Anda di halaman 1dari 66

ELECTRICAL SCIENCES

EEE F111
BITS Pilani Meenakshi Viswanathan
Physics Department
Hyderabad Campus
Electronics

Physical Principles that underlie the operation of


electronic devices??

Electrons play a crucial part by virtue of their charge,


mass or spin.

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus


Electrical Conduction

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus


Energy Band

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus


Energy Band

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus


Motion of Electron

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus


Motion of an electron in a
Metallic Crystal

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus


Microscopic model of current

n= number of charge carriers per unit volume

Number of carriers (in grey section) = nAx

Q number of carriers in sec tion X ch arg e per carrier


Q nAx q
Q nAv d t q
Q I nAqvd
nAvd q
t I
I nAqvd current density J nqvd
A
BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus
Conductivity Classical
Theory

dv
m eE
dt
dv
m eE v
dt
For steady state v vd
vd eE
eE

vd
dv eE
m v eE
dt vd

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus


Conductivity Classical
Theory
dv eE
m v eE Re laxation time
mvd
dt vd eE
eEt
eE
Drift velocity vd
v vd 1 e mvd
m
vd e
Mobility
t , v vd E m

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus


OHMS LAW

I
current density J nevd J E
A
eE I V
vd
m A l
ne 2
1
J E
m
J E l
V I
ne 2 A
V IR
m
ne

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus


Semiconductors

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus


Arrangement of atoms in Si

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus


Intrinsic Semiconductor

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus


Si crystal one covalent bond
broken

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus


Conduction in Semiconductors

J n n p p eE E
n n p p e
In pure semiconductors, number of holes = number of electrons

n p ni
ni int rinsic concentrat ion

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus


Intrinsic conductivity of
Silicon.
Estimate the relative concentration of Silicon atoms and electron hole
pairs at room temperature and find the intrinsic resistivity.

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus


Intrinsic Conductivity

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus


Semiconductors -- why?

The concentration of free carriers and consequently


the conductivity increases exponentially with temperature
(~5% per degree). E.g. Thermistors.

The conductivity of a semiconductor can be increased


greatly and to a precisely controlled extent by adding
small amount of impurities in a process called doping.

There are two types of charge carriers and extraordinary


distributions of charge carriers can be created. Diodes
and transistors use this property.
BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus
Intrinsic and Extrinsic
Semiconductors

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus


Effect of n-type doping

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus


Effect of p-type doping

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus


Doped Semiconductors

ND + p = N A + n
n i2 n i2
For an n-type semiconductor, (i) NA = 0 & n >> p ND n p
n ND

n i2 n i2
For a p-type semiconductor, (i) ND = 0 & p >> n NA p n
p NA

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus


Effect of Doping on
Conductivity

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus


BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus
Diffusion

For mass transfer by diffusion:

(i) Random motion of particles.

(ii) Concentration Gradient.

Diffusion Current Concentration Gradient

dn
J n eDn
dx
dp
J p eD p
dx
BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus
Diffusion

n p e
Einstein Equation
Dn Dp kT

kT T T
VT
Voltage Equivalent of temperature e 11,586 11,600
VT 0.0259 V at T 300 K

dn
J n n ne eDn
dx
dp
J p p p e eD p
dx
BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus
Graded Semiconductors
dp
0 p p e eD p
dx
D p dp

p p dx
dv VT dp

dx p dx
x2 x2
dv VT dp
x dx dx x p dx dx
1 1

v2 p2
dp
v dv p VT p
1 1

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus


Graded Semiconductors
v2 p2
dp
v dv p VT p
1 1

p1
v21 v2 v1 VT ln Potential difference between points independent
of distance between them.
p2
p1 p2 e v2 1 / VT
n1 n2 e v2 1 / VT
n1 p1 n2 p2
Intrinsic Semiconduc tor n p ni
np ni2 Mass Action Law
BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus
The PN Junction Barrier
Potential / Built in voltage

p1
v21 v2 v1 VT ln
p2
pp NA
v o VT ln VT ln 2
pn (n i N D )
NA ND
VT ln
n i2
BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus
PN Diode Representation of charges
and Conduction Mechanisms

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus


PN Diode

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus


PN Diode Open Circuit

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus


Diode

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus


Diode Forward Bias

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus


Forward Biased PN Junction

(1) In forward bias, potential across the junction = vo - VD,


the depletion region narrows
(2) Majority carriers with sufficient energy from each side
cross the junction
(3) The flow of carriers produces the current.
(4) The forward current increases exponentially with
applied voltage

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus


Diode Reverse Bias

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus


Reverse Biased PN Junction

(1) In reverse bias, potential across the junction


= vo + VD,
the depletion region widens
(2) electrons-hole pairs are generated near
the depletion region
(3) Some of these carriers cross the depletion
region and cause a current.
(4) This current is called reverse saturation
current.
At T = 300 K, reverse saturation current
= 10-6 A for Ge
= 10-9 A for Si

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus


I-V Characteristics of Diode

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus


I-V Diode

Vv
i Is e T
1

IS = reverse saturation current

= emission coefficient
= 1 Germanium
= 2 Silicon

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus


PN Diode

Vv In this equation,
i Is e T
1 v = independent variable and i = dependent

variable

Diode ID(mA)
Behavior
Is(Si)=10 nA Is(Ge)=10 A

0.3V 0.7V
VD(V)
(Ge)
(Si) Is=reverse saturation current

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus


Diode

Saturation current at any given temperature

Saturation current doubles with every 10 oC


Tb Ta rise in Temperature

IS Tb 2Tb Ta /10 IS Ta

Voltage is decreased by approximately 2.5 mV for each 1 oC increase in temperature


in order to maintain a constant current

dv
-2.5 mV/ C
o

dT
BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus
Diode Circuits

The load of a circuit determines the point or the region of operation


of a diode.

v1

Vv

i Is e T
1


By KVL, v1 v Ri

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus


Load Line Analysis

Vv

i Is e T
1

1 v1
i- v
R R

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus


Numerical Analysis

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus


Numerical Analysis

Let vs=3V , R=1K and Is=10nA at 300 K

Assume vD 0.6V
vs v D
i 2.4mA
R
i
vD VT ln
1
0.6416V
IS

Use vD 0.6416V
vs v D
i 2.358mA
R
BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus
Performing one more Iteration

i
vD VT ln
I 1
0.6406V
S

Use vD 0.6406 V
vs v D
i 2.359 mA
R

I Q 2.36mA
VQ 0.641V

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus


Ideal Diode

Forward
bias, i > 0A

reverse
bias, v 0V

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus


Ideal Diode Analysis

Step 1: Assume forward bias, and replace the ideal diode with a short circuit.

Step 2: Evaluate the diode current iD, using any linear circuit-analysis technique

Step 3: If iD 0, the diode is actually forward-biased, the analysis is valid, and step 4 is to
be omitted

Step 4: If iD < 0, the analysis so far is invalid. Replace the diode with an open circuit, forcing
iD = 0, and solve for the desired circuit quantities using any method of circuit analysis.
Voltage vD should have a negative value.

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus


Wave Shapping Circuits

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus


Rectifier

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus


Ideal Diode Circuit

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus


Half Wave Rectifier

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus


Diode Clipper Circuit

vs 3
i1
1000
3
i2 1.5mA
2000
vs 3 3 vs
i i1 i2 3 10 1.5 10 4.5 10 3
1000 1000
D is on when i 0
vs 4.5V
BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus
Clipper Circuit

2
v o vs for vs 4.5V
3
v o 3V for vs 4.5V

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus


Clipper Circuit

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus


Diode: Clamping Circuit

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus


Zener Diodes

Zener diode is a diode operated in


reverse bias at the Peak Inverse Voltage
(PIV) called the Zener Voltage (VZ).

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus


Zener Diode

(1) The diode is in the reverse bias condition


(2) At some point the reverse bias voltage is so large
the diode breaks down.

(3) The reverse current increases dramatically.

(4) Two breakdown mechanisms:


Avalanche and Zener effects
This maximum voltage is called avalanche/Zener
breakdown voltage and the current is called
avalanche/Zener current.

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus


Zener Diode

Zener diodes are commonly used in Voltage Regulators


(circuits that keep voltages essentially constant despite
variations in supply voltage and load resistance)

In the above application, to ensure operation in the


breakdown state (or region), the minimum reverse
current is often chosen to be 10% of the maximum
reverse current

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus


Zener Diode Characteristics

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus


Zener Diode Voltage Regulator

A Zener diode has a breakdown voltage of


6 V and maximum current rating of 50 mA
and is used in the voltage regulator circuit
as shown.

(a) Given vs=24 V and R = 300,


Determine the range of values for RL
for which the diode will operate in
the breakdown state.

(b) Given RL=1k and R = 300,


determine the range of values for vs
for which the diode will operate in
the breakdown state and -50mAi -
5mA.

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus


Voltage Regulator
R = 300

50 mA
6V
vs=24 V

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus


Voltage Regulator

24 6
is 60mA
300
vL 6
iL
RL RL
6
i i L is 60 10 3
RL
36
50 10 60 10 3 5 10 3
RL
RL 600, RL 109

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus


Voltage Regulator
R = 300

-50mAi -5mA. RL=1k

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus


Voltage Regulator

vL 6
iL 6mA
RL RL
vs 6
is
300
3 vs 6
i iL is 6 10
300
3 3 vs 6
50 10 6 10 5 10 3
300
vs 22.8V , vs 9.3V

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

Anda mungkin juga menyukai