MM&I Reading Material

Temperature Measurement
What is temperature?

Temperature: A measure proportional to the average translational kinetic energy

associated with the disordered microscopic motion of atoms and molecules.
The flow of heat is from a high temperature region toward a lower temperature region.
When a high temperature object is placed in contact with a low temperature object,
then energy will flow from the high temperature object to the lower temperature
object, and they will approach an equilibrium temperature.

Various instruments for Temperature Measurement:

1. Liquid Bulb Thermometers.
2. Gas Bulb Thermometers.
3. Bimetallic Indicators.
4. RTD: Resistance temperature Detectors.
5. Thermocouples.
6. Thermistors.
7. Optical sensors: a. Pyrometers. b. Infrared detectors/cameras. C. Liquid Crystals.

Liquid Bulb Thermometers:

A liquid-in-glass thermometer is the simplest and most commonly employed type of

temperature measurement device.
It is one of the oldest thermometers available in the industry. It gives fairly accurate
results within the temperature range of -200 to 600C.
No special means are needed to measure temperature via these thermometers.
One can read temperature readings easily with human eyes.
They find their use in variety of applications such as medicine, metrology and industry.
The principle used to measure temperature is that of the apparent thermal expansion of
the liquid.
It is the difference between the volumetric reversible thermal expansion of the liquid
and its glass container that makes it possible to measure temperature.
Gas Bulb Temperature:
As per book Mechanical Measurement and Instrumentation, RK Rajput.

Bimetallic Thermometer:

A bimetallic strip is used to convert a temperature change into mechanical

displacement.
The strip consists of two strips of different metals which expand at different rates as
they are heated, usually steel and copper, or in some cases steel and brass.
The strips are joined together throughout their length by riveting, brazing or welding.
The different expansions force the flat strip to bend one way if heated, and in the
opposite direction if cooled below its initial temperature.
The metal with the higher coefficient of thermal expansion is on the outer side of the
curve when the strip is heated and on the inner side when cooled
The sideways displacement of the strip is much larger than the small lengthways
expansion in either of the two metals.
This effect is used in a range of mechanical and electrical devices.
In some applications the bimetal strip is used in the flat form. In others, it is wrapped
into a coil for compactness.
The greater length of the coiled version gives improved sensitivity.

Resistance Temperature Detectors:

 Resistance thermometers, also called resistance temperature detectors (RTDs), are
sensors used to measure temperature by correlating the resistance of the RTD element
with temperature.
Most RTD elements consist of a length of fine coiled wire wrapped around a ceramic or
glass core.
The element is usually quite fragile, so it is often placed inside a sheathed probe to
protect it.
The RTD element is made from a pure material, typically platinum, nickel or copper.
The material has a predictable change in resistance as the temperature changes and it is
this predictable change that is used to determine temperature.
They are slowly replacing the use of thermocouples in many industrial applications
below 600 C, due to higher accuracy and repeatability.
What are the different errors being faced during Temperature Measurement?

Thermometer accuracy, resolution

Contact time
Thermal mass of thermometer,
Human error in reading

Calibration: (just for Information.

Calibration of measuring instruments is required wherever they are used in quality-related
areas. Even the slightest of measurement errors can drastically affect the safety of production
processes, or product quality.

Procedure:

Calibration involves the comparison of the reading by the instrument being calibrated with that
of a reference instrument (also called reference standard) in specific conditions. Other
important aspects of calibration include documenting the deviation recorded between the
measuring instrument being investigated and the reference standard, calculating the resulting
measurement uncertainty, and creating the calibration certificate recording this uncertainty.

Contribution:

The calibration of measuring instruments therefore makes a considerable contribution towards

quality assurance and the prevention of rejects, reworking, or claims for compensation. (just for
information upto here.)

Calibrating a Instrument
Thermistors:

A thermistor is a type of resistor whose resistance is dependent on temperature, more so than in

standard resistors.
Thermistors are widely used as inrush current limiter, temperature sensors (NTC type typically), self-
resetting overcurrent protectors, and self-regulating heating elements.
Thermistors differ from resistance temperature detectors (RTDs) in that the material used in a thermistor
is generally a ceramic or polymer, while RTDs use pure metals.
The temperature response is also different; RTDs are useful over larger temperature ranges, while
thermistors typically achieve a greater precision within a limited temperature range, typically 90 C to
130 C
Thermistors are very sensitive (up to 100 times more than RTDs and 1000 times more
than thermocouples) and can detect very small changes in temperature. They are also
very fast.
Due to their speed, they are used for precision temperature control and any time very
small temperature differences must be detected.
They are made of ceramic semiconductor material (metal oxides).
The change in thermistor resistance with temperature is very non-linear.

Thermocouples:
Seebeck effect

If two wires of dissimilar metals are joined at both ends and one end is heated, current
will flow.
If the circuit is broken, there will be an open circuit voltage across the wires.
Voltage is a function of temperature and metal types.
For small DTs, the relationship with temperature is linear

V T
For larger DTs, non-linearities may occur.

Concept:

A thermocouple is an electrical device consisting of two different conductors forming

electrical junctions at differing temperatures.
A thermocouple produces a temperature-dependent voltage as a result of the
thermoelectric effect, and this voltage can be interpreted to measure temperature.
Thermocouples are a widely used type of temperature sensor.
 Commercial thermocouples are inexpensive, interchangeable, are supplied with
standard connectors, and can measure a wide range of temperatures.
In contrast to most other methods of temperature measurement, thermocouples are
self powered and require no external form of excitation.
The main limitation with thermocouples is accuracy; system errors of less than one
degree Celsius (C) can be difficult to achieve.
Thermocouples are widely used in science and industry; applications include
temperature measurement for kilns, gas turbine exhaust, diesel engines, and other
industrial processes.
Thermocouples are also used in homes, offices and businesses as the temperature
sensors in thermostats, and also as flame sensors in safety devices for gas-powered
major appliances.

You have just created another junction! Your displayed voltage will be proportional to
the difference between J1 and J2 (and hence T1 and T2)..
 A solution is to put J2 in an ice-bath; then you know T2, and your output voltage will be
proportional to T1-T2.

Many thermocouples dont have one copper wire. Shown in figure.

If the two terminals arent at the same temperature, this also creates an error.

Thermal radiation
Every atom and molecule exists in perpetual motion. A moving charge is associated with an
electric field and thus becomes a radiator. This radiation can be used to determine object's
temperature.

Pyrometers

Disappearing filament pyrometer

o Radiation from and object in known temperature is balanced against an
unknown target
o The image of the known object (=filament) is superimposed on the image of
target
The measurer adjusts the current of the filament to make it glow and then disappear
Disappearing means the filament and object having the same temperature

Disappearing Filament Pyrometer

Thermistors non-linearity

How to Choose a Temperature Control Device or System

Things to take into account
 Standards

Cost

Accuracy

Stability over time (esp. for high temperatures)

Sensitivity

Size

Contact/non-contact

Temperature range

Fluid

Choice Between RTDs, Thermocouples, Thermisters

Cost thermocouples are cheapest by far, followed by RTDs

Accuracy RTDs or thermisters

Sensitivity thermisters

Speed - thermisters

Stability at high temperatures not thermisters

Size thermocouples and thermisters can be made quite small

Temperature range thermocouples have the highest range, followed by RTDs

Ruggedness thermocouples are best if your system will be taking a lot of abuse