

available for aircraft.
If you have access to the Internet sites like <http://www.swri.org> outline
some of these outstanding new materials (accessed 06/11/01).
For example, a durable metal matrix composite material with the stiffness
of titanium and the weight of aluminium alloy is now used for the ventral
fins on the F-16 Fighting Falcon. This new material made of 6092 alloy
reinforced with silicon carbide particulate, improves stiffness by 50% and
offers 17 times the operating life of ordinary aluminium alloy fins.
Figure 4.1 shows how to read the alloy code.
A 2 0 24 T3
Alclad Copper the Modification Alloy Solution heat

covering main alloying of the alloy designator treated, aged
ingredient (0means no and cold
mod) worked
Major alloying ingredients: A modified alloy is assigned a number in place

1XXX Pure aluminium of the 0 such as in 2117T3. The one is defined
2XXX Copper by the manufacturer.
3XXX Manganese
4XXX Silicon The alloy designator, such as 17, 24, 51 or 75
5XXX Magnesium contains the elements shown in the table above.
6XXX Magnesium-silicon
7XXX Zinc
8XXX Other elements
Figure 4.1 Reading aluminium alloy codes
Turn to the exercise cover sheet and complete exercise 4.2.
What effect do alloying elements have on the aluminium alloy?
Copper
Aluminium is already a ductile and malleable material but the addition of

copper enhances these properties. Copper also prevents stress cracks
from forming and makes some alloys more shock resistant. The strength
and hardness is also increased as these alloys harden with age.
Manganese
When manganese is mixed with aluminium, it provides a surface that is

highly resistant to wear and corrosion and increases strength.
Silicon
Although silicon is a non-metal, it makes the aluminium alloy harder but

not brittle. It reduces the melting point making the alloy easier to cast.
Magnesium
Weighing only two-thirds as much as aluminium, it can be used

structurally when it is alloyed with aluminium, zinc or manganese.

Tensile strength is increased as is corrosion resistance, hardness and
weldability. It is often used in sheet form but aluminium-magnesium
5056 rivets are commonly used to hold skins to magnesium surfaces.
Zinc
Zinc in aluminium creates an alloy that is stiffer and more brittle that
pure aluminium. When combined with a little magnesium, heat treatable
alloys with very high strength result.
These alloys can be divided into two general categories: non-heat-

treatable and heat-treatable.
Non-heat-treatable
All these alloys may be hardened by alloying or cold working.
What cold working methods can be used to strain harden these alloys?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
Did you answer?

Did you suggest rolling, bending, drawing and pressing?
The letter H is used to indicate non-heat-treatable alloys that are work

hardened and is linked with the numbers 1, 2 and 3 to provide more
information. H1 stands for strain hardened, H2 for strain hardened and
partially annealed and H3 strain hardened then stabilised. Overall
hardness is indicated by the numbers 2 (quarter hard), 4 (half-hard), 6
(three-quarters hard) and 8 (fully hard).
For example, the alloy 5065H38 is a magnesium alloy that is strain

hardened and stabilised to the fullest degree of hardness.
The following table lists some common wrought alloys and suggests
some uses for each.
Alloy Uses
1100 Small diameter low pressure tubing, rivets, reciprocating engine

baffles.
3003 Wing tips and propeller spinners.
5052 Low pressure tubing, storage tanks for hydraulic fluids, fuel and oil.
5056 Rivet stock for magnesium control surface skins.
Heat-treatable
Heat-treated aluminium alloys have many applications in aircraft
structures. Commonly these alloys harden by the process of precipitation
hardening.
Discuss the process used to harden alloys by precipitation hardening

using your knowledge from previous modules.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
Did you answer?

Did you mention that the alloy is heated, soaked, quenched then either naturally
or artificially hardened?
The process of heating and soaking the material then quenching it to hold
it in a softened state, is known as solution treatment. Care must be taken
when quenching cast components due to the different cooling rates in the
differing cross-sectional shapes. For this reason, hot water is usually
used though oil or air is used in some circumstances.
Solution treated components may be kept in the refrigerator for up to five

days. Storage of sheet, strip and rivets at between 6 and -10C, will
prevent age hardening occurring.

Natural aging
In alloys that are naturally aged, the component is kept at room

temperature for 16 to 24 hours to allow time for age hardening. The
designation for these alloys ranges from F (fabricated) to T4 (heat-treated
and age hardened). If the component is further hardened through cold
working the designation is shown as T3.
The following table provides details of commonly use age hardened

alloys.
Alloy Alloying Application

Elements
2117T4 4% Cu, Commonly used rivet stock and is fitted as received

from the manufacturer.
0.5% Mn,
0.5% Mg
2017T4 2.5% Cu, Used in some form since 1925, this alloy is used for
rivets and skins and is relatively crack-free. Used in
Boeing 757 and 737 series aircraft.
0.3% Mn
2024T3 4.5% Cu, Used widely for skin coverings and internal structure
of all types of aircraft. It has excellent fatigue
resistance, is highly resistant to cracking, and retains
0.6% Mn,
high strength after damage.
1.5% Mg
Note that copper is the predominant alloying element in each of these

natural age hardening alloys. In these alloys submicroscopic particles of
the compound CuAl2 precipitate or move around inside the structure.
This causes internal stress inside the material and increases the hardness
and strength of the component.
Artificial aging
This process is also known as precipitation hardening. Instead of leaving

the component at room temp, as in natural aging, it is soaked in an oven
between 100-200C for between 4 and 24 hours, depending on the alloy.
This process locks together the particles in the grains of the metal
increasing strength, stability and corrosion resistance while reducing
malleability and ductility.
Aluminium alloys containing zinc, 7000 series, are most commonly used
for artificial age hardening applications. The label T6 is used to indicate
alloys that have been solution heat-treated then artificially aged. The
table below indicates some of the common alloys and their applications.
Alloy Application
7075T6 Often used in sheet form where great strength is needed as it has
high impact resistance.
7079T6 These alloys are excellent for making large heavy forgings. Two
applications are the heavy channels that carry landing gear and
flaps on large aircraft.
7178T6 This alloy is used where high compressive strength is required

such as the superstructure of wide-bodied jets.
7050T73 Used primarily for solid-shank rivets, it is the highest strength alloy
used for rivets and also has excellent corrosion resistance.
Other heat treatment processes

Stabilising
Often components contain residual stresses that have been induced by the
forming process. These stresses must be relieved or the component may
distort when it is machined or when it is exposed to elevated
temperatures.
Components like instrument casings are soaked at 250C for up to five

hours then slowly cooled. This will relieve internal stresses while
retaining the majority of the items strength and hardness.
Annealing
Alloys that have been cold worked can be annealed by soaking at 360C
for an hour then cooling in air. Slower cooling can be used to further
soften the alloy but air-cooling is generally suitable for most conditions.
Too rapid cooling of some alloys may produce conditions that will lead
to age hardening.
Care must be taken when annealing aluminium clad materials, as soaking

for too long will allow some of the alloying elements to diffuse into the
pure aluminium and consequently reduce the corrosion resistance.

Localised annealing can be used on work hardened materials. This only
affects, the area that needs to be annealed and is most simply performed
with a gas torch. As aluminium doesnt change in appearance as it heats,
special crayon indicator should be used. This is rubbed onto the surface
to be heated and melts when the appropriate temperature is reached.
Re-heat treatment
Generally, aluminium alloys can be re-heat treated. If they were solution

treated at too low a temperature, precipitation treated at too high a
temperature or for too long a period of time they can be solution treated
again to attain full desired properties. Remember, clad materials should
not be re-heat treated.
Other metals used in aircraft
The following table outlines other metals that are used in aircraft,
describes common alloys and gives some common applications.
Alloy Alloying Application

Elements
Titanium 6% Aluminium, This alloy has a higher MP than steel and is

56% less dense. Tensile strength is equal to
4% Vanadium steel and twice that of aluminium. Its properties,
especially at high temperatures makes it suitable
for high-speed aircraft particularly around hot
sections.
Monel 68% Nickel Has high strength and corrosion resistance and
is used for the construction of chains and
29% Copper sprockets for some landing gears and in the
manufacture of some specialised fasteners.
Mn, Fe & others
Stainless 74% Steel Highly corrosion resistant due to the chromium

steel oxide formed on the surface, it is commonly cold
18% Chromium rolled to increase its strength. Can be used for
fire-walls, skins, structural parts and fasteners.
18/8 8% Nickel
Chrome- Plain steel This alloy is highly resistant to shock and

molybdenum corrosion and is used to construct engine
Chromium mounts and shock struts.
steel Molybdenum
Magnesium Manganese Castings used for landing wheels, gas-turbine

alloys air intakes, engine support plates and frames.
with
Aluminium & zinc Sheet alloy, forgings and pressings are used for
airframes, welded petrol and oil tanks and for
parts of the fuselage and wings.
With the movement away from metals to composites for many of the
components of planes, the metal manufacturers have been forced to
develop new alloys that mirror or improve on the properties of the
composites. Titanium alloys, new aluminium/composite structures and
special nickel-based, cobalt based and titanium-based superalloys have
all found favour with the aircraft manufacturers.
An internet search for superalloys will reveal a number of sites that
describe the specific compositions and properties of a range of specialised
alloys.
If you have access to the Internet try
<http://www.timet.com/tialloysframe.html> for details about aerospace
applications of titanium alloys.
Turn to the exercise sheet and complete exercise 4.4a.
Polymers
Most of the polymers used in the aircraft industry replace materials in an
attempt to reduce the weight of the component. An example would be
windows that could be made from glass but are more commonly
manufactured from sheet perspex or polycarbonate.
The following table lists some common thermoplastic polymers and
gives some applications for each.
Thermoplastic Properties Applications
Polyethylene excellent electrical insulator coating on electrical wiring
easily formed by extrusion or ventilation fans

injection moulding
Polymethyl also known as acrylic or windows

Methacrylate Perspex, can be transparent
Nylon good strength, good heat and gears and bushes in instruments
wear resistance, low co-efficient
of friction
Teflon very low co-efficient of friction used in the wing bearing of

and chemically inert variable sweep aircraft and for
the inner hose on hydraulic lines
Polyurethane foamed polymer that can be insulation, filler in sandwich

either flexible or rigid construction, moulded cuffs on
propellers

Outline why materials such as glass, perspex and polycarbonate can all be
maunfactured in a transparent state using your knowledge from previous
modules.
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Did you answer?
Of course the fact that these materials are amorphous in structure means that
light passes through them easily. Crystalline materials can never be transparent
due to their regular repeating structure.
Polymers are also used for much of the internal fittings and fixings in
aircraft. Window surrounds, storage lockers and tray/tables are all made
from light-weight thermoplastics.
1 List some of the moulding processes used to mass-produce polymers.

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2 Outline why these mass production processes are not often used for
polymer components used in aeroplanes.
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Did you answer?

1 Did you mention injection moulding, blow moulding, extrusion, casting,
compression moulding and transfer moulding?
2 Did you suggest that due to the small number of components being made
that the expense of two-part moulds is not warranted?
Moulds are often only one-sided and the polymer part is cast or laid-up
into the mould. The reinforcing is laid into the mould and the semi-
liquid matrix is sprayed or pumped into place. One newer method of
forming composite/polymer materials is pultrusion which is a
combination of pulling and extrusion.
One of the most common uses for polymers in modern aircraft
production is to provide the matrix in composite materials. The polymer
binds the reinforcing fibres together and transfers the load to and
between the fibres. This polymer matrix also keeps the reinforcing fibres
in the correct orientation , distributes the load evenly amongst the fibres,
provides resistance to crack propagation and provides all the inter-
laminar shear strength. The polymer matrix determines the overall shape
of the object, the overall service temperature limitations and may also
control the corrosion resistance. Both thermosetting and thermoplastic
matrices are used and some are listed in the following table.
Thermoset Thermoplastic
Epoxy Polyethylene
Polyester Polystyrene
Phenolics Polypropylene
Polyimides Polyetheretherketone (PEEK)
Polyetherimide (PEI)
If you have access to the Internet a number of sites will give details about
polymers. Try <http://www.psrc.usm.edu> (accessed 06/11/01).
Turn to the exercise sheet and complete the rest of exercise 4.4.
Composites
From early days, composites have been used extensively in aircraft
construction. Plywood was used in early aircraft for propellers and
airframes. The Mosquito, designed and built by De Havilland in 1940,
was the last significant aircraft to use timber construction. The fuselage
and wings were made from two layers of thin plywood bonded to a core
of balsa. It was used in the tropics during the Second World War and
had initial problems caused by the glues disintegrating in the heat and
humidity. Once this problem was overcome many hundreds were built in
Australia.

Define composite materials using your knowledge from previous modules
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Did you answer?

Did you mention two or more materials that when joined together produce a
material with properties different from those of the original materials?
Boeing slowly integrated fibreglass into their civilian aircraft starting in

1958 when fibreglass skins were used to cover aluminium honeycomb
cores on a few secondary control surfaces. This amounted to 2% of the
external surface area wetted by the airstream, of the aircraft. With each
newer design so the total area of fibreglass increased:
1962 Boeing 727 5% of wetted area
1982 Boeing 757 & 767 30% of wetted area
New filament fibres such as boron and carbon, embedded in an epoxy

resin matrix, were introduced in the early 1960s. These new fibres are
very small in diameter, only 6-10 microns, and all have high strength and
stiffness. Newer materials such as the organic fibre material, Kevlar, and
new matrix materials like polyimides, thermoplastics and even metals
like aluminium, titanium and nickel have all been introduced since that
time. The remarkable properties of these composite materials have
allowed for up to a 30% reduction in mass. Composite materials were
initially only used for secondary parts but today they are used for heavily
loaded primary parts like wings and have been used for the structure of
entire planes. Due to the higher costs of these new raw materials,
designers have simplified structures reducing the number of component
parts and other costly design features.
The performance of a composite depends on:

the composition, direction, length and shape of the fibres
the properties of the matrix material
the bond between the fibres and the matrix.
Fibres
The role of the fibre reinforcement is to:
carry the load in the composite
provide the tensile strength, flexural strength and stiffness
determine electrical and thermal properties.
Almost all the fibres used in airframe structures have a circular cross-
sectional shape. Developments are currently underway in this area with
testing of hexagonal, rectangular, hollow and irregular shapes with
possibilities of improved fibre strength. Hollow fibres, for example,
increase the compressive strength of composites.
Organic fibres commonly used in aircraft

design
Fibre Properties Applications
Glass Relatively low cost, light weight, Used for aircraft parts that dont
high strength, non-metallic carry heavy loads. Common in
characteristics. fuselage interiors, wing fairings and
trailing edge panels on larger
aircraft but is used extensively in
E grade is good for general use
primary structures of small aircraft
with excellent chemical, corrosion
along with helicopter rotor blades.
and environmental resistance.
S grade has 40% greater tensile

strength and is more costly
Kevlar Combines extremely high While its toughness makes it good

toughness, tensile strength and for ballistic protection, as in bullet-
stiffness with low density. Low proof vests, the poor compressive
(aramid)
compressive strength is one strength has prevented its use in
major weakness but hybrids of primary aircraft structures.
Kevlar and carbon overcome this
problem. Kevlar has good fatigue Kevlar/phenolic skins are used on
properties, chemical resistance the lower surfaces of some military
and high temperature strength. aircraft to provide damage
resistance. The weapons bay door
on the B1 bomber is one example!
Poly- It resists impact better than glass It is difficult to combine with a

ethylene or carbon fibres and is stronger matrix and is still in the
than Kevlar. Melts at a low developmental and experimental
temperature (110C) and absorbs stage.
very little moisture

Carbon Careful placement of these This is the most widely used of fibres
or fibres can produce and has applications throughout
Graphite composites that are stronger commercial and military aircraft in
and stiffer than equivalent both primary and secondary
steel parts at half the weight. structures.
Carbon fibre composites
have fatigue limits far in Ribs, struts and skins in stabilizers,
excess of aluminium or steel vertical fin boxes, rudders, winglets,
along with very low thermal elevators, ailerons and sections of
expansion. It has the best fuselages are all made from carbon
balance of properties and fibre composite materials. The
cost. upper cargo doors of the space
shuttle are fabricated from
carbon/epoxy materials.
Ceramic fibres used in aircraft design

Ceramics are the fibre of choice when a metal or ceramic matrix is used.
These composites can be used under extremely high temperatures.
Fibre Properties
Quartz Can be used up to 1040C which is around 540C higher than

for glass fibres. Quartz is the strongest of the high temp. fibres
and also has good strength to weight ratio and, like glass, good
radar transparency.
Silicon Silicon carbide fibres have high strength, heat resistance to

carbide 1200C, low conductivity, corrosion resistance, chemical stability
(SiC) and good combination with both polymer and metal matrices.
Alumina While pure alumina is a brittle material, it is very suitable for

reinforcing aluminium matrices and still allows high temperature
operation.
Boron S-glass
Graphite Kevlar 49
Stress (tensile)
E-glass
Aluminium 7075T6
Strain (tensile)
Figure 4.2 Stress/strain curves for fibre/epoxy composites
Boron fibres
Boron The boron gas vapour is The introduction of boron fibres

deposited onto a tungsten allowed composites to be used
filament. The resulting fibre is in primary, load-bearing airframe
stronger than carbon and much components. Composites with
stiffer and can be combined with these fibres have many uses in
polymer and metal matrices to military aircraft including
form very strong light weight stabilizers, rudders, struts,
structures. The fibre cost, larger reinforcements and even the
diameter and handling difficulties fuselage of the space shuttle.
are all major design drawbacks. Boron/epoxy is commonly used
as a patch in aircraft repairs.
Matrix material
Boron filament
Tungsten core
Figure 4.3 Typical boron fibres

Fibre material form
Fibres are available in a variety of continuous and chopped forms. They
are either available in dry forms that need to be mixed with the matrix
during the forming process or preimpregnated (prepeg) where the desired
matrix is already mixed with the fibres. These prepegs are kept under
controlled conditions, possibly refrigerated, until they are moulded. In a
prepeg, the partly cured matrix holds the fibres in the correct orientation
until the finished component is cured.
Prepegs are available in continuous, unidirectional fibre tapes, around

0.2mm thick, and available in rolls of various widths. Discontinuous
fibre tapes are also available, mainly for use with thermoplastic matrices.
These discontinuous fibres are up to 150 mm in length and typically
Kevlar, carbon and glass fibres are used. Short chopped fibres or
whiskers are also used in non-structural components.
Two-dimensional woven fabrics are often used in place of unidirectional

tapes for a number of reasons:
the product is tougher and less likely to delaminate
fewer layers of fabric are required thus allowing the component to
be thinner
lay-up time is much shorter as each layer of fabric is equivalent to
two layers of tape
fabrics can be woven from a mixture of fibres to provide a blending
of properties.
Figure 4.4 Twodirectional fabric
Stronger two-dimensional fabrics are also manufactured by knitting.

This process allows all the fibres to remain uncrimped which provides
more efficient transfer of the stresses from the matrix to the fibres.
Continuous fibres can also be braided around a mandrel. This process is
commonly used for forming tubular shapes in a seamless sock of
reinforcing fibre.
Turn to the exercise sheet and complete exercise 4.6a and b.
Matrices
Any matrix within a composite:
binds the fibres together
transfers the load between the fibres and keeps them in the correct
orientation
protects the fibres from abrasion and oxidation/corrosion
provides the overall dimensions of the component
determines the service temperature and the compressive strength.
Organic matrices
The most common matrices for general use are organic polymers. Both
thermosets and thermoplastics are used for different applications.
Discuss the major characteristics of thermoset and thermoplastic

polymers using your knowledge from previous modules
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Did you answer?

Did you mention that thermosets undergo a chemical change when curing in a
process that cant be reversed and that they are typically harder and more brittle
than thermoplastics?
What about the thermoplastics? They are softened by heat and solidify when
cooled. The scrap can be reused and they are tougher than thermosets.

Thermosets
These dominate the composite industry as they can be used to form

complex shapes, easily bond to different fibres and, when cured, provide
a high strength and stiff structure. An autoclave, large enough to hold
the completed component, is used to cure the thermosetting matrix.
The following table below summarises the characteristics and uses of

some common thermosetting matrices.
Resin Characteristics
Polyester Used in secondary structures, cabin interiors normally with glass

fibres. It has a low cost, processes easily but is not very tough or
strong.
Epoxy Is the most widely used matrix and is the principal resin used in
carbon fibre structures. It has excellent mechanical properties,
good toughness and a fairly low cost.
Phenolics Also used in secondary structures, often with glass fibres, it is good
for cabin interiors for low smoke generation in case of a fire. It has
poor toughness, fair mechanical properties but fairly low cost. Is
used in military applications where dimensional stability at high
pressures and temperatures is required.
Polyimide Is used for higher temperature applications, often above 320C. It

has fair toughness, good mechanical properties and is stable at
high temperatures but is high in cost.
Thermoplastics
Thermoplastic matrices have been used more extensively in recent years.

They have excellent strain capabilities, high moisture resistance, greater
resistance to solvents and unlimited shelf life. The major advantages
over thermosets are the shorter fabrication cycle, ability to weld and ease
of machining and drilling.
Thermoplastic matrices are available in two different structures:

Amorphous Polyethylene, polystyrene, polypropylene,
polyetherimide (PEI), polyethersulphone (PES)
and polyarylenesulphide.
Semi-crystalline Polyphenylene Sulfide and polyetheretherkeytone
(PEEK).
Military aircraft structures are one of the major catalysts in the
development of thermoplastic matrices. Three major requirements of
these matrices are:
high temperature capabilities under severe hot/wet conditions
better damage control in structural members
easy mass production to reduce costs.
Metal matrices
Most work has centred on aluminium but titanium, copper and
magnesium have also been tried. These metal matrices offer greater
strength and stiffness than polymers, they have superior fracture
toughness and have a greater stiffness to weight ratio.
The following table lists the characteristics of the common metal matrix
materials.
Metal Characteristics
Aluminium This is the principal metal matrix and has improved properties
when reinforced. It is light and easily processed.
Titanium It is light and has good resistance to high temperatures but is

difficult to reinforce and is quite expensive.
Magnesium It bonds well with the reinforcing and is light but has poor
corrosion resistance.
Copper Copper has improved shear strength over aluminium at elevated

temperatures but is denser than aluminium.
An aluminium matrix, reinforced with carbon, is used for the structures

of satellites, missiles and helicopters. Boron fibres are used in
compressor blades and structural supports while silicon carbide fibres, in
an aluminium matrix, are used in various high-temperature structures.
A magnesium matrix, reinforced with carbon, is used in space and

satellite structures. Boron fibres, in a magnesium matrix, are used in
antenna structures while alumina fibres are used for helicopter
transmission structures.
A titanium matrix, reinforced with boron fibres, is used in jet engine fan
blades. Silicon carbide fibres, in a titanium matrix, are used for high
temperature structures.

Special superalloy matrices reinforced with moybdenum or tungsten are
used for high-temperature engine components.
Carbon matrices
Carbon matrices often with carbon fibre reinforcing are another area of
current research. These composites have many of the properties of other
composites such as excellent strength to weight ratio and high stiffness
but they also have outstanding high temperature capabilities. In
applications such as the leading edges of the noses of aerospace vehicles,
temperatures may be as high as 1900C. Due to their unique properties,
Carbon/carbon composites are quickly becoming the preferred material
for high-speed spacecraft, re-entry vehicles, rocket nozzles, rocket nose
cones and jet engine turbine wheels.
Aircraft brakes are a common current application of C/C composites.

The friction involved in the rapid deceleration of the aircraft generates a
large amount of heat. Compared to steel brake parts, the composites
outwear steel up to twice as long, have a high heat absorption rate so act
as a heat sink and they maintain consistent performance with no
reduction in stopping ability.
Ceramic matrices
List the major properties of ceramics using your knowledge from
previous modules.
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___________________________________________________________
Did you answer?

Did you mention that ceramics typically are hard and brittle, have high melting
points, high compressive strength, good property retention at elevated
temperatures and excellent resistance to corrosion?
Ceramics have already been used in the braking systems of both

commercial and military aircraft. Experimental parts of aircraft engines,
missile parts and fuselage skins have also been produced. Before large-
scale production of ceramic composites can be undertaken, greater
developments must be made in designing for these materials. It is
virtually impossible to machine these materials or to join them with
conventional fasteners so large furnaces are needed to allow components
to be made in one piece.
Composites such as Carbon/Silicon Carbide are used on spacecraft due to
their great heat resistance and have been tested to 1800C. The
fibre/ceramic nose cone on the Patriot Missile is both heat resistant and
has lower radar detectability than other composites.
Those working with these composites are trying to retain the high
temperature properties while improving the toughness and impact
strength of the composites.
Turn to the exercise sheet and complete the rest of exercise 4.6.
Sandwich core materials

Sandwich structures have been used under various names for many years.
Most of the doors in your house have a plywood skin and an internal
filling of cardboard in a honeycomb pattern. This type of structure is
suitable in aircraft as the thin surface skins separated by the core
combines light-weight with strength.
Honeycomb cored sandwich structures have been used in aircraft since

the 1940s and the hexagonally-shaped cells are now often made from
composites including kevlar, fibreglass and carbon fibre materials. The
outer skins can also be made from composites or from metals.
Developments in adhesives have allowed the combination of a variety of
different materials.
Honeycomb sandwich structures are rigid and show low deflection even
when very light in weight. Aeroplane nose cones, wing leading and
trailing edge panels and fuselage floor panels are all applications of this
form of sandwich material.
Precured thin laminate
Adhesive
Honeycomb core
Figure 4.5 Honeycomb sandwich construction

Syntactic cores, that combine microspheres with a resin matrix, are also
used as the filler in sandwich structures. Unlike honeycomb cores,
syntactic cores will fit to contoured shapes and are also available in
mouldable forms. As syntactics are denser than honeycomb cores, they
are normally used on thinner panels up to 6.5 mm thick.
Compared to honeycomb cored sandwich materials, syntactic cores offer:

greater strength
no problems with wrinking of the face material
continuous support of the face material
little problems with moisture getting into the core.
Composite laminate
SynCore
Composite laminate
Thermosetting resin matrix

Microspheres (approx 70 micron)
Figure 4.6 Syntactic core sandwich construction
Another form of composite structure is found in the flexible hydraulic

lines that are found throughout aircraft. These were once neoprene but
now have a teflon inner tube with stainless steel braided fibre external
reinforcing. In some teflon inner tubes, a controlled amount of carbon is
added. This prevents the build up of electrostatic charges as the carbon
allows easy conduction of the charge to the metal fittings on the hose.
The outer skin of the reinforced hose is usually a polymer, like neoprene,
that may be coloured to indicate the type of fluid that is passing through
the line.
Polymer outer
Braided fibre
Wire braid
Teflon inner tube
Figure 4.7 High pressure hose
Corrosion
As a component comes in contact with materials in the environment,
chemical action may cause break-down and disintegration of the
component. As you have learned in previous modules, there are two
general forms of corrosion:
direct chemical corrosion
electro-chemical corrosion.
In aircraft design, electro-chemical corrosion is more likely to occur.
Explain the process of electro-chemical or wet corrosion using your

knowledge from previous modules.
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Did you answer?

For this type of corrosion to occur, the metal must be in contact with a liquid or
even in a moist atmosphere. The active metal starts to dissolve by discharging
positively charged ions into the solution. The section of the metal where
corrosion occurs is known as the anode. The remaining metal is left with a
negative charge and the greater the negative charge the more likely the metal is
to corrode.
The following table lists metals commonly used in aircraft. The higher
the material on the table, the more likely it is to corrode.

Material
(anodic)
Magnesium alloys
Alclad 7000 series alloys
5000 series aluminium alloys
Pure aluminium
Cadmium
Steel and iron
Brass and bronze alloys
Stainless steels
Titanium
Nickel and nickel alloys
Graphite composites
(cathodic)
As indicated by the table, carbon composites are the least likely to

corrode of the common aircraft materials. This can create problems
when these composites are coupled with metals as part of an aircraft
structure. A metal rivet used to hold composite skins to airframes is one
example! If aluminium or magnesium alloy rivets are used, it should be
expected that the rivet will corrode fairly rapidly.
State a metal that would be more suitable for these rivets and briefly
explain why you have suggested this metal.
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Did you answer?

Titanium or nickel alloy rivets would be more suitable as they are very close to
the composites on the activity series table.
This form of metal to composite corrosion can also be reduced by:
excluding moisture from the structure
using a layer of inert cloth (kevlar or fibreglass) as an insulator
between the materials
anodising aluminium parts
finish external surfaces of both the aluminium and composite with
epoxy or polyurethane paint.
During routine maintenance inspections of aircraft, it is important that

corrosion is identified early before costly replacements or repairs are
needed. Some materials and corrosion evidence are listed in the
following table.
Material Evidence of corrosion
Aluminium alloys whitish powdery deposits with a dulling of the surface of

unpainted parts. Deposits can also form at breaks in the
paintwork or cause blistering or flaking under the paint
Alloy & plain red dust deposits on the surface and some pitting of the
steels affected area
Stainless steels black pits or a uniform reddish-brown surface
Some common corrosion prone areas in aircraft include:
Bases of bulkheads Battery compartments Battery vent openings
Bilge areas Cooling air vents Engine exhaust areas
External hinges Galleys Joints in external skins
Landing gear Lavatories Loose rivets & bolts
Water entrapment Wheel wells Wing fuel tanks

areas

Forms of corrosion found in aircraft
Pitting
Unprotected metal surfaces are prone to this type of corrosion that occurs
when acids, alkalis or saline solutions chemically react with the metal.
Small holes or pits form in the material causing losses in both ductility
and strength.
The surface should be kept clean and any surface coating kept in good
condition to minimise pitting.
Uniform etch
This is the common term used to describe the frosty appearance
resulting from general corrosion over the entire surface of a component.
Fretting corrosion
This is a rapid form of corrosion known to attack ferrous metals
including stainless steel. It occurs at the junction between two highly
loaded components that are subject to vibration. Generous lubrication
can be used to reduce fretting in these situations.
Intergranular corrosion
Explain briefly why corrosion is likely to occur first at grain boundaries.
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Did you answer?

If you mentioned that the grain boundary regions are rich in impurities and odd
alloying elements, then you are on the right track. Did you also explain that as
the centre of each grain is a relatively pure metal the difference between the
grain centre and the grain boundary establishes a potential difference? Given
the right moist environment, electrolytic corrosion will take place.
The material starts to corrode at the grain boundaries and eventually the
grains themselves are eaten away. The resulting loss of strength and
ductility is proportional to the amount of metal corroded. Plating or
cladding is often used to minimise the risk of intergranular corrosion.
Alclad is the common name for composite sheet, plate, tube and wire
onto which a thin layer of almost pure aluminium has been
metallurgically bonded. As this is a pure metal, there is no difference
between the grain boundaries and the grain centre and intergranular
corrosion will not occur. This protective layer is often applied to 2000
series (Al/Cu) and 7000 series (Al/Zn) aluminium alloys. The coating is
anodic relative to the core and so provides both electrolytic protection as
well as being a physical barrier.
Exfoliation
This is a form of intergranular corrosion that often occurs at the edge of a
metal component that has been cold worked. Along an edge many of the
flattened grains are exposed and can collect moisture and contaminants.
A hole with a loose rivet is a prime site for this type of corrosion as the
corrosion can eat into the material along the grains, inside the
component, virtually undetected. Eventually the component will swell
and corroded sections will leaf out (hence the name). By this stage, it
will be necessary to replace the component.
Routine inspection can be used to detect this type of corrosion though

ultrasound or x-ray tests need to be used. Sealing the hidden edges of
holes along with cleaning and drying are all common measures to reduce
the occurrence of this form of corrosion.
Conditions causing corrosion
Dissimilar metals
Contact of dissimilar metals and even similar metals with different heat
treatment conditions occurs on many parts of an aircraft. These
circumstances are always likely to cause an electrochemical reaction.
Such reactions may be prevented by the use of an insulating layer
between the surfaces. Some examples of dissimilar metals in contact are:
steel bolts through aluminium alloy spars and structural members
steel brake parts on magnesium alloy wheels
copper and steel hydraulic lines attached to aluminium alloy
members
aluminium alloy skins riveted to extruded aluminium alloy members
ferrous levers, shafts and gears in light-weight alloy casings.

Heat treatment
Incorrect heat treatment may lower a materials resistance to corrosion.
For example, if a high-strength aluminium alloy is quenched too slowly it
is more susceptible to intergranular corrosion. Care must be taken with
any heating process as even the bonding of two metal components with a
thermosetting polymer and the application of heat and pressure may alter
the corrosion resistance of a component.
Welding
After welding, the heated strip around the join is anodic and will corrode
in preference to the surrounding metal. Some stainless steels are
particularly susceptible to intergranular corrosion in the welded region
but this can be reduced if the part is annealed after welding.
Fluxes used in welding are highly corrosive and must be thoroughly

cleaned off metal surfaces after welding.
Fretting
This occurs when parts that are tightly bolted together still slip slightly as
the aircraft flexes and moves. The heating caused by the localised
friction promotes oxidation of the steel and greatly reduces the fatigue
strength of the metal.
To overcome this problem, structural assembly bolts should be protected

by plating with cadmium or some other suitable non-ferrous metal.
These bolts should then be assembled as tightly as the torque limits
allow. The use of lubricating grease, in this situation, is also common.
Stress
Metals under stress generally corrode more readily than unstressed
metals. Stresses can also crack protective coatings. Corrosion in parts
that are subjected to ongoing stresses moves very rapidly and can quickly
lead to the failure of the part.
High temperatures
Parts like brake drums and exhaust pipes that are heated in service tend
to oxidise more quickly than unheated parts. This effect can be
minimised by the use of alloys containing nickel or chromium in these
situations.
Electrical equipment
The insulation on electrical wiring should be kept in good condition as
leakage of current may lead to the corrosion of both the electrical
equipment and the surrounding metal parts.
Damaged protective coatings

Special coatings protect many metallic surfaces in aircraft. Scratching
and abrasion occurs during normal aircraft operation and may becoming
starting points for corrosion. Care must be taken when surfaces come in
contact with certain fluids though careful testing will reveal the most
suitable coating for each situation.
Explain briefly why, in a corrosive environment:

1 when chomium is scratched by steel, the steel will start to corrode
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2 when the surface of alclad is scratched, the component does not
corrode
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Did you answer?

1 Steel is more likely to corrode than chromium and so the steel becomes the
anode in this situation and the chromium is protected.
2 In the second case, the pure aluminium surface on alclad still provides
anodic protection preventing the aluminium alloy core from corroding.
Surface defects
Any foreign particle embedded in the surface of a component may
initiate corrosion. Particular care must be taken to ensure that the
particles involved in sandblasting and grinding are completely removed.
Scratches on polished surfaces may also initiate corrosion.
Crevice corrosion
In crevices and inaccessible corners in metal parts, there are often low
oxygen levels. These places will become anodic compared to the

surrounding areas and corrosion will occur at these points. (This is why
the bottoms of car doors always corrode first.) All enclosed areas in
aircraft should be vented to prevent oxygen deprivation and drained to
remove the electrolyte necessary for corrosion to proceed.
Microbiological fuel corrosion

Micro-organisms grow in the moisture found in kerosene based fuels.
These organisms feed on the lining of aluminium alloy fuel tanks
allowing elctrolytic corrosion to occur. Careful filtration of the fuel is
essential but inspection of the filters and tank residues must be part of the
ongoing maintenance program.
Prevention and control of corrosion

Many methods of reducing both the likelihood of corrosion occurring and
the effects of corrosion have been outlined in the previous section.
One of the simplest and most effective methods of reducing corrosion,

not previously mentioned, is careful cleaning of all parts of an aircraft.
Atmospheric dirt, mud splashed up from the runway, urine on lavatory
floors, battery acids and exhaust residuals should all be thoroughly
cleaned off as each of these can be a catalyst for corrosion.
Turn to the exercise sheet and complete exercise 4.7 and 4.8.
Exercises
Exercise 4.1
a List the names of some destructive tests that may be used to identify
mechanical properties of materials and assess their suitability for use
in aircraft.
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
b Briefly explain the three different phases in fatigue cracks.

_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
c Identify four conditions that are necessary for fatigue cracks to

develop and grow.
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
d Briefly explain why certain surface defects can promote fatigue

cracking.
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________

Exercise 4.2
a Discuss the methods used to ensure aircraft structural integrity.
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
b Complete the table below by inserting applications in the aircraft

industry for each non-destructive testing procedure listed.
Name Applications
Magnetic Particle
Inspection
X -ray
Ulrasonic flaw
detection
c Discuss the suitability of pure aluminium for use in the aircraft

industry.
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
d With the aid of a sketch, briefly explain how the aluminium alloy
identification code is used.
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
Exercise 4.3
a Outline the effects of alloying elements on aluminium alloys.
Copper _________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
Magnesium______________________________________________
___________________________________________________
Zinc ___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
b Complete the table below by providing details of aluminium alloys

used in aircraft.
Alloy Alloying Applications

Elements
2024
3003
5052
7075
c Explain the major differences between natural aging and artificial

aging and provide some examples where each may be used.
Natural ___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
Artificial ___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________

Exercise 4.4
a Complete the table below by suggesting some aeronautical
applications for the metals listed.
Alloy Applications
Titanium
Stainless steel
18/8
Magnesium alloys
b Suggest a clear polymer that may be used for windows of aircraft.

Explain how the structure of this polymer makes it clear and suggest
a manufacturing method for these windows.
Polymer ________________________________________________
Manufacturing method ____________________________________
Structure _______________________________________________
___________________________________________________
c Suggest two polymers that have good wear resistance and would be
suitable for bearings or bushes.
_______________________________________________________
d Explain why one-piece moulds are often used when making aircraft
components.
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
e Complete the table below by listing three thermosoftening polymers

and three thermosetting polymers commonly used as matrices in
composite materials.
Thermosoftening polymers Thermosetting polymers
i _________________________ i _________________________
ii _________________________ ii _________________________
iii _________________________ iii _________________________
Exercise 4.5
a Composite materials have been around for years in the aircraft
industry. Discuss the different composites that have been used from
early days till the current materials being developed.
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
b Complete the table below by indicating the properties and

applications of the fibres listed.
Glass
Kevlar
Graphite
Boron

Exercise 4.6
a Explain what is meant by the term prepeg as it relates to composite
materials.
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
b Suggest reasons for using two-dimensional reinforcing fabrics.

_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
c State the role of the matrix in a composite material

_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
d Complete the table below by listing some characteristics of the

matrices.
Matrix Characteristics
Polyester
Epoxy
Aluminium
Magnesium
Carbon
Exercise 4.7
a How might areas of corrosion be identified in aluminium alloys?
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
b Explain why pure aluminium is sometimes bonded to the surface of

some aluminium alloys. Include the alloys normally clad and the
way that the aluminium skin works.
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
c On the table below list some conditions that cause corrosion and
briefly explain why corrosion occurs in each case.
Condition causing corrosion Explanation of reason for corrosion
d Discuss some simple yet effective methods of minimising the risk of

corrosion on aircraft components.
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________

Exercise 4.8
Select the alternative a, b, c or d that best answers the question or best

completes the statement. Circle the letter.
1 On a stress/strain graph, toughness is indicated by the:
a area under the total graph
b area under the straight line section of the graph
c length of the straight line section of the graph
d the downturn in the graph after the UTS.
2 Strain can be calculated by:

a dividing the load by the extension
b multiplying the load by the cross-sectional area
c dividing the extension by the original length
d multiplying the cross-sectional area by the original length.
3 In compression tests, barrelling occurs

a after brittle materials have failed
b as ductile material is squashed
c when the deforming load is removed
d only on cylindrical specimens.
4 The indentor used in the Vickers hardness test is:

a a combination of spherical and diamond point indentors
b two different sizes of hardened steel spheres
c a diamond cone
d a diamond pyramid.
5 The main reason for normalising is to:

a produce a uniform structure throughout the component
b increase the surface hardness of the component
c make the material softer so it can be cold worked
d change the grain structure to large, equiaxed grains.
6 Hardenability of a material is:
a the amount it hardens under cold working
b the depth to which a material hardens when quenched
c the surface hardness after quenching
d the degree of hardness induced by any form of hardening.
7 Martempering and Austempering:

a are production methods for softening steel
b are used to prevent heat scale forming on the surface
c allow large masses to be cooled without developing quench
cracks
d can be used in place of normalising.
8 Grainflow occurs in:

a hot forging
b sand casting
c machining
d injection moulding.
9 Permanent metal moulds are used in:

a die casting
b shell moulding and investment casting
c die casting and investment casting
d shell moulding.
10 The 'skin' on a cast component is normally:

a softer than the 'core' of the component
b identical to the 'core' of the component
c harder than the 'core' of the component
d made up of large equiaxed grains.
11 Powder forming is commonly used:

a as it is cheaper than other types of forming
b because the materials don't need to be melted
c to form hard materials that are too difficult to machine
d on raw materials normally found in powder form.

Progress check
In this part you have learnt about the materials that are used for aircraft
components and the properties that make them suitable. You have also
learnt about several new materials that have been developed.

Agree well done

Uncertain

Disagree
Agree

I have learnt about
specialised testing of aircraft materials

aluminium and its alloys used in aircraft
polymers [used for aircraft applications]
composites [used for aircraft applications]
corrosion [common in aircraft] ...
I have learnt to
describe non-destructive tests used with aircraft

materials and components
analyse structure, properties, uses and appropriateness
of materials in aeronautical engineering applications
investigate the effects of heat treatment on the
structure and properties of aluminium alloys
select and justify materials and processes used in
aeronautical engineering
outline the mechanism of corrosion common to aircraft
components.
In the next part, you will learn about drawing for aeronautical parts.


Exercise 4.1
Exercise 4.2
Exercise 4.3
Exercise 4.4
Exercise 4.5
Exercise 4.6
Exercise 4.7
Exercise 4.8



Slip.


communication
Part 5 contents
Introduction..........................................................................................2
Orthogonal projection, As 1100 standards.....................................3
Selection of appropriate scale for a drawing ................................ 3
Selection of views...................................................................... 4
Exercise information .................................................................. 8
Exercises ...........................................................................................21
Progress check .................................................................................41
Bibiolography ....................................................................................45
Module evaluation ............................................................................49
Part 5: Aeronautical engineering communication 1

Introduction
In this module of work you will learn to produce orthogonal drawings

associated with aeronautical engineering, involving the use of AS 1100
standards, and again be introduced to some new AS 1100 standards.
You will consolidate the standards covered in previous modules from

both the Preliminary Course and the HSC Course and will further
develop your freehand sketching by designing solutions to orthogonal
drawing problems and in completing some of the exercises.
The AS 1100 standards that will be introduced apply to the drawing of

aeronautical parts, and include selection of scales to be used and of views
to be drawn; partial and auxiliary views and views of symmetrical parts.
As there is only a small amount of new work to read and learn, the
majority of your time will be used in completing exercises. You will
therefore be required to complete eight exercises in this unit.

freehand and technical drawing
pictorial and orthogonal projections
Australian Standard AS1100
graphical mechanics
graphical solution to basic aerodynamic problems
computer graphics, computer assisted drawing (CAD)
You will learn to:

produce orthogonal drawings applying appropriate Australian
Standard (AS 1100)
construct quality graphical solutions
Orthogonal projection, AS 1100
standards
Much of the aeronautical work done in Australia is completed by Hawker

de Havilland at Bankstown. Some of their work involves components for
the Airbus, a British Aerospace project. Many of the drawings are
completed using First Angle Projection. Care must be taken when
reading these drawings to check the method of projection used for the
drawing. As you are aware, the first angle or third angle projection
logogram is drawn either in or adjacent to the title block.
Selection of appropriate scale for a

drawing
The aeronautical industry utilizes components ranging from very small to
extremely large in size. These components have to be designed and then
drawn to scale. The drawings could involve an enlargement scale for
very small components, a reduction scale for very large components, or a
full scale.
The Australian Standard, AS 1100 1992 Part 101 lists the

recommended scales for use in engineering drawing. The aeronautical
engineer must select an appropriate scale from this list that will result in
a drawing of the component that is clear and easy to read.
Recommended enlargement scales

2:1 5:1 10:1 20:1 50:1
Recommended reduction scales

1:2 1:5 1:10 1:20 1:50 1:100 1:200 1:500
1:1000 1:2000 1:5000 1:10 000

Special application scales
Where a component is of such a size that the recommended scales would
not produce a drawing that is clear and easy to read, the recommended
range of scales may be extended.
Selection of views
In the previous modules of work you completed detail drawings of
components. You were required to select the number of views to draw
that would give a full shape description of the component being drawn.
The AS 1100 standards formalizes the principles to be followed when

selecting the views to be drawn.
The views shall be selected to:

reduce the number of views required to give a full shape description
avoid repetition of detail or views
avoid hidden outline.
The selection of views should be sufficient to give a full shape

description without the possibility of misinterpretation.
In the preliminary module, Braking Systems, you were shown that some
detail drawings required only one view, while others required two or
three views to give a full shape description. You should review this work
before proceeding.
It should also be remembered that the preferred method of projection is

third angle projection, so you should use this method when completing
drawings.
Partial views
Partial views are used where full views do not give a good shape
description of the component. They apply where a component has an
inclined face as shown in figure 5.1 below, and are quite often used in
conjunction with an auxiliary view to give a full shape description.
The partial view is terminated using a thin, dark, continuous freehand

line, a Type C line, similar to a short break line. Alternatively, for a long
break, a thin dark straight line with zig-zags, a Type D line, may be used.
AUXILIARY VIEW
PARTIAL FRONT VIEW RIGHT SIDE VIEW

Figure 5.1 Examples of partial views
Auxiliary views
You have used auxiliary views in previous modules of work. However,
in this module, auxiliary views will be used in conjunction with partial
views to show the true shape of inclined faces.
Where a component has an inclined face, an auxiliary view is usually

required to give a complete shape description of the component. The
auxiliary view is obtained by looking at right angles to the inclined face
and drawing the resulting true shape view.
Auxiliary views must always be drawn using third angle projection, even
if the remainder of the drawing is in first angle projection.

AUXILIARY VIEW
PARTIAL FRONT VIEW RIGHT SIDE VIEW

Figure 5.2 Using an auxiliary view
Views of symmetrical parts

In Civil structures you were able to save time and space when
completing the development of a sheetmetal object by drawing only half
of the pattern and indicating that the pattern was symmetrical by using
the correct AS 1100 standard.
This AS 1100 standard also applies to orthogonal views of symmetrical

parts. A symmetrical component may be drawn showing only half or
even a quarter of the object, provided that the correct standard
symmetrical line is used to indicate that only part of the symmetrical
object has been drawn.
Care must be taken to ensure that the views give a full shape description
and that there is no possibility of misinterpretation.
There are two standard methods that may be used to indicate a

symmetrical view.
A thin chain line is used to show the position of the line of symmetry:
two short, thin, dark, parallel lines are drawn at each end, at right
angles to the symmetry line
alternatively, the lines representing the object are extended a little
beyond the symmetry line, and the short parallel lines are omitted.
Figure 5.3 Methods of indicating views of symmetrical parts

Exercise information
Exercises 5.1 to 5.8 require you to complete a freehand design sketch of
each of the drawings as part of the preparation and design prior to
completing the drawings on the given drawing sheets. The freehand
sketches should be drawn on your own paper, not on the drawing sheets.
These freehand sketches should be returned to your teacher, along with
the completed drawing sheets for each exercise.
Please note that each of the drawing exercises should be numbered in the
title block.
An introduction will be given for each exercise, describing the function

of each component as it is used in the aeronautical industry. Some
exercises will also include a brief description of the method and approach
needed to complete the exercise. You will need to revise your work from
the previous modules to ensure that you are using the correct methods
and, where applicable, the correct AS 1100 drawing standards. The
drawings may be completed using drawing instruments or a CAD
program.
Information for Exercise 5.1
A front view and right side view of a Talurit Cable Ferrule are given in an
orthogonal drawing, using a scale of 5:1. Taking sizes from the given
drawing, you are to draw in isometric projection to a scale of 5:1, a
freehand pictorial drawing of the ferrule.
The centerlines are given along with an isometric grid to assist you in
your drawing.
Do not start your drawing yet. Continue reading and you will be given a
method for completing this exercise.
Talurit cable ferrule

Talurit cable ferrules are used in the aeronautical industry to join wire
cables used in the flying controls and other cable-operated control
systems of many aircrafts.
The ferrules are made from a soft, malleable, lightweight alloy, approved
for aircraft use. To make a loop on the end of a cable, the end of the wire
is inserted through the ferrule, then passed back through the ferrule. An
alloy thimble is then fitted into the loop. The ferrule is then swaged
either by a hand operated or hydraulically operated press.
Swaging is an operation which applies a compressive force to squeeze the
ferrule, causing plastic deformation of the malleable metal around the cable.
The first diagram below shows the cable being fitted through the talurit
ferrule, prior to fitting the thimble, and prior to swaging. The second
diagram shows the swaged cable.
Talurit ferrule
End of cable to be
inserted through ferrule
Ferrule after swaging

Thimble
Figure 5.4 Fitting and swaging a talurit ferrule
Revised work for this exercise
This exercise requires you to draw, freehand, using isometric projection,

a pictorial drawing of the talurit ferrule. You have been using freehand
design sketches in previous exercises, but this is the first time that you
have been required to draw a pictorial sketch in the HSC course. You
must revise the pictorial drawing section from the Preliminary Module on
Braking Systems.
The work you should recall is listed below:

interpreting shape from orthogonal drawings
the angles used in isometric projection, 30, 90, 30.
the box or crate method of commencing pictorial drawings
the quadrant method of drawing isometric circles
using two quadrants to construct a semicircle.
New work for this exercise
The new work introduced in this exercise requires you to take the sizes
for the ferrule from the given drawing. The given drawing is not
dimensioned. The views are drawn to a scale of 5:1. The pictorial
drawing must also use a scale of 5:1. Therefore, the method used is:
measure the sizes from the given orthogonal drawing
use these sizes on the pictorial drawing.

Method used to complete this exercise
A method that may be used to complete this exercise is given below.
Preliminary:
look at the given drawing of the talurit ferrule in Figure 5.4
relate the shape to the given orthogonal views in Exercise 5.1
complete a design sketch in isometric projection of the ferrule.
Commencing the outline:

note the given center-lines on the isometric grid
note the size of the isometric grid, 5 mm spacing
measure the radius of the outer semicircles on the orthogonal front view
mark off these sizes on the isometric center-lines
measure the length of the ferrule on the orthogonal right side view
mark off the size on the isometric drawing
lightly draw the isometric crate that will contain the drawing of the
ferrule.
Completing the outline:

draw the shape of the front face, taking care with the quadrants
lightly draw the shape of the back face
project the long profile edges from the front to the back face
darken the visible outline of the ferrule.
Commencing the hole:

measure the radii of the arcs of the hole on the orthogonal front view
mark off these sizes on the isometric center-lines.
Completing the hole:

draw the shape of the end arcs on the center-lines
mark off the position of the centre and the ends of the side arcs
sketch the side arcs from the end points through the centre position
darken the visible outline of the hole.
Shape and size details of an aluminium alloy, turnbuckle eye-end screw

are given in a pictorial drawing. Freehand sketches have been
commenced of a front view and part-sectional top view, drawn to a scale
of 2:1. An orthogonal grid has been provided to assist your freehand
drawing.
You are to complete using freehand methods, the front view and the part-
sectional top view. The top view may be cut through the 4 shaft,
showing only a partial top view.
You will then project from the front view a right side view.
Turnbuckle eye-end screw

Turnbuckles are used in the aeronautical industry to adjust wire cables
used in the flying controls and other cable-operated control systems of
many aircraft.
A barrel type turnbuckle consists of three parts, a barrel and two end
screws. One end screw is threaded with a right hand thread and the other
end screw is threaded with a left hand thread. When drawing threads,
unless otherwise stated on the drawing, the given thread is assumed to be
a right hand thread. In Exercise 5.4 you will learn how to indicate a left
hand thread.
In barrel type turnbuckles the end screws may be either eye-end type, or
fork-end type.
Adjustment to the wire cables is made by rotating the barrel of the

turnbuckle; the right hand and left hand threads at the alternate ends of
the turnbuckle barrel allow the attached cable to be tightened or loosened
as required.
This exercise requires you to complete freehand, a front view and a part-
sectional top view and to then project a right side view of the turnbuckle
eye-end screw. You will need to revise some of the AS 1100 standards
from the Preliminary Course and the HSC Course.

interpreting shape from a pictorial drawing
interpreting sizes from a dimensioned pictorial drawing

the meaning of and the method of drawing an M 5 x 0.5 thread
the meaning of 4 6 x 90
a part-sectional view to show the 4 hole as visible outline
the method of showing a break in the 4 shaft

the method of projecting a right side view
the method of drawing a right side view of the thread.
The new work introduced in this exercise relates to a partial view of the
turnbuckle eye-end screw. The top view and the front view of the 4
shaft and M 5 x 0.5 thread are the same in both views. It is therefore
quicker to draw only a partial top view of the shaft, as the shaft and
thread are fully represented in the front view.
The new work you should use is listed below:

draw a partial top view, showing the eye-end and a small part of the
shaft
use a standard break for the end of the 4 shaft.
Method used to complete this exercise

An approach that may be used to complete this exercise is given below.
Preliminary:
look at the given sizes and shape of the eye-end screw
relate the shape to the given, incomplete, front and top views
Completing the front view:

mark off the 20 mm and 17 mm for the shaft and thread, using scale
2:1
draw the outline of the M 5 x 0.5 thread, with 45 chamfers at each
end
use thick dark lines to outline the shaft and thread
mark off the depth of the thread, 0.25 mm, using a scale of 2:1
use thin dark lines to represent the thread.
Completing the partial top view:
lightly project the 4 hole from the front view; it is a through hole
lightly project the 6 chamfers from the front view
draw the chamfers on both ends of the hole, using 45 lines

use thick dark continuous lines to show the chamfered hole as visible
outline
use a thin dark freeform line to draw a part section line to the right of
the hole
use thin dark hatching lines at 45 to indicate the part sectioned area
use thin dark lines to draw a standard break at the cut end of the 4
shaft
draw a line to show the edge where the 4 shaft meets the conical
eye-end.
Projecting the right side view:

project the thread sizes from the front view
use a thick dark continuous circle as outline of the M5 thread
use a thin dark broken circle to represent the thread
draw the thickness, 6 mm using a scale of 2:1
draw the 12 spherical shape to complete the right side view.
Shape and size details of a fibre, bulkhead cable fairlead are given below
in a dimensioned pictorial drawing. Draw, to a scale of 2:1, a front view
and left side view of the fairlead. Hidden outline must be used on the left
side view to show interior details.
Fully dimension the three, slotted 4 holes, showing the size and
position of the holes and slots. Starting positions for each view are given.
Bulkhead cable fairlead

Cable fairleads are used in the aeronautical industry to confine cables
when the cables may contact other components, when the cables pass
through a bulkhead, or when the cables have a small change of direction.

If a cable changes direction by more than 15, it must pass around a
pulley; a fairlead must not be used.
The diagram below shows a bulkhead cable fairlead secured by two

screws to a bulkhead bracket. Three wire cables pass through the
fairlead and the bulkhead bracket.
Bulkhead
Bulkhead cable fairlead
Control cables
Bulkhead bracket
Figure 5.5 Wire cables passing through a bulkhead fairlead
You will again need to revise some of the work from the Preliminary and
HSC Courses, however, work that has been revised for the previous
exercises in this module will not be listed.
The work that you should now recall is listed below:

projecting a left side view
aligned dimensions
using drawing instruments, particularly a circle template.
There is no new work in this exercise, just practice for your HSC. Be
careful when dimensioning the slots and the slotted holes. You only
have to dimension the position of the center-lines, that is 11,7,7 mm, one
hole 4 mm and one slot 3 mm. You are only required to show these
five dimensions to satisfy the question. Do not waste time in fully
dimensioning the fairlead.
Suggested procedure
As there are no new techniques in this exercise a detailed method of

completing the exercise will not be given. However, a suggested
approach is to:
commence the front view, marking the centre-line positions of the
five holes
lightly draw the outline then the position of the three slots
using a circle template, draw the holes; use thick dark lines
project the left side view, showing the outline and the slots
complete the hidden outline for the holes
dimension the position and sizes of the three, slotted 4 holes and
the slots.
Shape and size details of a tension rod turnbuckle fork-end, with a left
hand thread are given in a dimensioned pictorial drawing. Incomplete
front view, left side view and a part-sectional top view are also given,
drawn to a scale of 2:1.
Complete the:
front view showing only the visible outline, including the two flat
surfaces
left side view showing only the visible outline
part-sectional top view showing the 4 hole, the L.H. M5 x 1 thread
and the 5 and 1.5 holes as visible outline.
Tension rod turnbuckle

A tension rod turnbuckle consists of three parts, the tension rod and two
ends; the ends may be either fork-end or eye-end. As with the barrel type
of turnbuckle, the tension rod is threaded at each end, one end having a
right hand thread and the other a left hand thread.
Adjustment to the wire cables is made by rotating the tension rod.

This exercise requires you to complete three orthogonal views of the

turnbuckle fork-end screw. Each of the three views has been
commenced. You should note that you are only required to show visible
outline in the front view and left side view; do not show any hidden
outline.
The part-sectional top view will require two part-sections, one to show
the 4 hole, the L.H. M5 x 1 thread and the 1.5 hole as visible outline,
and the other to show the 5 hole as visible outline. You will have to
revise work from Personal and public transport involving the reading of
dimensions and also the plotting of the shape and size of a flat surface.
The work that you should recall is listed below:

the meaning of the depth symbol for drilled holes
the meaning of L.H. M5 x 1 thread
the meaning of S15, a spherical diameter
the method of drawing the L.H. M5 x 1 thread; the left side view and
the part- sectional top view
the method of plotting and representing a flat surface
the method of indicating a part-section.
the method of hatching the part-section
There are no new techniques involved in this exercise.
Shape and size details of a turnbuckle tension rod are given in a

dimensioned pictorial drawing. Draw, using a scale of 2:1, a detail
drawing of the tension rod.
The tension rod is manufactured from aluminium alloy.
Turnbuckle tension rod

As stated in Exercise 5.4, a tension rod turnbuckle consists of three parts,
the tension rod and two ends. The turnbuckle tension rod is threaded at
each end, one end having a right hand thread and the other a left hand
thread.
This exercise requires you to draw a detail drawing of the tension rod.
You will have to revise the work on Detail Drawing from Braking
systems.
You need to remember that a detail drawing is a drawing that gives a

complete shape and size description of the component that would enable
the component to be manufactured. You must also include in the
drawing, the material for manufacture.
You have to decide how many views are required to give a complete
shape description; three views, two views or only one view. Your
decision should also be influenced by the time factor in an HSC
examination; the fewer the views, the quicker the drawing.
You have to fully dimension the drawing, to enable the manufacture of

the tension rod.
The work that you should recall is listed below:

detail drawing requires a full description of the component
a full shape description can be given by a fully dimensioned single
view
drawing to a scale of 2:1
dimensioning a scaled drawing; show the actual or manufacturing
sizes
the depth of a thread is drawn to a size equal to half the pitch. In this
case the pitch of the M5 x 1, is 1 mm, therefore the depth is 0.5 mm.
The only new technique in this exercise is the dimensioning of the left
hand thread. Most threads are right hand threads. When dimensioning a
right hand thread, M5 x 1, the M indicates that it is a metric thread, the
size is 5mm diameter and the pitch is 1 mm. It is not necessary to state
that it is a right hand thread.
A left hand thread has the letters L.H. preceding the thread dimensions.
You must therefore dimension this left hand thread; L.H. M5 x 1.

Shape and size details of an airframe fastener pin used for composite
materials are given in a dimensioned pictorial drawing. The pin is made
from titanium.
Using a scale of 2:1, draw in orthogonal projection a top view and part
sectioned front view of the fastener pin. You may draw a part top view,
using AS 1100 standard methods to show a symmetrical view.
Airframe fastener pin

The fastener pin shown is used to secure composite components of
aeronautical airframe structures. The head is larger than a fastener used
to secure metal components. The larger head distributes the forces and
prevents the fastener from crushing the matrix that binds the fibres of the
composite.
The pin is made from titanium, a lightweight metal suited to the

aeronautical industry.
Again there is some work that must be revised from previous modules.
This is good preparation for your HSC. Perhaps you have already made
summaries of the previous work and you have only to refer to your
summaries.
Much of the work you have already revised in this module. You will
now have to recall the following;
the method of drawing a hexagon, given the length of one side
the interpretation and method of drawing a 1 x 45 chamfer
the method of drawing the S6 spherical curve for the run-in to the
hexagonal hole
the method of using an auxiliary view to plot the curves formed by
the S6 spherical curve in the part-sectional front view.
The question states that you may draw a part top view, using AS 1100
standard methods to show a symmetrical view. Again this is a time
saving standard that will assist you in your HSC where time is a
premium.
Instead of drawing the full top view, the top half of the view may be
omitted provided that you use the correct AS 1100 standard. The
preferred method is to draw half the view, the bottom half; then show the
center-line as a symmetry line with thin dark parallel lines through the
ends of the symmetry line. This will save you drawing time, but
remember, if you do not use the correct standards then you may lose
marks for an incorrect drawing.
The new work to be used is:

view of a symmetrical part
the use of a part top view.
Note that the question does not require you to dimension the drawing.
Too often students in the HSC examination will waste time dimensioning
a drawing when the question did not require the dimensioning. Make
sure you read the question carefully, interpret it correctly, and do not do
work that is not required.
Shape and size details of an angle bracket attachment for an airframe are
given in a partly dimensioned pictorial drawing and in the given front
view. The front view is drawn to a scale of 1:2.
Project from the front view, using third angle projection:

a part top view to show the true shape of the horizontal surface
an auxiliary view to show the true shape of the sloping surface.
Angle bracket attachment

The angle bracket attachment is manufactured from aluminium alloy and
is used to secure structural components to the airframe.
This exercise presents you with an angle bracket attachment that has six
10 holes in the horizontal surface and seven 14 holes in the sloping
surface. It is very time consuming to draw all thirteen holes. You should
remember, or revise, the work on representation of repeated features
from Lifting devices.

Again it is very important to remember and use the AS 1100 drawing
standards, especially the ones that will save you time in the HSC
examination. But you must use the correct standards, incorrect standards
will not gain you any marks, and as with Exercise 5.6 and 5.7 will cause
you to lose marks if incorrectly used.

representation of repeated features
one of the holes may be shown in full outline, and the position of the
remainder by centre-line
the number and size of the holes must be indicated using a note and
leader line; if this notation is not done you will lose many marks.
You should use this standard representation, not only to save time but
also to simplify the drawing.
The new work introduced in this module that should be used in this
exercise is listed below:
the use of a reducing scale of 1:2; the sizes must he halved
the use of a part top view to show the true shape of the horizontal
surface
the use of a thin, continuous, freeform line to terminate the part view
the use of an auxiliary view to show the true shape of the sloping
surface.
Turn to the exercise sheet and complete exercise 5.7 then 5.8.
Exercises

A front view and a right side view of a Talurit Cable Ferrule are give below
in an orthogonal drawing, using a scale of 5:1. Taking sizes from the
drawing, draw in isometric projection to a scale of 5:1, a freehand pictorial
drawing of the ferrule.
The centrelines are given along with an isometric grid to assist you in
your drawing.
FRONT VIEW RIGHT SIDE VIEW
TALURIT CABLE FERRULE EX 5.1
SCALE 5:1 A4
Part 5: Aeronautical engineering communication Page 23

Shape and size details of an aluminium alloy, turnbuckle eye-end screw
are given below in a pictorial drawing. Freehand sketches have been
commenced of a front view and part-sectional top view. An orthogonal
grid has been provided to assist your freehand drawing.
Complete using freehand methods, the front view and part-sectional top
view. The top view may be cut through the 4 shaft, showing only a
partial top view.
Project from the front view a right side view.
PART-SECTIONAL TOP VIEW
9 0
6 6x

FRONT VIEW RIGHT SIDE VIEW
12 20
S
90 4
6x .5
x0
4 M5

20
17
TURNBUCKLE EYE-END SCREW EX 5.2
SCALE 2:1 A4

Shape and size details of a fibre, bulkhead cable fairlead are given below in a dimensioned pictorial
drawing. Draw, to a scale of 2:1, a front view and left side view of the fairlead. Hidden outline must
be used on the left side view to show interior details.
Fully dimension the three, slotted 4 holes, showing the size and position of the holes and slots.
Starting positions for each view are given.
9 0
4x
3
10
4
9
7
3
7
4
3
7
4
3
7
4
10
4
LEFT SIDE VIEW FRONT VIEW

5
BULKHEAD CABLE FAIRLEAD EX 5.3
SCALE 2:1 A4

4 Shape and size details of tension rod turnbuckle fork-end, with a left hand
thread are given in the dimensioned pictorial drawing. Incomplete front
5 view, left side view and a part-sectional top view are given, drawn to a
4 scale of 2:1.
Complete the:
front view showing only the visible outline, including the two flat
surfaces
left side view showing only the visible outline
15 the part-sectional top view showing the 4 hole, the L.H. M 5 x
1 5 1 thread and the 5 and 1.5 holes as visible outline.
.5 S
R1 5
10

.5 15
R1
13
3
1.5 50

12
3
25
4 22

1 F
5x A
M 11 PART-SECTIONAL TOP VIEW
L.H.
LEFT SIDE VIEW FRONT VIEW
TURNBUCKLE FORK-END LH SCREW EX 5.4
SCALE 2:1 A4

Shape and size details of a turnbuckle tension rod are given below in a
dimensioned pictorial drawing. Draw, using a scale of 2:1, a detail drawing
of the tension rod.
The tension rod is manufactured from aluminium alloy.
33
4
13
4 5 x1
H.M
L .
33
3

10

R2
x1
M5
TURNBUCKLE TENSION ROD EX 5.5
SCALE 2:1 A4

Shape and size details of an airframe fastener pin used for composite
materials are given below in a dimensioned pictorial drawing. The pin is
made from titanium.
Using a scale of 2:1, draw in orthogonal projection a top view and part
sectioned front view of the fastener pin. You may draw a part top view,
using AS 1100 standard methods to show a symmetrical view.
S
6R
UN
-IN
3H
EX
6
x1
10
M
4 5
15
1x
12

1
R2
(38)
16
25

5
1
AIRFRAME FASTENER PIN EX 5.6
SCALE 2:1 A4

Shape and size details of an angle attachment for an airframe are given
below in a partly dimensioned pictorial drawing and in the given front
view. The front view is drawn to a scale of 1:2.
Project from the front view, using third angle projection:
a part top view to show the true shape of the horizontal surface
an auxiliary view to show the true shape of the sloping surface.
35
15 15
34
34
34
34
34 16
15 28
28
28
28 )
10 00
(2
x 28
16
R8 28
16
14

7x
12
0
FRONT VIEW
ANGLE BRACKET ATTACHMENT EX 5.7
SCALE 1:2 A4

Exercise 5.8
Shape and size details of a joint pin for an airframe are given on the
drawing sheet 5.8 pictorial drawing and three dimensioned orthogonal
views are given. Use this information to answer the following questions.
The following statements refer to the drawings of the airframe joint pin.
Select the alternative, A, B, C or D that best completes the statement or

best answers the question. Circle the letter corresponding to your
selection.
1 The given orthogonal views of the joint pin are a:

a right side, left side and sectioned front view
b right side, front and left side view
c right side, top and front view
d right side, part front view and left side view
2 The number of 5 holes drilled through the threaded end is:

a one
b three
c two
d four.
3 One view could have been omitted as it provides little additional

information. The dimensioning could have been placed on another
view. The view that could have been omitted is the;
a front view
b pictorial drawing
c left side view
d right side view.
4 The reason that the top view has not been drawn is:
a there was no room for the drawing
b that it is identical to the front view
c it would provide no additional information
d there are too many views on the page.

5 The pitch of the M22 thread is:
a half the depth of the thread
b two
c the same as the depth of the thread
d one.
6 The best method used to draw the 34 AF hexagon in the two views is to:
a use an auxiliary view method
b draw using the distance across the points of 1.8D
c draw using the distance across the points of 2D
d draw the left side view of the hexagon starting with a 17 circle.
7 The height of the hexagonal end is:

a 0.8D
b 0.7D
c 14 mm
d 16 mm.
8 The thickness of the flange is

a 4 mm
b 6 mm
c 2 x 45
d R2.
9 When manufacturing the joint pin the sizes used would be:
a twice the sizes shown on the dimensioned drawing
b half the sizes shown on the dimensioned drawing
c the same sizes shown on the dimensioned drawing
d none of the above.
10 The three dimensioned orthogonal views are drawn:

a in third angle projection
b in first angle projection
c in isometric projection
d with a thumb nail dipped in tar.
Shape and size details of a joint pin for an airframe are given below. A
pictorial drawing and three dimensioned orthogonal views are given.
166 42
4
14
2 2 X 45
4
2 x 45
34 AF 4
R2 42
M 22 x 2
56 R2 30
R2
20
U. CUT
15
228
23 - 2 - 01 JOINT PIN EX 5.8
DISTED STUDENT SCALE 1:2 A4

Progress check
In this part you produce orthogonal drawings applying appropriate

Australian Standard AS 1100.

Agree well done

Uncertain

Disagree
Agree

I have learnt about
freehand and technical drawing

pictorial and orthogonal projections
Australian Standard AS1100
graphical mechanics
graphical solution to basic aerodynamic problems
computer graphics, computer assisted drawing
(CAD)
I have learnt to
produce orthogonal drawings applying appropriate

Australian Standard (AS 1100)
construct quality graphical solutions
Congratulations! You have completed Aeronautical engineering.


Exercise 5.1
Exercise 5.2
Exercise 5.3
Exercise 5.4
Exercise 5.5
Exercise 5.6
Exercise 5.7
Exercise 5.8



Slip.

23/6/03Arial
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48
23/6/03Arial
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ES/S6 HSC 41097 P0022161

Materials devlopment: Paul Soares, Harry Taylor, Ian Webster

Subject overview ................................................................................iii

Module components .................................................................vii

Module outcomes ..................................................................... ix

Indicative time ........................................................................... x

Directive terms................................................................................. xix

Part 1: Aeronautical engineering

Part 2: Aeronautical engineering

Part 3: Aeronautical engineering

Part 4: Aeronautical engineering

Part 5: Aeronautical engineering

Module evaluation ............................................................................49

Engineering Studies Preliminary Course

Landscape products investigates engineering

Braking systems uses braking components and

Irrigation systems is the elective topic for the

Personal and public transport uses bicycles, motor

Lifting devices investigates the social impact that

Telecommunications engineering examines the

Aeronautical engineering is the first focus engineering module in the

Figure 0.2 Preliminary pages

Figure 0.3 Teaching/learning section

The additional information may

Figure 0.4 Additional materials

Support materials such as audiotapes, video cassettes and computer disks

Preliminary modules Percentage of time Approximate

Household appliances 20% 24 hr

Landscape products 20% 24 hr

Braking systems 20% 24 hr

Elective: Irrigation systems 20% 24 hr

HSC modules Percentage of time Approximate

Civil structures 20% 24 hr

Personal and public transport 20% 24 hr

Lifting devices 20% 24 hr

Aeronautical engineering 20% 24 hr

Telecommunications engineering 20% 24 hr

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