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PRESTON UNIVERSITY ISLAMABAD CAMPUS

Prepared by:
IMRAN SIKANDAR
MOB. # +968-95859259
Roll Number: 10M2-116044
E-mail: imran.sapac1@gmail.com
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Q.1: Describe the importance of computer aided design and computer aided manufacturing in
modern production system?

Answer: Cad is an analysis technique, a way of modelling of the performance of a product before it is
actually built. With cad easily present individual components of product separately by placing each
component on a different layer, the computer version of clear plastic overlay sheets. Cad program allow
the designer to select the unit of measure (such as inches or millimeter s) for the data base. The image
can be larger or smaller, depending on the level of detail desired. This does not affect the actual size of
the object defined by the number in the data base; rather it enables you to view the object close up or
from farther away. CADD system can be very accurate. Accuracy is determined by the total number of
individual points that the computer can keep track off at one time. Cad system to be capable of accuracy
to 1/10000th of an inch and still allow a designer to work space 30 miles on each side. The greater the
accuracy, the smaller the available work space

Scales
Q- 2: C L ASIFIC ATION OF SC AL E U SED IN M EC H AN IC AL D R AW IN G AN S:
There is a wide variation in sizes for engineering objects. Some are very large (eg. Aero planes, rockets,
etc) Some are vey small ( wrist watch, MEMs components)
There is a need to reduce or enlarge while drawing the objects on paper. Some objects can be drawn to
their actual size. The proportion by which the drawing of aan object is enlarged or reduced is called the
scale of the drawing.
Definition
A scale is defined as the ratio of the linear dimensions of the object as represented in a drawing to the
actual dimensions of the same.
Drawings drawn with the same size as the objects are called full sized drawing.
It is not convenient, always, to draw drawings of the object to its actual size. e.g. Buildings, Heavy
machines, Bridges, Watches, Electronic devices etc.
Hence scales are used to prepare drawing at Full size Reduced size Enlarged size
BIS Recommended Scales are shown in table 1.
Table 1. The common scales recommended.
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Reducing scales 1 :Y (Y>1)

1:10
1:2 1:20 1:200 1:100
1:2000 1:1000

u u u u.
1* 1* 1* 1*

ooooo
1:10000

Enlarging scales 50:1 20:1 10:1

X:1 (X>1) 5:1 2:1

Full size scales 1:1

Intermediate scales can be used in exceptional cases where recommended scales can not be
applied for functional reasons.
Types of Scale :-
Engineers Scale : The relation between the dimension on the drawing and the actual dimension of
the object is mentioned numerically (like 10 mm = 15 m).
Graphical Scale:_ Scale is drawn on the drawing itself. This takes care of the shrinkage of the
engineers scale when the drawing becomes old.

Types of Graphical Scale :-

Pla i n Sc al e
Di ag on a l Sc al e
Ve rn i er Scal e
Co mp ar ati ve sca le
Sc al e o f cho rds
R ep re se n tati ve fr ac tion ( R .F.)

R.F. _ Length of an object on the drawing

Actual Length of the object
W he n a 1 c m long l in e i n a d ra wing re pr esen ts 1 me te r le ng th of the ob je ct

Usually the word scale is used for an instrument used for drawing straight lines. But actually in
Engineers language scale means the proportion or ratio between the dimensions adopted for the
drawing and the corresponding dimensions of the object. It can be indicated in two different ways.
Example: The actual dimensions of the room say 10m x 8m cannot be adopted on the drawing. In
suitable proportion the dimensions should be reduced in order to adopt conveniently on the drawing
sheet. If the room is represented by a rectangle of 10cm x 8cm size on the drawing sheet that means
the actual size is reduced by 100 times.
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Representing scales: The proportion between the drawing and the object can be represented by two
ways as follows:

a) Scale: - 1cm = 1m or 1cm=100cm or 1:100

b) Representative Fraction: - (RF) = 1/100 (less than one) i.e. the ratio between the size of the
drawing and the object.

There are three types of scales depending upon the proportion it indicates as

1. Reducing scale: When the dimensions on the drawing are smaller than the actual dimensions of
the object. It is represented by the scale and RF as
Scale: - 1cm=100cm or 1:100 and by RF=1/100 (less than one)

2. Full scale: Some times the actual dimensions of the object will be adopted on the
drawing then in that case it is represented by the scale and RF as
Scale: - 1cm = 1cm or 1:1 and by R.F=1/1 (equal to one).

3. Enlarging scale: In some cases when the objects are very small like inside parts of a wrist
watch, the dimensions adopted on the drawing will be bigger than the actual dimensions of the
objects then in that case it is represented by scale and RF as
Scale: - 10cm=1cm or 10:1 and by R.F= 10/1 (greater than one)

Note: The scale or R.F of a drawing is given usually below the drawing. If the scale adopted is
common for all drawings on that particular sheet, then it is given commonly for all figures under the
title of sheet.

1.7 Types of Scales and their constructions:

When an unusual proportion is to be adopted and when the ready made scales are not available then
the required scale is to be constructed on the drawing sheet itself. To construct the scale the data
required is 1) the R.F of the scale 2) The units which it has to represent i.e. millimetres or
centimetres or metres or kilometres in M.K.S or inches or feet or yards or miles in F.P.S) The
maximum length which it should measure. If the maximum length is not given, some suitable length
can be assumed.
The maximum length of the scale to be constructed on the drawing sheet =
R.F X maximum length the scale should measure.
This should be generally of 15 to 20 cms length.

Table: Metric Units Table: FPS Units

1 Kilometre (km) =10 Hecta metres (hm) 1Mile =8 Furlongs
1 Hectametere(hm) =10 Decametres(dam)or 0.1km 1 Furlong =220 Yards
1 Decametre(dam) =10 Metres (m) or 0.1hm 1Yard =3 Feet
1 Metre(m) =10Decimetres(dm) or 0.1dam 1 Feet =12 Inches
1 Decimetre(dm) =10 Centimetres(cm) or 0.1m 1
Centimetre(cm) =10 Millimetres (mm) or 0.1dm
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The various types of scales used in practice are 1. Plain scales, 2. Diagonal scales, 3. Vernier scales, 4.
Comparative scales and 5. Scale of chords.

1.7.1 Plain Scales: Plain scales read or measure upto two units or a unit and its sub-division, for
example centimetres (cm) and millimetres (mm). When measurements are required upto first decimal,
for example 2.3 m or 4.6 cm etc. It consists of a line divided into number of equal main parts and the
first main part is sub-divided into smaller parts. Mark zero (O) at the end of the first main part. From
zero mark numbers to the main parts or units towards right and give numbers to the sub-divisions or
smaller parts towards left. Give the names of the units and sub-units below clearly. Indicate below the
name of the scale and its R.F clearly.

The construction of the plain scale is explained below by a worked example.

W E 1.1 A 3 cm long line represents a length of 4.5 metres. Extend this line to measure upto 30
metres and show on it units of metre and 5 metre. Show the length of 22 metres on this line. Fig
1.10

i) The scale has to represent metre and 5 metres, hence it is a Plain scale.

ii) Given that 3cm represents 4.5metres or 450cm, Hence 1cm represents 450/3=150cm, hence scale is
1cm=150cm or 1:150: R.F=1/150

iii) Maximum length to read is 30metres; Length of the scale is 20cm. i.e. (1/150)x30x100 = 20cm

Construction:
Draw a straight line of 20cm length and divide into 6 equal parts.
Divide again first part into 5 equal parts. Give numbers as shown. To represent 22 metres, take 4
main parts to represent 20 metres and 2 small parts to represent 2metres. Give names as A and B so
that the distance between A and B is 22 metres as shown.
Note: Assume height of the plain scale as 1 cm.

Construct a plain scale of 1:5 to show decimeters and centimeters and to read upto 1 metre. Show the
length of 7.4 decimetres on it.
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1 0.5 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 89
DECI METRES
R.F =

i) The scale has to represent decimetre and 1/10 of decimeter.

ii) Given that the scale is 1:5 that is R.F=1/5

iii) Maximum length to read is 1 metre; Length of the scale=(1/5)x1x100=20cm

Construction:
Draw a straight line of 20cm length and divide into 10 equal parts.

Divide again first part into 10 equal parts. Give numbers as shown. To represent 7.4 decimetres,
take 7 main parts to represent 7 decimetres and 4 small parts to represen0t 0.4 decimetres. Give
names as A and B so that the distance between A and B is 7.4 decimetres as shown.

Diagonal Scales:

Diagonal scales are used to read or measure upto threeunits.

For example: decimetres (dm), centimetres (cm) and millimetres (mm) or miles, furlon gs
and yards etc. This scale is used when very small distances such as 0.1 mm are to be
accurately measured or when measurements are required upto second decimal.

For example: 2.35dm or 4.68km etc.

Small divisions of short lines are obtained by the principle of diagonal division, as
explained below:

Principle of diagonal scale: To divide a given line AB into small divisions in multiples of
1/10 its length for example 0.1AB; 0.2AB etc. as shown in
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Procedure:
i) Draw AB of given length

ii) At one end, say at B draw a line perpendicular to AB.

iii) Mark 10 equal divisions by taking some convenient length starting from B and ending with
C.

iv) Give numbers from 9, 8, 71 as shown.

v) Join C to A and from 9 to 1, draw parallels to AB, cutting AC at 9', 8',-----1' etc.

vi) From the similar triangles 1'1C, 2'2C------9'9C and ABC, C5=(1/2)BC=0.5BC and
5'5=(1/2)AB=0.5AB. Similarly 1'1=0.1AB, 2'2=0.2AB etc

Thus each horizontal line below AB will be shorter by (1/10)AB, giving lengths in multiples of
0.1AB

: An area of 144 sqcm on a map represents an area of 9 sqkm on the field. Find the R.F.of the
scale for this map and draw a diagonal scale to show kilometers, hectametres and decameters and
to measure upto 5 kilometres. Indicate on the scale a distance of 3 kilometres, 5 hectametres and 6
decametres or 3.56km.

The area on the map is 144 sqcm and the area on the field is 9 sqkm.
Take square root on both sides. Then 12cm=3 km or Scale is 1 cm= 0.25km or 2.5x104 cm; RF=1/
(2.5x104)
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Length of the scale to read upto 5 km is RF X 5 km= 1/(2.5x104) X 5x105 =20cm

Construction:
Draw a line AB of 20 cm and construct a rectangle on it, by taking AD 5cm as shown. Divide AB into 5
equal parts and number them from second part starting with 0 to 4 towards right side to indicate
kilometers (km). Divide 0A into 10 equal parts, each part represents a hectametre (hm). Divide AD into
10 equal parts, each part represents one decametre (dam). Join diagonals as shown.
To mark 3.56km, take it as sum of 3.50km and 0.06km. On the plain scale take 3.5km and on the
diagonal at 5 upto 6 parts diagonally which is equal to 0.06km, giving a total of 3.56km as shown by
MN.

Note: Assume the height of the diagonal scale AD as 5cm for dividing it into 10 equal parts
conveniently.

Q-3: (A) ELABORATE CONIC SECTIONS & IMPORTANCE OF FOUR CURVES DEVELOPED
BY THE CONE?
ANS: Introduction
According to Kepler's First Law of Planetary Motion, the orbit of each planet is an ellipse, with
one focus of that ellipse at the center of the Sun. Newton's reformulation of this Law states that the
orbit of each planet is a conic section, with one focus of that conic section at the center of the Sun.
To properly understand planetary orbits, we therefore need some understanding of ellipses in
particular, and conic sections in general.

Conic Sections
A section is the surface or outline of that surface formed by cutting a solid figure with a plane. If the
solid figure is a right circular cone, the resulting curve is called a conic section. The diagram below
shows such a cone, formed by rotating a diagonal line around a vertical axis so that the axis, the
diagonal and a horizontal line connecting the two form a right triangle. Four planes are shown, cutting
through the cone at various angles, producing the curves shown in the
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following diagram. The intersection of each plane with the cone forms a conic section. The
kind and shape of the conic section is determined by the angle of intersection of the plane with
the axis and surface of the cone.

Angled view of a cone, with conic sections produced by cutting the cone at different
angles. Cutting at right angles to the axis produces a circle. Cutting at less than a right angle
to the axis but more than the angle made by the side of the cone produces an ellipse. Cutting
parallel to a side of the cone produces a parabola. Cutting more nearly parallel to the axis
than to the side produces a hyperbola (the hyperbola in the diagram represents a cut parallel
to the axis of the
cone).
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View from above of, from left to right, a circle, an ellipse, a parabola and a hyperbola. A
circle is a smooth, uniform curve, while an ellipse is "stretched" out along one axis, and
"compressed" along the perpendicular axis. Circles and ellipses are closed curves, while
parabolas and hyperbolas are open curves. For parabolas the two arms are parallel to each other
at infinity, but for hyperbolas the two arms make an angle with each other even at infinity.
The Four Kinds of Conic Sections
When a plane cuts a cone at right angles to its axis a circle is formed. The axis passes through
the center of the circle, and the focus (and the Sun, if the curve represents the orbit of a planet) is
at the center of the circle.
When the plane cuts the cone parallel to the side of the cone a parabola is formed. Since the
plane of the parabola is parallel to one side of the cone, the curve never cuts the side it is
parallel to and as the arms of the parabola extend into infinity they become parallel to each
other and the axis of the parabola.
Since circles and parabolas are formed by cutting the cone at specific angles they have
unique shapes. All circles are identical in shape, and all parabolas are identical in shape; only
their size and orientation differ (there are bigger and smaller circles, and broader and narrower
parabolas). For ellipses and hyperbolas however, there is a wide range of angles between the
plane and the axis of the cone, so they have a wide range of shapes.
When the plane cuts the cone at an angle between a perpendicular to the axis (which would
produce a circle) and an angle parallel to the side of the cone (which would produce a parabola),
the curve formed is an ellipse. Since circles and parabolas are formed by angles just beyond the
range of angles which produce ellipses, ellipses can vary in shape from very nearly circular to
very nearly parabolic. The closer the plane is to a perpendicular to the axis the more nearly
circular the ellipse is, and the closer its focus (which is the location of the Sun for objects
moving around the Sun) lies to its center. The closer the plane is to being parallel to the side of
the cone the more elongated the ellipse is, the closer its focus is to one end of the ellipse, and the
more either end of the ellipse looks similar to the "near" end of a parabola (for very small
segments of very elongated ellipses, such as the paths followed by objects falling to the surface
of the Earth, the portion of the ellipse that is observed is essentially identical to a parabola, and
in basic physics classes falling objects are said to follow parabolic paths, even though they are
actually following very elongated elliptical paths).
When the plane cuts the cone at an angle closer to the axis than the side of the cone a
hyperbola is formed. As in the case of a parabola the curve extends into infinity, as the plane can
never reach the far side of the cone and in fact, gets further and further from it the further along
the arms you go. Hyperbolas that are formed by angles close to the side of the cone look very
nearly parabolic, while hyperbolas that are formed at steeper angles look less parabolic; but in
every case there is a fundamental difference between a hyperbola and a parabola: the arms of a
parabola eventually become parallel to each other, while the arms of a hyperbola always make
an angle relative to each other. For a hyperbola which is very nearly parabolic this angle may be
close to zero; but for some hyperbolas the angle may be close to 180 degrees, and the hyperbola
can be almost a straight line.

Application to The Solar System

Kepler's First Law of Planetary Motion says that the orbits of the planets are ellipses with the
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Sun at one focus of the ellipse. As reformulated by Newton, the First Law says that the orbits
may be any kind of conic section, with the Sun at one focus of the section. In practice, however,
all planetary orbits must be ellipses, because objects in parabolic or hyperbolic orbits would go
around the Sun once, go out into interstellar space, and never return. For an object to have been
orbiting the Sun for 4.5 billion years as the planets have been, the orbit must be closed and
repeating, so it must be a circle or an ellipse; and since a circle can be viewed as a special kind
of ellipse (as explained below), all the more or less stable orbits in our Solar System are
elliptical.
This does not mean that open orbits are forbidden. There is a possibility that something might
approach our Solar System from interstellar space. As it does so, the Sun's gravity would bend
its path, causing it to follow a hyperbolic orbit through the Solar System, curving around the Sun
then returning to the interstellar space from which it came. We have never seen anything do this,
but it would be a very exciting thing if we did (and we would study the object as much as we
could while we had the chance).
It is also possible for orbits to change from one conic section to another through perturbations
-- that is, gravitational interactions with objects other than the Sun. In recent centuries several
comets have passed close enough to Jupiter to allow Jupiter's gravity to change their orbits from
very long ellipses to hyperbolas, "flinging" them out of the Solar System and into interstellar
space. We've always noticed this after the fact, and in each case for a short time there was
excitement about the possibility that we were seeing an interstellar visitor; but so far, every time
we've traced the orbit backwards we've found that Jupiter was the cause of the change in the
orbit.

Generating Ellipses
Since ellipses can have various shapes, it is important to understand how the various shapes
are related to each other, and the terms that are used to descirbe those relationships.
There are a large number of ways in which the generation or creation of ellipses can be
accomplished. If we want to calculate the exact place where each part of the curve is located, we
would use some kind of algebraic curve, such as ( x2 / a2 ) + (y2 /b2 ) = 1
or as another example, r = a (1 - e ) / (1 + e cos 0).

As useful as these formulae might be for calculations, unless you are familiar with the
mathematics involved it is difficult to see what the resulting curves look like, or how changing
the parameters (the constants) in the equations affects the appearance of the curve. It is easier to
understand the nature of ellipses of various types by using graphical methods of creating them,
as in the example of cutting a cone with a plane used above.
One simple way to generate ellipses is to take a circle and rotate it about a diameter. As
shown below the diameter which is used as an axis of rotation is unchanged by the rotation, but
all the diameters that make an angle to that one are reduced in size (foreshortened) by the
rotation. If the rotation is small the resulting ellipse is very nearly round, but if the rotation is
large the ellipse becomes very flattened (or very elongated, depending upon how you look at the
effect), and if the circle is rotated until it is edge-on to our line of sight the "ellipse" becomes just
a straight line segment. (The same thing can be done with open curves such as parabolas and
hyperbolas, but the results are not as useful for orbital mechanics.)
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Above: Creating ellipses by rotating a circle about a diameter. As the circle rotates it
becomes foreshortened. The axis of rotation stays the same as the original diameter, but the other
axes become shorter and shorter. In the process the ellipse becomes flattened or stretched out,
depending upon your viewpoint.

All of the curves produced by rotating a circle are ellipses. Even the extremes, a circle (on
the left) and a straight line segment (on the right) are technically considered to be ellipses --
just ellipses of special type. As you will see the shape (or more accurately, the position of the
focus) of an ellipse can be expressed by a number called the eccentricity, which is somewhere
between zero and one. If the eccentricity is zero the ellipse is a circle. If the eccentricity is one
the ellipse is a straight line segment. "Normal" ellipses have values between these extremes.
Later we will discuss how we measure the size of an ellipse. As you will see at that time, all the
ellipses generated by rotating a circle are the same "size" (namely, they have a semi-major axis
equal to the radius of the original circle).

Degenerate Ellipses
Sometimes we encounter situations where things become, in a very real sense, not what we
think they should be. The straight line segment that is considered to be an ellipse of eccentricity
one is an example of such a situation. Ellipses are curves, and a straight line segment is not a
curve, so it is hard to imagine calling it an ellipse of any sort. However, since we can create such
an "ellipse" in the same way as any other ellipse, it seems fair to consider it a special case, in the
same way that a circle is a special case; and to indicate this we give it a special name -a
degenerate ellipse. The word degenerate does not, in physical science or mathematics, refer to
some kind of moral failing; it means that by pushing something to an extreme limit it
"degenerates" from something complex to something much simpler, and at first glance not at all
the same.
An ellipse can also be created by attaching a string to two thumbtacks and stretching the
string as taut as possible. The resulting curve is the set of all points for which the sum of the
distances to the two foci (the plural of focus) is a constant. The length of the string is equal to
the sum of the distances involved, and is also equal to the major axis of the resulting ellipse
(proof to follow). If the two foci are in the same place the curve that results is a circle centered
on the foci (drawing to follow); if the two foci are so far apart that the string just barely stretches
between
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them the curve is a straight line (a degenerate ellipse) with the foci at the two ends of the line.
The closer the foci are to each other, the more nearly circular the ellipse appears; and the further
apart they are, the more elongated it appears. (more diagrams to follow)

Above, an ellipse showing various lines drawn from the foci to the perimeter
Below, a Wikipedia animation showing that the total length of the lines is a
constant

Q-3 (B): CONSTRUCT AN ELLIPSE OF MAJOR AXIS 100 MM AND MINOR AXIS 70MM
BY CONCENTRIC CIRCLE METHOD.
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Q-4: JUSTIFY THE IMPORTANCE OF ARTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS IN

MANUFACTURING DRAWINGS. ALSO EXPLAIN THE FIRST AND THIRD ANGLE OF
PROJECTION?
ANS: We need to ask ourselves what is Orthographic Projection? Basically it is a way a
representing a 3D object on a piece of paper. This means we make the object become 2D. The
difference between Orthographic Projection and any other drawing method is that we use several
2D views of the object instead of a single view.

Orthographic Projection gives us a very clear method of communicating ideas and objects. It is a
method that every engineer in the world recognizes. Because of this we can reproduce any object
drawn Orthographically. This is very important.

Think of how many languages there are in the world... imagine how much of a problem this
presents to designers and manufacturers across the world. Imagine an engineer in Germany who
wants a plastic bottle manufactured in Japan. How do you think he will overcome the language
barrier? The easiest way is to use a drawing. However drawing can be interpreted differently by
different people. A good example is shown below. Is the blue face on the inside or outside of the
box?
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All of these problems can be overcome using Orthographic Projection. An engineer in Germany
can have a plastic bottle made in Japan, exactly as he wants it, without any problem if he sends an
Orthographic drawing of the bottle. This makes Orthographic Projection a Universal language
among people in engineering professions!

FIRST AND THIRD ANGLE OF PROJECTION: There are two ways of drawing in orthographic
- First Angle and Third Angle. They differ only in the position of the plan, front and side views.
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Fi r st Ang le Pr oje cti on i s c o mm on l y used i n al l coun tr ies othe r th an U ni ted Sta tes . Th e Ind ian Sta nd ar d
Ins ti tuti on (ISI) re comme nds th e u se o f F i r st Angle Pro je c ti on me tho d no w in all th e i ns ti tuti on s.
Thi r d An gl e Pr oj e ctio n i s c om m on l y u se d in U ni te d Sta te s o f Am eri c a . In Third Angle Projection the
Object is placed in the Third Quadrant. This means that the Vertical Plane is in front of the object
and the Horizontal Plane is above the object. To see the effects of this watch the animation below.
Following table describes what the difference is between or comparison between First Angle
Projection and Third Angle projection.
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Q-5: BRIEFELY DESCRIBE THE SECTIONAL VIEWS AND CLASSIFY THE SECTIONAL
VIEWS ACCORDING TO THE NEED OF ENGINEERING DRAWING?
ANS: A section view is a view used on a drawing to show an area or hidden part of an
object by cutting away or removing some of that object.
The cut line is called a cutting plane, and can be done in several ways.
It is very important to Visualize what the part will look like after it is cut open.
Choosing the type of section and location of the cutting plane.
Making the cut and drawing the view in the proper location.
FULL SECTION
In a full section, the cutting plane line passes fully through the part.
Normally a view is replaced with the full section view.

cutting-plane.

The section-lined areas are those portions that have been in actual contact with the
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HALF SECTION:
Half Section is used to the exterior and interior of the part in the same view.
The cutting-plane line cuts halfway through the part and removes one quarter of the
material.
The line that separates the different types (interior and exterior) may be a centerline or a
visible line.
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SECTION LINING:
Materials - Common materials
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The symbol for cast iron can be used for most section views.
Refer to any common drafting text for additional symbols.

OFFSET SECTIONS:
Used to show parts and features that do not line up with each other.
Cutting-plane line does not travel in a straight line.

The versatility of this section makes it very useful.

The offsets or bends in the cutting-plane line do not show in the section.
Usually used on symmetrical circular parts.
Place the cutting-plane line to show the most detail.
All parts and details are rotated into the section view.
Ribs and spokes can be left un-lined for better clarity in the section view.
REVOLVED SECTIONS
Used to show a small portion of a drawing.
Show a cross-section of an area turned 90 degrees or perpendicular to the object.
Put into a drawing to show an area not normally shown.
BROKEN-OUT SECTIONS
Used to generate a section for a small area without using a cutting-plane line.
Removes a small amount of material to show the interior details.
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Always used in an orthographic view.

Used to enhance the orthographic view by giving the viewer a better look at key interior
details.
SECTIONING SHAFTS
Used to show a break in a longer part allowing better used of drawing surface.
Gives the impression of a 3-D break on the shaft.
Adds a touch of flair to the drawing.
ASSEMBLY SECTIONS
Shows how parts fit together
Allows better clarity with a complicated assembly of parts.
Shows how parts not only fit together, but allows for a visual view of how they function.

Q-8: CONSTRUCT A REGULAR HEXAGON HAVING 100 MM DISTANCE ACROSS THE

CORNERS, SELECT THE MOST PRACTICAL METHOD TO DRAW THE HEXAGON? ANS:
To D raw a H exagon , Gi ve n the Di s tan ce a cr o s s the Co rn er s

Method A
1. Draw vertical and horizontal centre lines and a circle with a diameter equal to the given
distance.
2. Step off the radius around the circle to give six equally spaced points, and join the points
to give the required hexagon.

Figure A

Method B
1. Draw vertical and horizontal centre lines and a circle with a diameter equal to the given
distance.
2. With a 60 set-square, draw points on the circumference 60 apart.
3. Connect these six points by straight lines to give the required hexagon.
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Figure B

Q-8: WHAT ARE THE RUE LENGTH LINES? EXPLAINS.

ANS: To Find True length and true inclinations of a line
M an y ti mes i f the to p and fro n t vie w s o f a l in e ar e gi ve n , the tru e l en g th a nd tr ue i ncl i na ti on s of a li ne
is re quir ed to be de ter m in ed.
The top and fro n t vie ws o f th e ob jec t ca n be d ra wn fr om i f an y o f the fo l low in g data are ava il ab l e :
(a) D i stanc e be twe en the en d p ro je c tor s,
(b ) D i stanc e of on e or b oth the en d po ints fr o m H P an d VP and
(c) Ap pare n t i nc l ina tio ns of th e li ne.
Th e pr oble m s m ay be so l ved b y

(i ) R ota ti ng l in e m eth od or
(i i ) R o ta ti ng tra pe zoi da l p lane m e th od or
(i i i) Au xi li ar y pl ane method .

Rotating line method

The m e th od of ob ta i ning th e top and fr ont vi e w s o f a li ne , when i ts tr ue leng th an d tru e inc l ina tio ns ar e
g i ve n.
W hen a vi ew o f a li ne i s para ll el to th e XY li ne , i ts oth er vie w wi l l be i n tr ue leng th an d at tr ue
in c l in a tion .
By fol l ow i ng th e pr oce du re m en ti oned p re vio u sl y, i n th e r ev er s e o rd e r, the tr ue leng th and tru e
in c l in a tion s o f a l in e fr om the g iven se t of top a nd fr on t vi ew s can be fo und . T he step by s tep pro ce dure
i s sh o wn b el ow in fi gure 1 .
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locus of B in the Front view

Front view
Front view

Top view

Projections of the line

(given
)
locus of B in Top view

Figure 1. determinationof ture length and true inclinations of a line.

Draw the top view ab and the front view a'b' as given
Rotation of the top view: With center a and radius abrotate the top view to the new position ab1
to make it parallel to the XY line. Since ab1 is parallel to the XY line, its corresponding front
view will be in true length and at true inclination.
Rotation of the front view: With center a' and radius a'b' rotate the front view to the new position
a'b2' parallel to the XYline. Since a'b2 is parallel to the XY line, its corresponding top view will
be in true length and at true inclination. In this position, the line will be parallel to HP and
inclined at fto VP. Through b draw the locus of B in the top view. Project b2' to get b2, in the top
view. Connect ab2 which will be in true length and true inclination f which the given line AB
makes with VP.

Traces of a line

The trace of a line is defined as a point at which the given line, if produced, meets or intersects a
plane.
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W he n a l in e me ets H P, (o r i f n ece ssar y on the ex ten ded por ti on- of H P) , the poi n t a t wh i ch the l ine
me ets or i n ter se cts the hori zon tal pl ane , i s ca l le d h or i zo nta l tr a ce (H T) o f th e li ne and den ote d by th e
lette r H .
W he n a l ine me ets VP ( or i f n ec e ssa r y on th e exten de d po r ti on o f VP) , the po in t at wh i ch the li ne
me ets o r i n te r s e cts th e ve r ti ca l pl ane , i s ca l led ve r ti ca l tra ce ( VT ) o f th e l in e an d de noted by the l e tter
V.
W he n th e l ine i s pa ra ll el to both H P an d VP, ther e w il l be no tra c es on the sa id pl an es. T here fo re th e
tra ce s o f li ne s ar e de ter mi ne d i n th e foll o wi ng posi ti on s of th e l in e s.

Trace of a line perpendicular to one plane and parallel to the other

Si n ce the l in e i s pe rp en di cu lar to one p la ne an d pa ra l le l to the o th er, the tr a ce o f th e l ine is o btain ed
on l y on the pl an e to whi ch i t is perp endi cu l a r, a nd n o tr a ce of th e l in e i s ob tai ne d o n th e o ther pl ane to
whi ch i t i s par al le l . F ig ur e s 2 and 3 i l lu str ate s the tr a ce of a li ne pa ra ll el tp 0 VP an d pe rp en di c u la r to
H P an d p ar al l el to H P a nd p er pe nd i cu la r to VP re sp e cti ve l y.

Figure 2. Trace of line parallel to VP and perpendicular to HP

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Figure 3. Trace of a line perpendicular to the VP and parallel to HP

Traces of a line inclined to one plane and parallel to the other

When the line is inclined to one plane and parallel to the other, the trace of the line is obtained
only on the plane to which it is inclined, and no trace is obtained on the plane to which it is
parallel. Figure 4 shows the horizontal trace of line AB which is in lined HP and parallel to VP

Front view
Front view

Given Line Front view

Top View
Horizontal View
Trace Top View,
Horizontal
Trace

Figure 4 Horizontal trace of line AB

Figure 5 shows the vertical trace of line AB which is inclined to VP and parallel to HP
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Front view Front view
Vertical Trace Front view
Vertical Vertical Trace
GIVEN UNE

Top View

Top View/
Top View

Figure 5 Vertical trace of line AB

Traces of a line inclined to both the planes

Figure 6 shows the Vertical trace (V) and Horizontal Trace (H) of Line AB inclined at q to HP
and O to VP.
The line when extended intersects HP at H, the horizontal trace, but will never intersect the
portion of VP above XY line, i.e. within the portion of the VP in the 1 st quadrant. Therefore VP is
extended below HP such that when the line AB is produced it will intersect in the extended
portion of VP at V, the vertical trace.
In this case both horizontal trace (H) and Vertical Trace (V) of the line AB lie below XY line.

Figure 6 Vertical trace and horizontal trace of line AB which is inclined to both vertical plane and
horizontal plane.

Q-10 (A) : EXPLAIN THE GLASS BOXMETHOD FOR THE ARRANGMENT OF

ARTHOGRAPHIC VIEWS.
ANS: ARTHOGRAPHIC VIEWS - When we look at everyday objects we see them in a
three dimensional (3-D) view. However we cannot see the true lengths of the different
sides of the object. For instance when you are watching the television you can see the
front screen, but you cannot see the back & sides of the T.V. set.
Orthographic Projection- Sometimes a view of the back and sides is needed. For example
in the manufacturing industry, drawings need to have views of all sides of an object so
that workers can read important dimensions and get an accurate view of what each side of
the component should look like.
THE GLASS BOX APPROACH:
Unfolded
glass-box

ASSIGNMENT REFERENCES.
1. American Society for Testing and Materials 2004
2. CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY by A.M. NCadd sustem to be cEVILLE J.J.
3. theconstructor.org